Chapter 1

Design of Reinforced Concrete

Columns

Yohannes K.
March 2019
1
1.1 Introduction
 Columns are the members that take axial
compressive load (P) and bending moments (Mx
and/or My).
 The axial compressive load (P), total gravity load, on
a specific column will obviously comes from the floor
systems (Beams, slabs and live and/or dead loads
acting on beams and/or Slabs) just above the column
considered.
 The bending effect may be due to the lateral loads,
end moments, and/or due to eccentricity of the axial
loads.

2
Axial Load Axial Load & Uniaxial Bending Axial Load & Biaxial Bending
Design Load = P Design Load = P and Mx Design Load = P, Mx and My

P=P P=P Mx = P (ey) P=P Mx = P (ey) My = P (ex)

P P, Mx P, Mx, My
x
x x

y
y y

3
Braced Vs Un-braced Columns
Braced Columns (in Non-sway frames):
• The lateral loads in a frame are transmitted to the
foundation through a system of bracing or shear
walls, the column member in such a frame is said to
be braced column and consequently carry only
vertical loads.
• Second order effect will be negligible.
• A frame may be classified as braced if its sway
resistance is supplied by a bracing system which is
sufficiently stiff to assume that all horizontal loads are
resisted by the bracing system. (Not more than 10%
of the horizontal loads are attracted by the frame).
4
Unbraced columns in Braced columns in
Sway type of frame a non sway frame

5
Un-braced Columns (in sway frames):
 Frame action (Beam and column members) designed
to act together as a rigid frame in transmitting the
lateral forces (Wind or earthquake) down to the
foundations through bending action in the beams
and columns.
 Moments in the columns can substantially reduce
the vertical load carrying capacity.
 Frame as a whole will have significant lateral
displacement.
 The bending moment can increase due to second
order effect.
6
Second order effect or P-δ effect:

If the column is short, P- δ effect is negligible. If the

column is slender, P- δ effect is to be considered. 7
(Section 4.4.4.4 of EBCS 2) Isolated columns:
Isolated compression members (such as individual
isolated columns and columns with articulations in
a non-sway structure).

Compression members which are integral parts of

a structure but which are considered to be
isolated for design purposes (such as slender
bracing elements considered as isolated columns).

Columns with restrained ends in a non-sway

structure.
8
(Section 4.4.5 of EBCS 2) Slenderness ratio:
For isolated columns, the slenderness ratio is defined
by:
=
Where:
Le is the effective buckling length
i is the minimum radius of gyration of the concrete
section only.
ℎ
12 ℎ ℎ
= = = =
ℎ 12 3.4641
Generally, the slenderness ratio of concrete columns
shall not exceed 140.
9
Second-order effects in compressive members need not be
taken into account in the following cases:
(a). For sway frames;
25
≤ 15
ℎ =

Where =
(b). For non – sway frames;
( )
≤ 50 − 25
( )
Where M1 and M2 are the first-order (calculated) moments
at the ends, M2 being always positive and greater in
magnitude than M1, and M1 being positive if member is bent
in single curvature and negative if bent in double curvature.
10
Effective Length of Compression Members:
• The effective height (length) of a column is the distance
between the two consecutive points of contra flexure
or zero bending moments. The figure shown below may
serve this purpose.

11
In accordance with EBCS-2, 1995, the effective length Le
for an RC Column is given as;
. − ;
+ 0.4
= ≥ 0.7
+ 0.8

. ;
7.5 + 4( + ) + 1.6
= ≥ 1.15
7.5 + +

= 1 + 0.8 ≥ 1.15
12
For the theoretical model shown below:
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
=
2

Where:
• K1, K2 and KC are column stiffness coefficients (EI/L) for the lower
column, upper column and the column being designed respectively.
• Kij is the effective beam stiffness coefficient (EI/L)
= 1.0 (EI/L) for opposite end elastically or rigidly restrained.
= 0.5 (EI/L) for opposite end free to rotate.
= 0.0 (EI/L) for a cantilever beam.
13
 − : ≤ 0.1
Where: = the design value of the total vertical load.
= critical vertical load for failure in a sway mode
given as
=

= 0.2 + = ≥ 0.4
1

1 5
≈ 1100 , = ∗ 10
Where ;
= ℎ ℎ
ℎ
= ℎ
ℎ ℎ n 14
Reinforcement Arrangement & Minimum Code
Requirements:
Functions of Lateral Reinforcement are:
• They hold the longitudinal bars in position in the forms
while the concrete is being placed.
• They prevent the slender longitudinal bars from
buckling out ward by bursting the thin concrete cover.
Rules for the arrangement:
∅
Diameter of ties, ∅ ≥ 6
12∅
≤
300
ℎ ≤ 100
15
Ties shall be arranged such that every bar or group of bars placed
in a corner and alternate longitudinal bar shall have lateral support
provided by the corner of a tie with an included angle of not more
than 1350 and no bar shall be farther than 150mm clear on each
side along the tie from such a laterally supported bar.

16
Main or Longitudinal reinforcement:
Area of longitudinal reinforcement, As:
0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08

0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08

4
6
ℎ , ∅ ≥ 12

17
The minimum lateral dimension of a column shall be at
least 150mm and the minimum diameter of a spiral
column is 200mm.
The Min. cover to reinforcement should never be less
than:
∅ ∅ ≤ 40 ,
∅+5 ∅ +5 > 32

∅ =∅ ≤ 55 ,
= ℎ ℎ
= ℎ . .
18
Example 1: Classification of columns
All members in the following frame are rectangular and
constructed of the same strength concrete (E is the same
for both beams and columns). Considering bending in the
plane of the frame only, classify column EF as long or
short if the frame is braced. All girders are 300 x 600 mm.

19
Solution:
Moments of inertia:
300 ∗ 600
: = = 54 ∗ 10
12
300 ∗ 400
: = = 16 ∗ 10
12
300 ∗ 350
: = = 10.71875 ∗ 10
12
Stiffness Coefficients:
54 ∗ 10
= = = 6 ∗ 10
: = 9000
54 ∗ 10
= = = 7.2 ∗ 10
7500
16 ∗ 10
= = 4.21 ∗ 10
: = 3800
10.71875 ∗ 10
= = 2.82 ∗ 10
3800
20
The column being considered is column EF.
Rotational stiffness's at joints E and F.
∑( / ) ∑( / )
= =
∑( / ) ∑( / )

4.21 ∗ 10 + 2.82 ∗ 10
: = = 0.53
6 ∗ 10 + 7.2 ∗ 10
2.82 ∗ 10
: = = 0.21
6 ∗ 10 + 7.2 ∗ 10
+ 0.53 + 0.21
= = = 0.37
2 2
21
For a braced column (Non sway structure) for design:
+ 0.4 0.37 + 0.4
= = = 0.66 ≥ 0.7
+ 0.8 0.37 + 0.8
= 0.7 ∗ 3.8 = 2.66 = 2660
ℎ :
2660
= = = = 26.327
/ 10.7185 ∗ 10
300 ∗ 350
30
≤ 50 − 25 − = 66.66 … . = 26.327
45
≤ = 66.66 → !
∴ ℎ .
22
1.2 Axial Compression:
The ultimate capacity of an axially loaded short column can be
determined by:
= − +

= − +

= − +
= (1 − ) +

ℎ , = =

= [ 1− + ]
=
= 23
A column may be classified as long when the
slenderness factor is defined as:

≥ 12

ℎ ;
= ℎ ℎ ;
=
For such columns a load reduction factor Cr is
introduced in such a way that the concrete concentric
design axial load capacity can be given by:
= ℎ = 1.25 − /48

24
Example 2: Axial Column
A column resting on an independent footing supports a
flat slab. The super imposed factored load transferred
from the slab is 1000 kN. Design the column assuming a
gross steel ratio of (a) 0.01 (b) 0.02. Use concrete C30,
steel S300 and class I works. Assume column height h =
4m.
Solution:
Step 1: Material Strength Properties:
− 30 :

30 0.85
= = 24 , = = 13.6
1.25 1.5

0.21
= = 1.16485
1.5
25
For S-300 Rebar:
= 300 = = 260.87
.
Step 2: Determine cross sectional dimensions (b & h):
= [ 1− + ]
= 0.01 = 1000

=
[ 1− + ]

1000 ∗ 10
= , = 249
13.6 1 − 0.01 + 0.01 260.87
Use 250 mm X 250 mm Cross Section
26
 = = 0.01 ∗ 250 = 625
4 16

∴ , = 804 ( ℎ / Requirements.)
6
, ∅ ≥ ∅ 16
= =4
4 4
∴∅ =6

12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 16 = 192
, ≤ = 250
300
∴ = 192

ℎ , .
27
 = 0.02 = 1000 →

1000 ∗ 10
= , = 232
13.6 1 − 0.02 + 0.02 260.87
Use 240 mm × 240 mm cross section
= = 0.02 ∗ 240 = 1125
4Ø20 ∴ , = 1256
6
∅ ≥ ∅ 16 ∅ =6
= =4
4 4
12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 20 = 240
≤ = 240
300
For Ties, use 6 mm diameter bars (ties) at c/c 240 mm.
28
1.3 Columns With Moments
Interaction diagram: It is a plot of axial load capacity of a
column against the bending moment it sustains.

To illustrate conceptually the interaction between axial

load and moment in a column, an idealized, homogeneous
and linearly elastic column with compressive strength fcu
equal to its tensile strength ftu is considered. This type of
column fails in compression when = :

+ = + = 1 … … … (1)

29
 , = A & =

1 ; + =1
This equation is called Interaction equation.
The following graph shows the interaction of (or)
relationship between P and M at failure.

30
Reinforced concrete is not elastic, and it has << .
Tensile strength, of course, is developed by rebars, on the
tensile zone of the member. Therefore, calculation of
interaction in concrete member is complicated. However
the general shape of the diagram resembles the figure
given below.

C
F

31
A

32
Any combination of loading within the curve is a safe
loading
Any combination of loading outside the curve
represents a failure combination
All combinations of Pu and Mu between points A and C
will cause the concrete to fail in compression before the
tension rebars yield.
All combinations of Pu and Mu between points C and F
will result in tensile yielding of AS before the concrete
fails in compression.

When a member is subjected to combined axial load and

bending moment it is more convenient to replace the
axial load and moment with an equivalent load applied at
an eccentricity ‘e’.
33
34
1.3.1 Design specifications from EBCS 2, 1995
Section 4.4.10: Design of isolated columns
Total eccentricity, = + +
Where;
= equivalent constant first-order eccentricity of the
design axial load
= for equal at both ends of a column
For first order moments varying linearly along the length,
the equivalent eccentricity is the higher of the following
two values.
0.6 + 0.4
≥
0.4
35
 and are first order eccentricities at the ends
with being positive and greater in magnitude than
.
For different eccentricities at the ends, the critical end
section shall be checked for first order moments.
= +
= additional eccentricity in account of geometric
imperfections.
= ≥ 20
300
= − .
For non – sway frames,
1
=
10 36
 = − 0.75 15 ≤ ≤ 35
20
= 1.0 > 35
1/r = Curvature at the critical section
1 5
= 10

Where d = the Column dimension in the buckling plane

less the cover to the center of the longitudinal
reinforcement.
= /
= design moment at the critical section including second-
order effects.
= balanced moment capacity of the column.
The appropriate value of K may be found iteratively taking an
initial value corresponding to first order actions. 37
1.3.2 Design of columns for Uni-axial bending
A column is said to be bending uniaxially if it is loaded with a
bending moment only in one direction, in addition to axial
force. For the design of such a column interaction charts are
prepared using non-dimensional parameters, and , in
which:

= =

Then area of steel (AS) can be determined using:

Where can be found from design charts of interaction

diagrams on EBCS2/1995 Part 2, for the corresponding
values and and different values .
38
In using these charts for design, the following procedure
may be adopted.
Given: axial load and bending moment, (BM = axial load ×
total eccentricity)
M = P.e
1. Assume the cross section dimensions b and h.
2. Assume d' and evaluate d'/h to choose appropriate
chart number
3. Calculate ν and µ,
4. The coordinate (µ, ν) gives the value of ‘ω’
5. =

39
 Example 3: Uniaxial Bending
Design a slender braced (non-sway) column subjected to
uniaxial bending.
Given:
Factored load =1650KN
Factored 1st order equivalent constant moment = 130 kNm
Geometric length: L = 7m and le = 0.7L
Material data; C-30, S-460 class I work
Assume b =400mm, h = 400 mm Øl = 20mm , Øt = 10mm
Reqiured:
Quantity of reinforcement, AS:
40
Solution:
Step 1: Material Strength Properties:
− 30 :

30
= = 24 ,
1.25
0.85
= = 13.6
1.5

0.21
= = 1.16485
1.5
For S-460 Rebar:
= 460 = = 400
.
41
Step 2: Check for Second order effect ( ):

0.7(7000)
= = = = = 42.4
ℎ 400
12 12
In this non-sway frame, first order moment is constant
throughout the column.

≤ 50 − 25 = 50 − 25 1 = 25

As > , second order effect has to be considered.

[ is different from zero]
42
Step 3: Determine ω using and :
= + +
130 ∗ 10
= = 78.79
1650 ∗ 10
0.7 7000 4900
= = = = 16.33 ≥ 20
300 300 300
∴ = 20
1
=
10

= − 0.75 15 ≤ ≤ 35
20
= 1.0 > 35
= 42.4 > 35 ∴ = .
43
1 5
= 10

40
= = 0.1
ℎ 400
=ℎ− = 400 − 40 = 360mm

= =

The value of K may be found iteratively taking an

initial value corresponding to first order actions (By
initially considering the 1st order eccentricity,
and accidental eccentricity, ). 44
 =1 +
= 130 + 1650 ∗ 0.02 = 163
1650 ∗ 10
= = = 0.76
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6
163 ∗ 10
= = = 0.187
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6 ∗ 400

Using chart No- 2; for = 0.76 and = 0.187; ω = 0.32

and = 0.25
0.187
= = = = 0.75
0.25

45
1 5 5
= 10 = 0.75 10 = 10.42 ∗ 10
360

1
=
10

1 4900 10.42 ∗ 10
= = 25.02
10
= + +

= 78.79 + 20 + 25.02 = 123.81

46
Iteration 2:

= = 1650 123.81 10 = 204.3 kNm

1650 ∗ 10
= = = 0.76
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6
204.3 ∗ 10
= = = 0.23
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6 ∗ 400
Similarly, Using Uniaxial chart No- 2 again ; for = 0.76
and = 0.23; ω = 0.45 and = 0.3
0.23
= = = = 0.77
0.3
47
1 5 5
= 10 = 0.77 10 = 10.69 ∗ 10
360

1
=
10

1 4900 10.69 ∗ 10
= = 25.67
10
= + +

= 78.79 + 20 + 25.67 = 124.46

Continue iteration until you get constant ω.

48
Iteration 3:

= = 1650 124.46 10 = 205.3 kNm

1650 ∗ 10
= = = 0.76
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6
205.3 ∗ 10
= = = 0.236
ℎ 400 ∗ 13.6 ∗ 400

Using Uniaxial chart No- 2 again ; for = 0.76 and

= 0.236; ω = 0.45 and = 0.3
∴ .

49
Step 4: Design Reinforcements (As & St):
Main Bars:
0.45 ∗ 400 ∗ 13.6
= = = 2448
400

Use 8Ø20mm bars.

Compare As, Provided with minimum and maximum code
requirements:
0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08
, = 0.008 400 = 1280
, = 0.08 400 = 12800
8 20
, = = 2512 ………. !
4
50
Lateral ties:
6
, ∅ ≥ ∅ 20
= =5
4 4
∴∅ =6 ≤∅, = 10 !

12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 20 = 240
, ≤ = 400
300
∴ = 240

ℎ , @ C/C

51
 Example 4: Uniaxial Bending
A 7.5m long uniaxial column is to be constructed from a
materials C-30, S-400 class I works. If the diagram for 1st
order end moment and axial force are as shown,
determine the area of reinforcement assuming non-sway
frame system.(use b/h =300/400 and Le=0.75L).
Assume d’ = 40mm
& Use Uniaxial Chart
No 2

∅ = 22 &
∅ =6

52
Solution:
Step 1: Material Strength Properties:
For C-30 Concrete:

30
= = 24 ,
1.25
0.85
= = 13.6
1.5

0.21
= = 1.16485
1.5
For S-400 Rebar:
= 400 = = 347.83
.
53
Step 2: Check for Second order Effect ( ):

0.75(7500)
= = = = = 48.7
ℎ 400
12 12
In this non-sway frame, the first order moments are
= 155 (Which is always positive and greater in
magnitude) and = −82 .
82
≤ 50 − 25 = 50 − 25 − = 63.2
155
As < , Neglect second order effect ( = 0).

54
Step 3: Determine ω using and :
0.6 + 0.4
≥
0.4
155
= ∗ 10 = 121.1
1280
82
=− ∗ 10 = −64.1
1280
0.6 121.1 + 0.4 −64.1 = 47.02
≥
0.4 121.1 = 48.44
∴ = .
0.75 7500
≥ 300 = 300
= 18.75 ∴ =
20
55
 = + , No second order effect (e2 = 0)
However, for different eccentricities at the ends of the
column, the critical end sections shall be checked for
first-order moment, = + .
= + = 121.1 + 20 = 141.1
= = 1280 141.1 10 = 180.61 kNm
1280 ∗ 10
= = = 0.78
ℎ 300 ∗ 400 ∗ 13.6
180.61 ∗ 10
= = = 0.28
ℎ 300 ∗ 400 ∗ 13.6
Using Uni axial chart No- 2 ; for = 0.78 and = 0.28;
ω = 0.6 and = 0.36
56
Step 4: Design Reinforcements (As & St):
Main Bars:
0.6 ∗ 300 ∗ 400 ∗ 13.6
= = = 2815.2
347.83

Use 8Ø22mm bars.

Compare As, Provided with minimum and maximum code
requirements:
0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08
, = 0.008 300 ∗ 400 = 960
, = 0.08 300 ∗ 400 = 9600
8 22
, = = 3041.1 ……….
4
57
Lateral ties:
6
, ∅ ≥ ∅ 22
= = 5.5
4 4
∴∅ =6 ≤∅, =6 !

12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 22 = 264
, ≤ = 300
300
∴ = 260
ℎ , @ C/C

58
Assignment #1: Uniaxial Column

Design a column to sustain = 1000

and = 160 , which include all
other effects.
Use C-30, S-460 class I works and = 0.6ℎ

59
1.3.3 Design of columns for Bi-axial bending
• A column may receive moments from beams and grade
framing to it, in addition to the axial loads. This
situation of a biaxial loaded rectangular section is
shown below with the corresponding interaction
curves.

Uniaxial loading
about y-y

60
 Uniaxial loading
about X-X

Biaxial loading
about X’-X’
Where;
r = arc tan ( / ) or
r = arc tan ( / )

61
 Three-dimensional interaction diagram – Interaction surface

 A combination of Pdn, Mdx, and Mdy lying inside the surface can be
applied safety.
 Any point lying outside the surface would represent failure.
 Due to the mathematical complication arising from the construction
of interaction surface, in practice a simpler approximation methods
are used of which the one developed by Bresler is satisfactory.
62
It is given as reciprocal load equation.
1 1 1 1
= + − , ℎ ℎ

=
+ −
Where:
Pdn is the design axial load capacity when applied at edx and edy
simultaneously (biaxial bending).
Pdnx and Pdny- design axial load capacity when edx and edy are only
acting (case of uniaxial loading).
Pdo – Design axial force capacity for concentric load case.
However, interaction charts prepared for this purpose can be easily
used for actual design; where the following procedures need be
followed. 63
Given: Pd; Mb and Mh:
1. Assume a cross section and evaluate b /b and h’/h
2. Calculate , :

= = =
ℎ
3. Select suitable chart corresponding to b /b and h’/h
4. Enter the chart for suitable value of ν( 0.0,0.2,0.4…1.4)
Note: > 1.4 shows very small concrete cross section
For intermediate value of use interpolation
Select corresponding to , , :

5. =

6. Check minimum and maximum requirements.

64
Example 5: Biaxial Bending
Design a column to sustain a factored design axial load
of 900KN and biaxial moments of = 270 and
= 180 including all other effects. Use C-30,
S-300 class I works.
Assume: = 900
= 400 and ℎ = 600
ℎ
= = 0.1
ℎ
= 900
Ø = 30
65
Solution:
Step 1: Material Strength Properties:
− 30 :

30
= = 24 ,
1.25
0.85
= = 13.6
1.5

0.21
= = 1.16485
1.5
For S-300 Rebar:
= 300 = = 260.87
.
66
Step 2: Determine ω using and :
= = 270
= = 180
900 ∗ 10
= = = 0.28 (0.2 < < 0.4)
ℎ 13.6 ∗ 400 ∗ 600
180 ∗ 10
= = = 0.14
ℎ 13.6 ∗ 400 ∗ 600
270 ∗ 10
= = = 0.14
ℎ 13.6 ∗ 400 ∗ 600
Using Bi axial chart No - 9 ;
For = 0.2, = 0.14 and = 0.14; ω = 0.4
For = 0.4, = 0.14 and = 0.14; ω = 0.4
By interpolation for For = 0.28, ω = 0.4 67
Step 3: Design Reinforcements (As & St):
Main Bars:
0.4 ∗ 400 ∗ 600 ∗ 13.6
= = = 5004.8
260.87
Use 8Ø30mm bars.
Compare As, Provided with minimum and maximum code
requirements:
0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08
, = 0.008 400 ∗ 600 = 1920
, = 0.08 400 ∗ 600 = 19200
8 30
, = = 5655 ……….
4
68
Lateral ties:
6
, ∅ ≥ ∅ 30
= = 7.5
4 4
∴∅ =8

12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 30 = 360
, ≤ = 400
300
∴ = 300
ℎ , @ C/C

69
Example 6: Biaxial Bending
A 450mm x 450mm RC square column is subjected to an
axial force of = 1000 and biaxial moments of
Mx=98kNm and My=87kNm (1st order constant
moments). Design the column using either biaxial chart
No 1 or No 2. Assume e2 = 0.1ee (in both direction) and
eax= eay=20mm.
= 1000
Use C-25 & S-300 class I works.

ℎ
= = 0.1
ℎ

Ø = 24
70
Solution:
Step 1: Material Strength Properties:
− 25 :

25
= = 20 ,
1.25

0.85 0.85 20
= = = 11.33
1.5 1.5

0.21 0.21 20
= = = 1.03
1.5 1.5
For S-300 Rebar:
= 300 = = 260.87
.
71
Step 2: Determine ω using and :
The eccentricity due to 2nd order effect is given (No need
to check for 2nd order effect in both directions).
, = + + = + + 0.1
, = + + = + + 0.1
The 1st order eccentricity (e ) in both directions will be:
M 98 ∗ 10
e = = = 98 mm
P 1000 ∗ 10
M 87 ∗ 10
e = = = 87 mm
P 1000 ∗ 10
, = + + 0.1 = 1.1 + = 1.1 98 + 20
, = .
, = + + 0.1 = 1.1 + = 1.1 87 + 20
, = . 72
 = ∗ , = 1000 127.8 ∗ 10 = 127.8
= ∗ , = 1000 115.7 ∗ 10 = 115.7
1000 ∗ 10
= = = 0.44 (0.4 < < 0.6)
ℎ 11.33 ∗ 450 ∗ 450
115.7 ∗ 10
= = = 0.11
ℎ 11.33 ∗ 450 ∗ 450
127.8 ∗ 10
= = = 0.12
ℎ 11.33 ∗ 450 ∗ 450
Using Bi axial chart No - 2 ;
For = 0.4, = 0.11 and = 0.12; ω = 0.2
For = 0.6, = 0.11 and = 0.12; ω = 0.22
By interpolation for For = 0.44, ω = 0.204
73
Step 3: Design Reinforcements (As & St):
Main Bars:
0.204 ∗ 450 ∗ 450 ∗ 11.33
= = = 1794.2
260.87
Use 4Ø24mm bars.
Compare As, Provided with minimum and maximum code
requirements:
0.008 ≤ ≤ 0.08
, = 0.008 450 ∗ 450 = 1620
, = 0.08 450 ∗ 450 = 16200
4 24
, = = 1809.6 ……….
4
74
Lateral ties:
6
, ∅ ≥ ∅ 24
= =6
4 4
∴∅ =6

12 ∗ ∅ = 12 ∗ 24 = 288
, ≤ = 450
300
∴ = 280
ℎ , @ C/C

75
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