INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS;

SOLIDS AND THEIR PROPERTIES

Solids can be categorized into two groups: the crystalline solids and the
amorphous solids. The differences in properties of these two groups of solids
arise from the presence or absence of long-range order of arrangements of
the particles in the solid and their behavior when heated.

Classes of Solids

I. Amorphous Solid

The word amorphous means that the solid that does not always adopt
the same form. Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles,
meaning its constituent particles are randomly arranged.

Examples:
Glass, plastic, coal (asphalt), and rubber are considered super-cooled
liquids where molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to the
liquid state. These solids are the results of the melting, cooling, and
solidifying of liquids before the particles can achieve internal order, (like
glass) or having large molecules that are tangled together (like rubber and
plastic).

Amorphous solids do not have sharp melting points which means that
melting within a narrow temperature range. Instead, they soften first and
melt little by little over a wide temperature range.
Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have long range order, but
may have a limited, localized order in their structures.
Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated. They tend to
FYI:
The word “amorphous” from the Greek “ámorphos”, meaning “shapeless”).

melt over a wide range of temperature. This behavior is a result of the

variation in the arrangement of particles in their structures, causing some
parts of the solid to melt ahead of other parts. Amorphous solids soften
gradually when they are heated. They tend to melt over a wide range of
temperature. This behavior is a result of the variation in the arrangement of
particles in their structures, causing some parts of the solid to melt ahead
of other parts.
 II.Crystalline Solid

It is a solid in which the constituent particles (atoms, ions, or

molecules) have an orderly arrangement, that is, it has regularly arranged
structure units with characteristic geometric forms. Thus, crystals show
regular shapes which reflect the arrangement of the particles with them.
Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices.
Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper
sulfate (CuSO4), diamond, graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered
arrangement of their units maximizes the space they occupy and are
essentially in-compressible.
FYI:
More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially prepared solids are
crystalline. Minerals, sand, clay, limestone, metals, alloys, carbon
(diamond and graphite), salts (e.g.: NaCl and MgSO4), all have crystalline
structures. They have structures formed by repeating three dimensional
patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules. The repetition of structural units of
the substance over long atomic distances is referred to as long-range
order.
The structures of crystalline solids are built from repeating units called
crystal lattices. The surroundings of particles in the structure are uniform,
and the attractive forces experienced by the particles are of similar types
and strength. These attractive forces are broken by the same amount of
energy, and thus, crystals become liquids at a specific temperature (i.e., the
melting point). At this temperature, physical properties of the crystalline
solids change sharply.

Figure 1. Crystalline (left) and

amorphous quartz (right)

Figure 2. Examples of crystalline solids

 Figure 3. Examples of non-crystalline solids

Types of Crystalline Solids

In terms of their structure units, crystalline solids may be divided into
four types:

1. Metallic Crystals

These are the simplest type of structure since single metallic atoms are
the constituent units and can be thought of as three-dimensional arrays of
metal cations embedded into the matrix of negative charges. The merged
valence electrons act as a mobile electron cloud surrounding them. Bonding
attractions extend uniformly in all directions. Generally speaking, a metallic
crystal is easily deformed. This explains why metals are malleable and
ductile.

Metallic crystals are made of atoms that readily lose electrons to form
positive ions (cations), but no atoms in the crystal would readily gain
electrons. The metal atoms give up their electrons to the whole crystal,
creating a structure made up of an orderly arrangement of cations
surrounded by delocalized electrons that move around the crystal. The
crystal is held together by electrostatic interactions between the cations and
delocalized electron. These interactions are called metallic bonds. This
model of metallic bonding is called the “sea of electrons” model.
Different observed properties about metallic crystals given below.
 Figure 4. Positive ions surrounded by delocalized electrons
This model is able to explain many physical properties of metals,
such as their high melting points, malleability, ductility, thermal and
electrical conductivity, and luster.

a. High melting point – a large amount of energy is needed to melt

the crystal since the forces of attraction to be broken are numerous and
extend throughout the crystal

b. Dense – atoms are packed closely together. Metals exhibit close-

packing structures, a most economical way by which atoms utilize space

c. Electrical conductivity – then delocalized electrons move

throughout the crystal

d. Thermal or heat conductor – the delocalized electrons collide with

each other as they move through the crystal, and it is through these
collisions that kinetic energy is transferred

e. Malleability/ductility – when stress is applied to the metal, the

metal cations shift in position, but the mobile electrons simply follow the
movement of the cations. The attractive forces between cations and mobile
electrons are not broken.

f. Luster – the motion and collisions of electrons allow it to gain and

lose energy, some of these in the form of emitted light that is observed as
luster.
2. Ionic Crystals

These crystals have ions as constituent particles meaning they are made of
ions (cations and anions). These ions form strong electrostatic interactions
that hold the crystal lattice together. The electrostatic attractions are
numerous and extend throughout the crystal since each ion is surrounded
by several ions of opposite charge, making ionic crystals hard and of high
melting points. A good example of this is sodium chloride crystal. The
oppositely charged Na+ and Cl- ions arranged in a regular three-
dimensional pattern of crystal lattice.

Ionic substances can conduct electricity in the liquid or molten state or

when dissolved in water, indicating that in these states, charged particles
are able to move and carry electricity. However, the solid state is generally
nonconducting since the ions are in fixed positions in the crystal lattice and
are unable to move from one point to another.

Ionic crystals are brittle and would shatter into small pieces when
deformed or when pressure is applied on the crystal. The shifting of ions
causes repulsion between particles of like charges.

Figure 5. Shifting of ions cause repulsion in ionic crystal

3. Molecular Crystals

These crystals are those which have molecules as constituent particles

as well as structure units. The molecules present in this crystal are held by
weak van der Waals forces of attraction. The solid iodine (I2) molecules in a
crystalline form is a good example of this type.
 Molecular crystals are made of atoms, such as in noble gases, or
molecules, such as in sugar (C12H22O11), iodine (I2), and naphthalene
(C10H8). The atoms or molecules are held together by a mix of hydrogen
bonding/dipole-dipole and dispersion forces, and these are the attractive
forces that are broken when the crystal melts. Hence, most molecular
crystals have relatively low melting points.

The valence electrons of molecular substances are used in bonding

and cannot move about the crystal structure. Hence, the crystals are
nonconducting. The absence of any mobile particles makes molecular
crystals are unable to transmit heat fast. The crystals are brittle because
the attractive forces that hold the molecules in the crystal are highly
directional and a shift in positions of the molecules would break them.

4. Covalent Network Crystals

These are giant molecules of macro-molecules which consist of very
large numbers of atoms linked by a network of covalent bonds. Asbestos,
mica, and graphite are good examples of covalent network crystals. Aside
from graphite, diamond is another crystalline form of carbon where its
atoms are linked by covalent bonds in three direction, thus, the entire
crystal becomes a single molecule.
 FYI:
There are some substances which have molecules or ions that can
assume more than one stable arrangement in the solid state. This
property is called as polymorphism.

Allotropes are the different molecular forms or various crystal

modifications of a polymorphous element. The element carbon has
allotropic forms – graphite, diamond and buckminsterfullerene.

Diamonds are an example of a covalent network solid in which atoms

are covalently bonded with each other. They tend to be hard and have high
melting points. Silicon dioxide, SiO2 is an example of a covalent network
solid in which atoms are covalently bonded to each other. Notice that each
silicon atom is bridged to its neighbors by an oxygen atom.

Graphite, an allotrope of carbon, differs in properties from other

network solids. It is soft and is used as a solid lubricant. It is also a good
conductor of electricity, indicating the presence of charged particles that
move through the crystal. In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to only
three other carbon atoms, while in diamond, each carbon atom is bonded to
four others. In addition, graphite is made up of layers of rings of carbon
atoms. The broken lines connecting the layers are weak dispersion forces.
Just Thinking!

What is the distinguishing feature of crystalline solids? How are the

structures of crystals determined?

The Crystal Lattice

Crystalline solids are characterized by a regular repeating structure
called the crystal lattice.