Lecture-22-Russian Revolution and Soviet Manifesto

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The Russian Revolution was a series of political upheavals in Russia in 1917, dismantling the
Tsarist autocracy and leading to the rise of the Soviet Union. This period of dramatic change
was driven by deep dissatisfaction with the existing social, economic, and political conditions
and was significantly influenced by the ideologies of communism.

1. Background of Russian Empire: The Tsars

The Russian Empire, under the rule of the Romanov dynasty since 1613, was characterized
by absolute monarchy and autocracy. The Tsars clung to autocracy while most of Europe
embraced some degree of representative government. This made political compromise
difficult and pushed discontent underground, increasing revolutionary potential. The Tsars
maintained power through a centralized government and strict control over the diverse
populations within the empire. Society was rigidly hierarchical, with peasants making up the
vast majority of the population under a feudal-like system. While largely rural, Russia was
rapidly industrializing. This created an urban working class concentrated in cities like St.
Petersburg – an ideal breeding ground for radical ideas alongside genuine labor grievances.
Russian society was divided into distinct classes: the nobility, clergy, merchants, and
peasants, with serfs (peasants tied to the land) being emancipated only in 1861. While
reforms in 1861 ended outright serfdom, the peasantry remained land-hungry and burdened
by redemption payments. This immense underclass was susceptible to promises of a new
social order, should the right movement harness their desperation.

2. The Politics of Russian Revolution

The Russian Empire encompassed many nationalities with their own aspirations. This was
not simply a matter of brutal suppression, but the failure to create a unifying sense of
citizenship in a multi-ethnic state. Merchants and professionals were growing wealthier. Yet
this only emphasized their lack of political power – a combustible mixture of rising economic
expectations alongside stifled political opportunities. Long hours and miserable conditions in
factories spurred the rise of a socialist labor movement. Marxist ideas were particularly
attractive, offering not just solutions to immediate hardship, but a framework to understand
workers' exploitation within a wider historical struggle. The revolution was influenced by
various political movements, including the Social Democrats (divided into the Bolsheviks
and Mensheviks) and the Socialist Revolutionaries. These groups sought different paths to
reform, ranging from parliamentary democracy to socialist revolution.

3. The October Manifesto

The October Manifesto was issued by Tsar Nicholas II in 1905, following the Revolution of
1905, a precursor to the larger revolution of 1917. It granted civil liberties and the creation of
a Duma (parliament), attempting to quell unrest by offering reforms. However, these
measures failed to address deeper societal issues and were inconsistently implemented. Tsar
Nicholas II remained in power but was forced to accept the Duma (parliament). While its
initial iteration was weak, it created a precedent demonstrating that popular unrest could
extract concessions, fueling future revolts. Revolutionaries ranged from radical Bolsheviks
advocating for a complete overthrow of the system to more moderate liberal reformers
wanting a constitutional monarchy along Western lines. This disunity prevented a focused
challenge to Tsarist rule, but also ensured that if the regime crumbled, a struggle for power
amongst revolutionary factions themselves would ensue.

4. Economic Growth and First World War

Before WWI, Russia experienced significant industrial growth, which, however, led to
further stratification of society and labor unrest. The war exacerbated existing problems. It
exposed military incompetence, placed immense strain on an already inefficient economy,
and by 1917 led to food shortages in urban centers – igniting the spark of revolution. The war
drafted millions of peasants into the army, who, while often initially patriotic, became
radicalized by the suffering at the front. When they returned to their villages, they were no
longer obedient subjects but battle-hardened men with weapons and a deep hatred of the
regime.

5. The Collapse of Tsar’s Empire

The immediate cause of the Tsarist collapse was the strain of WWI, which highlighted the
government's incompetence and indifference to the suffering of its people. Initial protests
were driven by hunger. The key moment was when soldiers, ordered to suppress crowds,
mutinied. This signaled the Tsar had lost control of his coercive force. In February 1917,
widespread protests and strikes in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) forced Tsar Nicholas II to
abdicate, ending centuries of Romanov rule.

6. Duma’s Provisional Government

After the Tsar's abdication, the Duma established a Provisional Government, aiming to lead
Russia towards democratic reforms and continue participation in WWI. It was made up of
those who wanted a western-style liberal democracy but faced immense challenges. Chiefly,
they insisted on continuing the unpopular war, alienating the soldiers and working class upon
whose support they depended. However, the government struggled with the same issues that
plagued the Tsar regime and failed to address land reforms, losing support among the people.

7. Lenin’s April Theses: The Bolshevik Revolution

In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the Bolsheviks, published the April Theses, calling
for the overthrow of the Provisional Government, an end to the war, and the transfer of land
and power to the Soviets (workers' councils). Lenin was not a charismatic figurehead, but a
skilled tactician. He understood that the Provisional Government, lacking mass support, was
weak. His April Theses ("Peace, Land and Bread") offered simple solutions resonating with
war-weary soldiers and peasants. The Bolsheviks were a minority faction. Their success came
from being well-organized and disciplined. They did not so much lead the October 1917
Revolution as take advantage of the power vacuum when the Provisional Government
collapsed under the weight of its own failures. In October 1917, the Bolsheviks successfully
seized power in Petrograd, marking the beginning of Bolshevik rule.

8. The Consequences: Rise of Communism and Soviet Manifesto

The Bolshevik Revolution led to the establishment of a communist government in Russia,
withdrawal from WWI, and the beginning of the Russian Civil War between the Red Army
(Bolsheviks) and the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces). The period immediately following
the October Revolution was chaotic: the Bolsheviks were but one faction in a complex civil
war pitting former Tsarists, nationalists in non-Russian regions, and even half-hearted foreign
intervention forces against the Red Army. The victory of the Red Army solidified the power
of the Communist Party, leading to the creation of the Soviet Union in 1922. Bolshevik
wartime ruthlessness (War Communism) helped them achieve victory but alienated many.
The promised social utopia seemed distant, replaced by a dictatorship claiming to represent
the very workers and peasants it increasingly repressed. The revolution radically transformed
Russian society, politics, and the economy, aiming to create a classless society but also
leading to political repression and the establishment of a totalitarian state under subsequent
leaders like Joseph Stalin.

The Russian Revolution and the establishment of the Soviet Union marked one of the most
significant shifts in the 20th century, affecting global politics and contributing to the Cold
War dynamics between the Soviet Union and the West.