Shallow Foundations

Shallow foundations are those executed near the ground surface or at shallow
depths. As mentioned before in the previous chapter, shallow foundations are
used when subsoil exploration proves that all soil strata affected by the
building could resist the superimposed stresses (p) without causing
excessive settlements.

Shallow foundations are either footings or rafts.

Footings
Footing foundation is one of the oldest and most popular type of shallow
foundations. A footing is an enlargement of the base of a column or wall for
the purpose of distributing the load on the supporting soil at a pressure suiting
its properties.

Types of Footings
There are different types of footings to suit the nature of the structure.
Footings could be classified into three main classes

Wall or Strip footing

It runs underneath the wall by its full length as shown in Fig.3. it is usually
used in the bearing wall type structures.
Isolated column footing
It acts as a base for a column. It is usually used for reinforced concrete
Skelton type of buildings. It can take any shape such as square, rectangular
or circular as shown in Fig.4.

Fig.4 Typical spread footings

Combined Column Footing

It is a combined base for an exterior and interior columns of a building, Fig.5.

It is also used when two adjacent columns of a building are close to each
other that their footings overlap
Distribution of stresses under footings

The distribution of stresses under footings is considered linear although it is

not the case in reality, The error involved in this assumption is small and could
be overlooked.

Load Compilations

Loads affecting the usual types of buildings are:

1. Dead Load (D.L)

2. Live Load (L.L)
3. Wind Load (W.L)
4. Earthquake Load (E.L)
Dead Load
The full dead load acting on the elements of the structures should be
considered in the design.

Live Load

It is not probable that the full intensity of the live load will be acting at the
same time on all the floors of a multi-storey building. Consequently, the codes
of practice allow a certain reduction in the intensity of live load. According to
the Egyptian Code of practice the following reduction in live load is allowed:

No. of floors Reduction in live load %

Ground floor zero %

1st floor zero %

2nd floor 10.0 %

3rd floor 20.0 %

4th floor 30.0 %

5th floor and above 40.0 %

The live load should not be reduced for ware houses and public buildings
such as schools, cinemas, and hospitals.
Wind and Earthquake Loads

When the buildings are high and narrow the wind pressure and the
earthquake load must be taken into consideration.

Assumption used in the Design of Spread Footings

Theory of elasticity analysis indicates that the stress distribution beneath

footings, symmetrically loaded, is not uniform. The actual stress distribution
depends on the type of material beneath the footing and the rigidity of the
footing. For footings on loose cohesion-less material, the soil grains tend to
displace laterally at the edges from under the load, whereas in the center the
soil is relatively confined. This results in a pressure diagram somewhat as
indicated in Fig.6. For the general case of rigid footings on cohesive and
cohesion-less materials, Fig.6 indicates the probable theoretical pressure
distribution. The high edge pressure may be explained by considering that
edge shear must take place before settlement can take place.

Because the pressure intensities beneath the footing depend on the rigidity of
the footing, the soil type and the condition of the soil, the problem is generally
indeterminate. It is common practice to use a linear pressure distribution
beneath the footings and this procedure will be followed in this text. In any
case little difference in design results by using a linear pressure distribution
Allowable Bearing Stresses under Footings

The factor of safety in the calculating of the allowable bearing capacity under
the footing should not be less than 3 if the loads considered in the design is
equal to the dead load + the reduced live load. The factor of safety should
not be less than 2 when the severest condition of loading is considered,
which is, dead load + full live load + wind load or earthquake loads.

The loads of the superstructure are usually calculated at ground level. If the
net allowable bearing pressure is given, it should be reduced by the volume
of concrete below ground surface per unit area of the footing multiplied by the
difference between the unit weight of concrete and soil. If we assume equal
to the average density of soil and concrete Fig.7, then should be reduced
by
Structural design of spread footings

For spread footing the following items should be considered

1-Shear

Shear stresses ate usually control the depth of spread footings. The critical
section for wide beam shear is shown in Fig.8-a. It is at a distance d from the
column or wall face. The values of the shear stresses are given in table 1.The
critical section for punching shear (Two-way diagonal shear) is shown in
Fig.8-b. It is at distance of d/2 from the face of the column. This assumption is
according to the American Concrete Institute (A.CI) Code.
 Table(1): allowable stresses in concrete and reinforcement:-

Allowable stresses in
Types of stresses symbol
kg/cm2
Cube strength fcu 180 200 250 300
Axial comp. fco 45 50 60 70
Simple bending and eccentric
fc 70 80 95 105
forces with big eccentricity
Shear stresses

Slabs and footings without

q1 7 8 9 9
reinf.
q1 5 6 7 7
Other members
q2 15 17 19 21
Members with reinforcement
Punching shear qcp 7 8 9 10
Reinforcement

Mild steel 240/350 1400 1400 1400 1400

Steel 280/450 fs 1600 1600 1600 1600

Steel 360/520 2000 2000 2000 2000

Steel 400/600 2200 2200 2200 2200

Punching shear will generally control the depth of the spread footings. From
principles of statics Fig.8-b , the force on the critical section for shear is equal
to the force on the footing beyond the shear section caused by the net soil
pressure fn.
 where qp = allowable punching shear stress

= 8 kg/cm2 (for cube strength =160)

fn = net soil pressure

b = Side of column

d =depth of punching shear

It can be assumed that the critical section for punching shear is at the column
face and in this case the allowable punching shear stress can be taken as
10.0 kg/cm2 (for cube strength = 160).

The footing is usually designed to ensure that the depth is great enough to
resist the shear by concrete with out web reinforcement..
2- Bond

Bond stress is computed as

where the shear force Q is taken at the same critical section for bending
moment, or where changes in concrete cross section or steel reinforcement
occur. For footings of constant section, the section for bond is at the face of
column or wall. The reinforcing bar should have enough length dd , Fig.9 to
avoid the pull-out (bond failure) or a splitting of the concrete. The value of dd
is computed as follows:
For the first computation take fs equal to allowable working stress. If the
calculated dd is larger than the available dd then recalculate dd by taking fs
equal to the actual steel stress.

The allowable values of bond stress qb are as follows

- Bending moment

The critical sections for bending moment are determined from Fig.10 as
follows:
For concrete wall and column, this section is taken at the face of the wall or
the column Fig.10-a.

For masonry wall this section is taken halfway between middle and the edge
of the wall Fig.10-b.

For steel column, this section is located half way between the edge of base
plate and the face of the column Fig.(10-c).

The depth required to resist bending moment is

Bearing on top of footing -

When a reinforced concrete column transmits its load to the footing, the steel
of the column, which is carrying a portion of the load, cannot be terminated on
top of footing since this may overstress the concrete in column contact area.
Therefore it is necessary to transmit the portion of load carried by the column
steel by bond stress into the footing by either extending the column steel or by
dowels. From Fig.11:

where fs is the actual steel stress

5- Plain Concrete Footing Beneath R.C. Footing

It is common practice to place a plain concrete layer beneath the reinforced

concrete footing. This layer is about 20 cm. to 40 cm. The projection C of the
plain concrete layer depends on its thickness t. Referring to Fig.12 , the
maximum bending moment per unit length at section a-a is given by

Where fn = the net soil pressure.

The maximum tensile stress at the bottom of section a-a is:

DESIGN OF R.C. WALL FOOTING:

The wall footing is a strip of reinforced concrete wider than the wall. Fig.13
shows the different types of wall footings. The type shown in Fig.13-a is used
for footings carry light loads and placed on uniform soil of good bearing
capacity. The type shown in Fig.13-b is used when the soil under the footing
is not uniform and of different bearing capacities. The type shown in Figs.13-c
and 13-d is used for heavy loadings.
Design Procedure:

Consider 1.0 meter length of the wall.

1. Find P at ground level.

2. Find if is given then it is reduced by or compute PT .

3. Compute the area of footing
 If the bond stress is not safe, we either increase by using steel bars

with smaller diameter, or increase ∑ O the depth d. Bending up

the steel reinforcement at the edges of the footing helps in resisting
bond stresses. The diameter of the main steel reinforcement should
not be less than 12 mm. To prevent cracking due to uneven
settlement below the wall itself, additional reinforcement is used as
shown in Fig.13-c and d. It is taken as 1.0% of the concrete cross
section under the wall and distributed equally at top and bottom.

19. Check the anchorage bond

Design of Single Column Footing

The single column footings are usually square in plan, Rectangular footings
are used if there restriction in one direction or If the supported columns are of
too elongated .rectangular cross section. In the simplest form, they consist of
a single slab FIg.15-a. Fig.15-b shows a pedestaled column footing, the
pedestal provides depth for a more favorable transfer of load and in many
cases is

required in order to provide the necessary length for dowels. Sloped footings
such as those in Fig.15-c
Design Procedure for Square Column Footing

American Codes of Practice is equal to the moment about the critical section y-
y of the net stress acting on the hatched .area abcd Fig. 16-a. According to the
Continental Codes of practiceMmax. is equal to either; the moment of the net
stresses acting on the hatched area abgh, shown in Fig.16-b, about the critical
section y-y or 0.85 the moment of the net stresses acting on the area abcd in
Fig.16-a about y-y.
 8. Determine the depth required to resist punching dp.

9. Calculate dm, the depth to resist

b = B, the side of the footing according to the American Codes of

Practice

b = (bc + 20) cm where bc is the side of the column according to the

Continental Codes of Practice.
It should be noted that dm computed by continental method is larger than that
compute by American code. The larger depth will decrease the amount of
steel reinforcement and usually satisfies the depth required for punching.
American code gives smaller dm with higher value of steel reinforcement but
by using high tensile, steel, the area of the steel reinforcement can be
reduced. In this text, the bending moment will be calculated according to the
American Code while b is taken either equal to bc + 20 when the ordinary
steel is used or equal to B when high tensile steel is used.

The footing depth d may be taken any value between the two values
computed by the two above methods. It should be mentioned that, for the
same bending moment, a large depth will require smaller area of
reinforcement steel which may not satisfy the minimum percentage of steel .
Also a small depth will require a large area of steel especially when using
ordinary mild steel.

10. Choose the greater of dm or dp

11. Check dd, depth of column dowel.

Design Procedure for Rectangular Footing

The procedure is the same as square footing. The depth is usually controlled
by punching shear except If the ratio of length to width is large, the wide beam
shear may control the depth. The critical sections for shear are at distance d
from both sides of the column Fig.17-a. The bending moment is calculated for
both directions, about 1-1 axis and about b-b axis as shown in Fig.17.b and
c.
The reinforcement in the long direction (Side L) is calculated from the bending
moment , and is uniformly distributed over the width B. The reinforcement in
the short direction (Side B) is calculated from the bending moment M11. In
locating the bars in the short direction one has to consider that the support
provided to the footing by the column is concentrated near the middle,
consequently the area of footing adjacent to the column is more effective in
resisting bending. For this reason an adjustment of steel in the short direction
is made. This adjustment place a percentage of the steel in a zone centered
on the column with a width equal to the length of the short direction of the
footing. The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in
two end zones, Fig.18. According to the American Concrete Institute, the
percentage of steel in the central zone is given by:
where S = ratio of long side to short side, L/B .

SEMELLES

Single footings should be tied together by beams known as semelles as

shown in Fig.19.a. Their function is to carry the ground floor walls and transfer
their loads to the footings. Semelles can prevent relative settlement if they are
of very stiff section and heavily reinforced.

The semelle is designed as continuous reinforced concrete rectangular beam

carrying the weight of the wall. The width of the semelle is equal to the width
of the wall plus 5 cm and it should not be less than 25 cm. It should resist the
shearing forces and bending moments to which it is subjected, semelles must
be reinforced at top and bottom to counteract the differential settlements. by
the equal reinforcement As.

The top level of the semelle should be 20 cm below the level of the platform
surrounding the building. If the level of the ground floor is higher than that of
the platform, the level of the inner semmelle can be taken 20 cm below the
ground floor level
Footings subjected to Moment

Introduction

Many foundations resist, in addition to the concentric vertical load, a

moment about one or both axis of the footing. The moment may result from a
load applied off the centre of the footing . Examples of foundations that must
resist moment are those for retaining walls, abutments , bridge piers, and the
columns of the foundations of tall buildings where wind pressure causes
appreciable bending moments at the base of columns.

The soil-pressure resultant under eccentrically loaded footing is

assumed to coincide with the axial load P, but not with the centroid of the
footing, which results in a linear non-uniform pressure distribution. The
maximum pressure must not exceed the maximum allowable pressure on the
soil. Tilting of the footing due to the higher intensity of soil pressure at the toe
is possible to occur . This can be reduced by using a large safety factor when
computing the allowable soil pressure. Chapter 1, Section "Footings with
Eccentric or Inclined Loads" provide for a reduction in allowable soil pressure
for eccentrically loaded footings.

Footings with Moments or Eccentricity about One Axis

where P = vertical load or resultant force
e = eccentricity of vertical load or resultant force

q = intensity of soil pressure (+ = compression)

and should not be greater than the allowable

soil pressure qa
c-The Load P is Outside Middle

When the load P is outside the middle third, that is e  L/6, Eq.7 indicates
that tension will occur under the footing. However, no tension can develop
between the soil and the footing, thus the tension stresses are neglected, and
the area of the footing which is in tension is not considered effective in
carrying load. Therefore the pressure diagram on the soil should be always in
compression as shown in Fig.21-.c. For the eccentricity e  L/6 with
respect to one axis only, one can drive equations for the maximum soil
pressure q1 by finding a compressive pressure diagram whose resultant
should be equal and on the same line of action of load P. This diagram will
take the shape of triangle whose side = q1 and base =

Footings with Moments or Eccentricity about both Axis

For footings with moments or eccentricity about both axis Fig 22, the pressure
may be computed by the following equation
a- The Neutral Axis Outside the Base :
 If the neutral axis is outside the base, then all the pressure q is in
compression and equation (9) is valid. The location of the maximum and
minimum pressures on soil may be determined readly by observing the
directions of the moments. The maximum pressure q1 is at point (1)

Fig.22-a and the minimum pressure q2 is at point (3). The pressure q1 and q2
are determined from Eq.(9).

b- The Neutral Axis Cuts the Base

If the neutral axis cuts the base, then a certain area of the base is
subjected to tension Fig.22. As the soil is not likely to grip the footing to hold it
in place , therefore the diagram shown in Fig.22-b and Eq.(9) cannot be used.
The computation of the maximum pressure on soil must be based on the area
actually in compression. The compressive diagram is to be found in such a
way that its resultant should be equal and on the same line of action of the
force P. The simplest way to get this diagram is by trial and error as follows:

1- Find soil pressure at all corners by applying Eq.(9).

2- Determine the position of the neutral axis N-A (the line of zero
pressure). This is not a straight line, but for the problem it is assumed
to be . Therefore it is only necessary to find two points, one on each
adjacent side of the footing.

3- Select another neutral axis (N'-A') parallel to (N-A) but somewhat

closer to the location of the resultant load P acting on the footing.

4- Compute the moment of inertia of the area in compression with

respect to the N'-A' . The simplest procedure is to draw the footing to scale
and divide the area into rectangles and triangles
4.4 STRUCTURAL DESIGN OF FOOTINGS SUBJECTED TO
MOMENT

The principle problem in the design of eccentrically loaded footings is the

determination of the pressures distribution under the footings. Once they have
been determined, the design procedure will be similar to the concentrically
loaded footings, the critical sections are selected and computations of the
stresses due to moment and shear are made.

Where the bending moments on a column come from any direction, for
example from wind loads, a square footing-; is preferable unless the space
restrictions dictate the choice of rectangular footing. If the bending moments
always act in the same direction, as in columns supporting rigid framed
structures, the footing can be lengthed in the direction of the eccentricity

The dimensions of the footing B and L are proportioned in such a way that the
maximum pressure at the toe does not exceed the allowable soil pressure .

If a column carries a permanent bending moment, for example a bracket

carrying a sustained load, it may be advantage to place the column off centre
on the footing so that the eccentricity of the resultant loading is zero In this
case the distribution of the pressure on the base will be uniform. The long toe
section of the footing should be designed as a cantilever about a section
through the face of the column, Calculation of the depth to resist punching
shear and wide beam shear is the same as in footings support concentric
loads

Since the bending moment at the base of the column is likely to be large for
this type of footing, the column reinforcement should be properly tied into the
footing., Reinforcement details for this type of footings are shown in Fig.24.

For square footing it is generally most convenient to keep bar diameter and
spacing the same in both directions in order to avoid confusion in steel fixing.
Combined Footings

Introduction

The preceding section presented elements of the design of spread and wall
footings. This section considers some of the more complicated shallow-
foundation problems. Among these are footings supporting more than one
column in a line (combined footings), which may be rectangular or trapezoidal
in shape, or two pads connected by a beam, as for a strap footing. Eccentrically
loaded footings and un-symmetrically shaped footings will also be considered.

Rectangular Combined Footings

When property lines, equipment locations, column spacing, or other

considerations limit the footing clearance at the column locations, a possible
solution is the use of a rectangular-shaped footing. This type of footing may
support two columns, as illustrated in Fig.25 and 26, or more than two columns
with only slight modification of the design procedure. These footings are
commonly designed by assuming a linear stress distribution on the bottom of
the footing, and if the resultant of the soil pressure coincides with the resultant
of the loads (and center of gravity of the footing), the soil pressure is assumed
to be uniformly distributed, The linear pressure distribution implies a rigid
footing on a homogeneous soil. The actual footing is generally not rigid, nor is
the pressure uniform beneath it, but it has been found that solutions using this
concept are adequate. This concept also results in a rather conservative
design.
The design of a rigid rectangular footing consists in determining the location of
the center of gravity (cg) of the column loads and using length and width
dimensions such that the centroid of the footing and the center of gravity of the
column loads coincide. With the dimensions of the footing established, a shear

and moment diagram can be prepared, the depth selected for shear (again it is
conventional to make the depth adequate for shear without using shear
reinforcement to satisfy rigidity requirements implicitly), and reinforcing steel
selected for bending requirements. Critical sections for shear, both diagonal-
tension and wide-beam, should be taken as indicated in the previous section.
The maximum positive and negative moments are used to design the
reinforcing steel and will result in steel in both bottom and top of the beam.
In the short direction, obviously, the entire length is not going to be effective in
resisting bending. That zone closest to the column will be most effective for
bending, and it is recommended that this approach be used. This is basically
what the ACI Code specifies in Art. 15.4.4 for rectangular footings

If it is accepted that the zone which includes the columns is most effective,
what should this zone width be? Certainly, it should be something greater than
the width of the column. Probably it should be no greater than the column width
plus d to 1.5d, depending on the column location based on the author's
analytical work, lack of Code guidance, and recognizing that extra steel will
"stiffen" the zone and increase the moments in this zone and reduce the
moment out of the zone. An effective width using this method is illustrated in
Fig.27 For the remainder of the footing in the short direction, the ACI Code
requirement for minimum-percentage steel (Art. 10.5 or 7.13) should be used.
In selecting dimensions for the combined footing, the length dimension is some-
what critical if it is desired to have shear and moment diagrams mathematically
close as an error check. This means that unless the length is exactly the
computed value from the location of the cg of the columns, an eccentricity will
be introduced into the footing, resulting in a nonlinear earth-pressure diagram.
The actual as-built length, however, should be rounded to a practical length,
say, to the nearest 0.25 or 0.5 ft (7.5 to 15 cm).

The column loads may be taken as concentrated loads for computing shear
and moment diagrams. For design the shear and moment .values at the edge
(face) of the column should be used. The resulting error, using this approach, is
negligible.Fig.(28)
If the footing is loaded by more than two columns, the problem is still statically
determinate; the reactions (column loads) are known as well as the distributed
loading, i.e. the soil pressure.

Design Procedure of rectangular combined footing:-

Referring to Fig.29, the steps of the design can be summarized as follows :

1- Find the line of application of the resultant R. This fix L/2 since y is
known and limited. It should be indicated that unless the length L is
exactly the computed value, an eccentricity will be introduced into the
footing, resulting in a nonlinear soil pressure diagram. The actual as-built
length, however, should be rounded to a practical length, say, to the
nearest 5 cm or 10cm.

maximum +ve moment at point K where the shearing force = zero

6- Determine the depth for shear. It is conventional to make the depth
adequate for shear without using shear reinforcement. The critical
section for shear is at distance d from the face of column having
maximum shear, Fig.30

7-Determine the depth for punching shear for both columns. According to
ACI the critical section it at d/2 from column face. Fig.30.

9-d is chosen the greatest of

t = d + 5 to 8 cm.

11- Check the bond stresses and anchorage length d.

12- Short direction :

The column loads are distributed crosswise by transverse beams

(hidden), one under each column. The length of the beams are equal to
the width of the footing B. The effective width of the transverse beam
may be taken the least of the following:

a- Column width a + 2 d or column width a + d + the projection of

the footing beyond the column y, Fig.31.

b- The width of the footing

It should be noted that ACI code consider that the effective width
of the transverse beam equal to column width a + d or column
width a + d/2 + y The Transverse bending moment MT1 at column
(1) is equal to

The transverse reinforcement should be distributed over the

effective width of the transverse beam. For the remainder of the
footing, minimum percentage steel should be used. The bond
stresses and anchorage length dd, should be checked.
Combined trapezoidal footing:-

Combined trapezoidal footing for two columns as used when column

carries the largest load is near the property line where the projection is limited
or when there is restriction on the total length of the footing. Referring to Fig.32
,

The position of the resultant of columns loads R locates the position of the
centriod of the trapezoid. The length L is determined and the area A is
computed from:

The design procedure is the same as rectangular combined footing except that
the shear diagram will be a second degree curve and bending moment is a
third degree curve.
Design of Strap or Cantilever Footings

A strap footing may be used where the distance between columns is so great
that a combined or trapezoid footing becomes quite narrow, with resulting
high bending moments, or where as in previous section.

A strap footing consists in two column footings connected by a member

termed a strap, beam, or cantilever which transmits the moment from the
exterior footing. Fig.33 illustrates a strap footing. Since the strap is designed
for

moment, either it should be formed out of contact with the soil or the soil
should be loosened for several inches beneath the strap so that the strap has
no soil pressure acting on it. For simplicity of analysis, if the strap is. not very
long, the, weight of the strap may be neglected.

In designing a strap footing, it is first necessary to proportion the footings. This

is done by assuming a uniform soil pressure beneath the footings; that is, R1
and R2 (Fig.33) act at the centroid of the footings.

The strap must be a massive member for this solution to be valid. The
development of Eq.1 implies rigid body rotation; thus, if the strap is not able to
transmit the eccentric moment from column 1 without rotation, the solution is
not valid. To avoid exterior footing rotation it is recommended to be .

Istrap/Ifooting > 2

It is desirable to proportion both footings so that B and q are as nearly equal

as possible to control differential settlements.

Design Procedure for Strap Footing

reaction under the interior footing will be decreased by the same value,
referring to Fig.33

1- The design begins with trial value of e

6- Check that the centroid of the areas of the two footings coincide with
the resultant of column loads.

7- Calculate the moments and shear at various parts of the strap footing.

8- Design of the strap

The strap represents a single-span beam loaded upward by the loads

transferred to it by the two footings and supported by downward
reactions at the centre lines of the two columns. Thus the upward load
over the length L is equal to R1/L t/m'. The location of the maximum
moment is obtained by equating the shear force to zero. The moment
decreases toward the interior column and is zero at the center line of
that column. Hence half the strap reinforcement is discontinued where
no longer needed and the other half is continued through the interior
 column. Check shear stresses and use stirrups, and bent bars if
necessary.

9- Design of the exterior footing

The exterior footing acts exactly like a wall footing of a length equal to
L. Even though the column is located at the edge the balancing action
of the strap is such as to transmit the reaction R1 uniformly over the
length L1 thus resulting in the desired uniform soil pressure. The design
is carried out exactly as for a wall footing.

10- Design of the interior footing

The interior footing may be designed as a simple single column footing.

The main difference is that the punching shear should be checked
along the perimeter fghj, Fig.33.
RAFT FOUNDATIONS

Introduction

The raft foundation is continuous footing that cover the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the walls and columns. The term mat is also used
for foundation of this type. It is used generally on soil of low bearing capacity
and where the area covered by spread footings is more than half the area
covered by the structure. Raft foundation is also used where the soil mass
contains compressible lenses or the soil is sufficiently erratic so that
differential settlement would be difficult to control. The raft tends to bridge
over erratic deposits and reduces the differential settlement.

Bearing Capacity of Rafts on Sand

Beating capacity of foundations on sand increases as the width increases.

Owing to the big width of raft compared to the width of an ordinary footing, the
allowable bearing capacity under the raft will be much greater than that of the
footing.

It was noticed in practice that using an allowable bearing capacity under the
raft equal to twice the allowable bearing capacity determined for an ordinary
footing. resting on the same sand will give a reasonable and acceptable
amount of settlement.

If the water table lies at a depth equal to or greater than B, the width of the
raft, the allowable bearing capacity, determined for dry condition, should not
be reduced. If there is a possibility that the water table rises up till it floods the
site, the allowable bearing capacity should be reduced by 50%. If the water
table is at a depth intermediate between B and the base of the raft, an
appropriate reduction between zero and 50% should be made.
Bearing Capacity of Rafts on Clay.

In clays, the bearing capacity is not affected with the width of the foundation
Therefore, the bearing capacity under a raft will be the same as that under an
ordinary footing.

If the estimated differential settlement under the raft is more than tolerable or
if the weight of the building divided by its area gives a bearing stress greater
than the allowable bearing capacity, floating or partially floating foundation
should be considered.

To execute a floating foundation, excavation is to be carried out till a depth D

is reached where the weight of the excavated soil equals to the weight of the
structure, figure 2. In this case, the excess superimposed stress Δp at
foundation level equals to zero and consequently, the building will suffer no
settlement.

If the full weight of the building =Q

and the weight of soil removed =Ws

and the excess load at foundation level =Qe

Qe=QWs

In case of floating foundation ;

Q = Ws and therefore Qe = Zero

In case of partially floating foundation, Qe has a certain value which when

divided by foundation area gives the allowable bearing capacity of the soil ;

Design of Raft Foundations ;

Rafts may be designed as rigid structures (so called conventional analysis)
whereby soil pressure acting against the raft slab is assumed uniformly
distributed and equal to the total weight of the building divided by the area of
the raft. This is correct if the columns are more or less equally loaded and
equally spaced, but it is difficult to fulfill this requirement in practice so it is
allowed that the column loads and spacings to be varied within 20%. However
if the downward loads on some areas are much heavier than on others, it is
advisable to divide the raft into different areas and design each area on its
corresponding average pressure. Continuity of the slab between such areas is
commonly provided, although for the areas of great differences in pressure it
is advisable to construct vertical construction joint through the slab and the
superstructure to allow for differential settlement.

In flexible raft foundation the design cannot be based only on the strength
requirements but it is necessary to be subjected due to the predicted
settlement. The thickness and the amount of reinforcement of the raft should
be selected in a such way to prevent development of cracks in the slab. As
the differential settlement is not considered in the structural design it is
customary to reinforce the raft with twice its theoretical amount of
reinforcement. The quantity of the steel may be taken as 1% of the cross
sectional area divided at top and bottom. The thickness of the slab should not
be greater than 0.01 of the radius of curvature. The thickness may
be .increased near columns to prevent shear failure.

There are two types of raft foundations:

1- Flat slab raft which is an inverted flat slab Fig.34-a. If the thickness of
the slab is not enough to resist punching shear under columns,
pedestals may be .used above the slab Fig.34-.b or, below the .slab, by
thickening the flat slab under the columns as shown in Fig.34-c.

2- Slab and girder raft which, is. an inverted R.C. floor, composed of
slabs and beams extending along column, rows in both directions,
Fig.34-d, it is also, termed ribbed mat. If a continuous floor is desired in
the basement, the ribs (beams) may be placed beneath the
slab,Fig.34-e.
Design of Flat Slab Raft

The raft, which is of uniform thickness, is divided into column strips and middle
strips as shown in Fig.35-a. The width of column strip is equal to b + 2d,
where b = column side. The depth of the raft d may assumed approximately
equal to 1/10 the clear span between columns. Also, the width of column strip
may be taken equal to 3 b.

The column strips are design as continuous beams loaded with triangular
loads as shown, in Fig.35-b. The net intensity of the uniform upward pressure
fn under any area, for example the area DEFG may be assumed equal to one
fourth of the total loads on the columns at D,E,F and G divided by the area
DEFG.

The total loads acting upon the column strip BDEQ, Fig.35-a are assumed as
triangular loading diagrams shown in Fig.35-b. The total load on part DE, P DE,
is assumed to be the net pressure acting upon the area DHEJ.
Design of Rigid Raft (Conventional Method)

The raft dimension is established and the resultant of all loads is found and
the soil pressure is computed at various locations beneath the base from Eq.

The raft is subdivided into a series of continuous strips (beams) centered on

column rows as shown in Fig.37.

The shear and moment diagrams can be established, using either combined
footing analysis or beam moment coefficient The beam moment
coefficients.The beam moment coefficient PI2 / 10 for long directions and PI2 /
8 for short directions may be adopted. The negative and positive moments will
be taken as equal. The depth is selected to satisfy shear requirements without
using stirrups and the tensile reinforcement is selected. The depth will usually
be constant but the steel requirements may vary from strip to strip. The
perpendicular direction is analyzed similarly.

Design of Slab and Girder Raft (Ribbed Mat)

If the column loads and spacings are equal or vary within 20%, the net
upward pressure fn acting against the raft is assumed to be uniform and equal
to Q/A.
where

Q = weight of building at ground level, and

A = area of raft (along the outside of the exterior columns).

If this pressure is greater than the net allowable soil pressure, the area of the
raft should be increased to an area large enough to reduce the uniform
pressure to the net allowable value. This can be achieved by projecting the
slab beyond the outside face of exterior columns.

Referring to Fig. 38 , the various elements of the raft can be designed as

follows:
Design of slab:

1-Design of transverse beams B1 and B2

The uniform distributed load/m' on

Let R1 and R2 be the central reaction of beams B1 and B2 on the central main
beam B3 respectively. The end beams B1 carries only part of the load carried
by the beam B2 and hence the central reaction R1 is assumed to be equal to

KR2 where K is a factor based on comparative area, then

Also it is assumed that the sum of the central reactions from the transverse
beams B1 and B2 is equals to the total loads from central columns, thus

2R1+8R2 =2P1 + 2
P2 (2)

Solving Eqs. (1) and (2), R1 and R2 can be determined.

The bending moment and shearing force diagrams can be drawn as shown
in Fig.39. The reactions R1 and R2 can be determined by equating the sum
of vertical forces to zero. The central section of the beams at positive bending
moment can be designed as T-beam as the slab is on the compression side.
The sections of the beams below central beam B3 is to be designed as
rectangular section.

2- Design of central main beam B3

The loading, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams are shown in
Fig.40-a. The section can be designed as T-beam.

3- Design of central main beam B4

The loading, shearing force, and bending moment diagrams are shown in
Fig.40-b The section can be designed as T-beam