Divisibility And Its Properties

Session 6

Divisibility of integers is the most important idea in the theory of number. The term “divide”
will be used in place of language of divisibility. We shall have a number of occasions to use this
technical term and see its significance in the light of several basic concepts.

Definition: Divisibility

If a and b are integers with 𝑎 ≠ 0, we say that a divides b if there is an integer 𝑞 ∈ ℤ such that
𝑏 = 𝑎𝑞. If a divides b, we say also that a is a divisor or factor of b.
If a divides b, we write 𝑎|𝑏. If a does not divide b, we write 𝑎|𝑏. This indicates that there exists
integers q and r such that 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑟 where 0 < 𝑟 < |𝑎|.

Examples:
1. 4|24 since 24 = 4(6)
2. 3|25 since 25 = 3(__) + __
3. 5|125 since __ = __ (__)

The following are equivalent statements and “may be” used interchangeably,
𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑎
𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏
𝑎|𝑏 = { 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎
𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑏

Note that the symbol 𝑎|𝑏 is different from the fraction symbol a/b or 𝑎 ÷ 𝑏. It is also different
from b/a because 𝑎|𝑏 is either true or false, while b/a is a rational number.

Examples:
1. TRUE OR FALSE
5|30 ________________
2|26 ________________
−3|49 ________________
0|50 ________________
19|1 ________________
1|35 ________________

2. What numbers divide

6? ________________
17? ________________
100? ________________

3. Are there integers a, b and c s.t. 𝑎|𝑏𝑐, but a does not divide b and a does not divide c?

Major - Number Theory Page 1

PROPERTIES OF DIVISIBILITY

For all integers a, b, c and d

1. 𝑎|0

2. (Reflexive Property) 𝑎|𝑎

3. (Identity Property) 1|𝑎

4. If 𝑎|1, the 𝑎 = 1 or 𝑎 = −1

5. (Symmetric Property) If 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑏|𝑎, then 𝑎 = 𝑏

6. (Transitive Property) If 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑏|𝑐, then 𝑎|𝑐

7. (Multiplication Property) If 𝑎|𝑏, then 𝑎𝑐|𝑏𝑐

8. (Cancellation Property) If 𝑎𝑐|𝑏𝑐 and 𝑐 ≠ 0, then 𝑎|𝑏.

9. (Linear Property) If 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑎|𝑐, then 𝑎|(𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦) for all integers x and y.

10. (Comparison Property) If 𝑎|𝑏 and a and b are positive, then 𝑎 ≤ 𝑏.

Examples:
Prove the following statements for all non-zero integers a, b, andc.

1. If 𝑎|𝑏, then 𝑎|𝑏𝑐

2. If 𝑎|𝑏 and 𝑎|𝑐, then 𝑎2 |𝑏𝑐

Major - Number Theory Page 2

 Division Algorithm
Session 8

An algorithm is a procedure or process performed systematically through a chain of

operations so designed to arrive at a desired result. The division algorithm gives the principle of
divisibility.

The Division Algorithm

For any two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏 with 𝑎 ≠ 0, there exist unique integers q and r such that
𝒃 = 𝒂𝒒 + 𝒓
where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < |𝑎|.
We call q and r, the quotient and remainder, respectively, upon division of b and 𝑎.

Example 1. What are q and r if b = 75 and a = 24? If b = 75 and 𝑎 = 25? If b = 82 and 𝑎 = −14?

The Division Algorithm provides a variety of interesting applications in number theory. For
example, when an integer b is divided by 𝑎 = 2, the possible remainders are only r = 0 and 1. This
means that when
r = 0, b is even and may be expressed as b = 2q, and when
r = 1, b is odd and may be expressed as b = 2q + 1 for some integers q.

Also, we may remark that any integer b can be expressed in any of the forms b = 3q, 3q + 1,
or 3q + 2. In short, b = 3q + r, where 0 ≤ 𝑟 < 3.

Another situation is when we square an integer b and divide it by 4, it leaves a remainder of

0 or 1. That is, if b is represented as 2k or 2k + 1, then
𝑏 2 = (2𝑘)2 = 4𝑞 where r = 0, and
𝑏 2 = (2𝑘 + 1)2 = 4𝑞 + 1 where r = 1.

Example 2. Show that the square of every odd integer is of the form 8q + 1.
Solution. Let n be an odd integer. An appropriate form of n should be chosen carefully.
Let 𝑛 = 4𝑘 + 1 or 4𝑘 + 3. By squaring
(4𝑘 + 1)2 = _____________________________________ = 8𝑞 + 1
(4𝑘 + 3)2 = _____________________________________ = 8𝑞 + 1

Example 3. Show that the square of any integer is of the form 3s or 3s + 1.

Example 4. Show that the product of two integers of the form 4k + 1 is again of this form.

Major - Number Theory Page 3

Example 5. Show that the product of two integers of the form 4k + 3 is of the form 4k + 1.

Example 6. Show that if 𝑎 is an integer not divisible by 2 or 3, then 24|(𝑎2 + 23).

Solution. Let 𝑎 ∈ ℤ. Since 2|𝑎 and 3|𝑎, we can take 𝑎 = 6𝑘 + 1 or 6𝑘 + 5. Then,
𝑎2 + 23 = (6𝑘 + 1)2 + 23 = 12(3𝑘 2 + 𝑘) + 24
Since k is an integer, then it is either odd or even and thus, represented as 2q or 2𝑞 +
1 for some integer q. But if k is 2q or 2q + 1, then 𝑘(3𝑘 + 1) is always even. Let now
𝑘(3𝑘 + 1) = 2𝑐, and this produces,
𝑎2 + 23 = 12(2𝑐) + 24𝑐.
Thus, 𝑎2 + 23 is divisible by 24. The same conclusion follows if we take 𝑎 = 6𝑘 + 5.

Example 7. Show that if 𝑎 is a positive integer, then 3 divides 𝑎3 − 𝑎.

EXERCISES:
Level 1. Apply the division algorithm by stating the quotient and the remainder.
−7
a. −2 → −7 = __(−2) + __
−479
b. → −479 = __(29) + __
29
273
c. → 273 = __(−15) + __
−15
−394
d. → −394 = __(17) + __
17
−59
e. → __ = __(__)__
−6

Level 2. Use division algorithm to establish each of the following:

a. The cube of an odd integer is odd.
Hint: Let an integer be of the form (2𝑘 + 1), then cube the integer.
(2𝑘 + 1)3 =____________________________________________________________________

b. The product of three odd integers is odd.

Hint: Let 2p + 1, 2q + 1, and 2r + 1 be 3 odd integers and multiply.

c. The cube of any integer takes any of the forms 9q, 9q + 1, or 9q + 8.

d. If an integer is a square and a cube, then it must either be of the form 7q or 7q + 1.

e. Any integer of the form 6𝑎 + 5 is also of the form 3𝑎 + 2.

Major - Number Theory Page 4

 Prime Numbers and Prime Factorization
Session 9

FACTORS

The factors of a given integer are integers which when multiplied together form the
given integer. The factors of 10 are 5 and 2. Another set of factors of 10 are 10 and 1. Thus,
the complete set of factors of 10 is 1, 2, 5, and 10.

PRIME NUMBERS
If a positive integer greater than 1 has one and itself as its only factors, then the
integer is called a prime number. If a positive integer greater than 1 is NOT prime, then it is
called a composite number.

LESSON EXERCISE 1: Classify the following integers as prime or composite.

1. 3 ________________ 5. 163 ________________ 9. 1434 ________________

2. 8 ________________ 6. 403 ________________ 10. 1829 ________________

3. 101 ________________ 7. 893 ________________ 11. 1833 ________________

4. 111 ________________ 8. 1001 ________________ 12. 2 ________________

The integer 1 is neither prime nor composite. The integer 2 is the smallest prime
number, and the only even prime number. Also, there are infinitely many prime and
composite numbers.

Note that if an integer 𝑎 is composite, then it may be written as 𝑎 = 𝑏𝑐 where 1 < 𝑏 <
𝑎 and 1 < 𝑐 < 𝑎. If 𝑏 ≤ 𝑐, we have
𝑏 2 = 𝑏(𝑏) ≤ 𝑏(𝑐) = 𝑎, or 𝑏 ≤ √𝑎

Thus, to determine whether an integer is prime, it is sufficient enough to divide 𝑛 by

each prime less than or equal to √𝑛. Because if 𝑛 is composite, it must possess a prime
divisor 𝑝 satisfying 𝑝 ≤ √𝑛.

For example, to determine if 𝑛 = 143 is prime, first we take the square root of 143.
Since
𝑝 < √143 < 12
then it is enough to consider the primes 𝑝 = 2,3,5,7 and 11 for the possible divisors.
Carrying out the division, we see that 11|143 and so, 143 = 11(13)

Major - Number Theory Page 5

 Lesson Exercise 2. Use the technique above to classify the following integers as prime or
composite.

1. 403 _______________ 3. 3803 _______________ 5. 5191 _______________

2. 1927 _______________ 4. 3809 _______________ 6. 5197 _______________

A Greek mathematician, Eratosthenes, used a technique called the Sieve of

Eratosthenes to find all primes. To find primes of 2 to 100, we first list down all the integers.
Then encircle the first prime number 2 and cross out the numbers that are divisible by 2.
Encircle the next prime number 3 and cross out the numbers that are divisible by 3, although
we do not necessarily cross out again 6, 12, … 9 as they were already done in the multiples
of 2. For multiples of 5, cross out 25, 35, 55, 65, 85 and 95. And the largest 𝑝 satisfying 𝑝 ≤
√100 is 7, then cross out 49, 77 and 91. By the time we have crossed out all multiples of
primes not exceeding √𝑛, then what remains are the primes.
LESSON EXERCISE 3: Use the Sieve to find all primes from 2 to 100. Then, list all of them.

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Prime Numbers: ____________________________________________________________________________________

Twin Primes are pairs that differ by two. What are the twin primes between 1 and 100?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Major - Number Theory Page 6

Prime Triplets are three consecutive primes that differ by two. These are primes of the form
𝑝, 𝑝 + 2, and 𝑝 + 4. What are the prime triplets between 1 and 100?
______________________________________________________________________________________________________

Challenge Query: How many primes are there between 100 and 200?

PRIME FACTORIZATION

Every positive integer 𝑛 greater than 1 can be written as a product of primes. Or, in
symbols,
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝑛 = 𝑝11 𝑝22 … 𝑝𝑘𝑘
This representation of 𝑛 is called the canonical form or prime factorization of 𝑛.

In other words, “every positive integer greater than one can be written uniquely as a
product of primes, with the prime factors in the product written in order of increasing size”.
This is called the fundamental theorem of arithmetic where an integer 𝑛 can be written as a
product of prime factors.
For example, 12 = 22 ∙ 3, and 100 = 22 ∙ 52
METHODS TO DETERMINE PRIME FACTORIZATION OF 𝒏

A. Factor Tree Method. This is a method where an integer is factored continuously in a

way like the branches of a tree until only prime numbers remain.

Examples:

B. Decomposition Method. This is a method where an integer is repeatedly divided by a

prime number until the quotient is 1.

Examples:

Major - Number Theory Page 7

 LESSON EXERCISE 4: Find the prime factorization of each of the following integers using
any method.

1. 240 = _______________________ 6. 3149 = _______________________

2. 360 = _______________________ 7. 7950 = _______________________

3. 1234 = _______________________ 8. 100000 = _______________________

4. 2400 = _______________________ 9. 111111 = _______________________

5. 2345 = _______________________ 10. 4849845 = _______________________

SOME TRIVIA ABOUT PRIME NUMBERS

121,174,811 is the first number in an extraordinary sequence of prime numbers,
discovered in 1967 by L.J. Lander and T.R. Parkin. The sequence is as follows 121,174,811 –
121,174,841 – 121,174,871 – 121,174,901 – 121,174,931 – 121,174,961. These six numbers
are consecutive primes with a difference of 30 between each one.
243,112,609 – 1 was discovered to be the largest known prime number on August 23,
2008. It’s too bg to write in digits without wasting paper. It consists 12,978,189 digits. It was
discovered as part of a programme called the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search (GIMPS)
launched in 1996 by a man called George Woltman. Only a relative handful of Mersenne
Primes have been found, currently fewer than 50, although the GIMPS programme is
throwing up bigger and bigger primes every year.

Major - Number Theory Page 8

 Greatest Common Factor
Session 10

COMMON FACTORS

A positive integer 𝑓 is said to be a common factor of 𝑎 and b if 𝑓|𝑎 and 𝑓|𝑏. What are
the factors of 24? ___________________________________ What are the factors of 30?
___________________________________. Thus, what are the common factors of 24 and 30?
___________________________________

GREATEST COMMON FACTOR

The greatest common factor (GCF) or greatest common divisor (GCD) of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is
the positive integer 𝑑, denoted by 𝑑 = (𝑎, 𝑏), satisfying
i. 𝑑|𝑎, 𝑑|𝑏 and
ii. if 𝑓|𝑎 and 𝑓|𝑏, then 𝑓 ≤ 𝑑.

In other words, the greatest common divisor of two (or even more) integers 𝑎 and 𝑏,
that are not both zero, is the largest integer that divides both 𝑎 and 𝑏. It is the largest integer
which is a factor of all the given integers or it is the largest integer which can divide a given
set of integers.

Example: Find the greatest common divisor of the following pairs of integers.
a. 18, 12 c. 15, 81
b. 100, 5 d. – 6, - 15

Note that since the divisors of - 𝑎 are the same as the divisors of 𝑎, it follows that
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (|𝑎|, |𝑏|). Hence, we can restrict our attention to GCD’s of pairs of positive integers.

METHODS TO FIND GCF

There are several methods to find the GCF of two (or more) integers. They are

A. Intersection of Sets Method. This involves listing all the factors of the given integers
and determining the common factors. Afterwards, the greatest common factors is
found.

Example: Find the GCF of 36 and 48.

Factors of 36: {_______________________________________________________________}
Factors of 48: {_______________________________________________________________}
Common factors of 36 and 48: {____________________________________________}
GCF of 36 and 48: {_______} or (36,48) = ________
Major - Number Theory Page 9
 B. Prime Factorization Method. This involves writing the integers in their canonical
forms and then multiplying all the common prime factors with lower exponents.

Example: Find the GCF of 36 and 48 using the prime factorization method.
36 = __________________________________
48 = __________________________________
GCF of 36 and 48: ___________________ or (36,48) = ________

C. Continuous Division Method. This method involves dividing the integers by prime
factors until there are no more divisors. The product of the common divisors is the
GCF.

Example: Find the GCF of 36 and 48 using the continuous division method.

Example: Find the GCF of 24, 96, 72 using the continuous division method.

Example: Find the GCF of – 120, - 140, and 200 using the continuous division method.

Example: Find the GCF of 12, 14 and – 15 using the continuous division method.

RELATIVELY PRIME NUMBERS

Integers sharing no common divisors greater than 1 are called relatively prime. In
symbols, if (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1, then 𝑎 and 𝑏 are relatively prime to each other.

Example: What is the GCD of 25 and 42? Are they relatively prime?

We also say that the integers 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 are pairwise relatively prime if for each pair
of integers 𝑎𝑖 and 𝑎𝑗 from the set (𝑎𝑖 , 𝑎𝑗 ) = 1, that is, if each pair of integers from the set is
relatively prime.

Example: Consider the integers 15, 28, and 37. Are they pairwise relatively prime?

Example: Consider the integers 10, 20 and 13. Are they pairwise relatively prime?

Major - Number Theory Page 10

Exercises:

1. Find the GCF of 16 and 20 using the intersection of sets method.

2. Find the GCF of the following using the prime factorization method
a. 15 and 21

b. 24 and 184

3. Find the GCF of the following using the continuous division method
a. 8, 10 and 12 d. 6, 15 and 21

b. 15, 25 and 75 e. -7, 28 and - 35

c. 111, -102 and 153 f. 99, 9999, 0

4. Let 𝑎 be a positive integer. What is the greatest common divisor of 𝑎 and 2𝑎?

5. Let 𝑎 be a positive integer. What is the greatest common divisor of 𝑎 and 𝑎2 ?

6. Let 𝑎 be a positive integer. What is the greatest common divisor of 𝑎 and 𝑎 + 1?

7. What is (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 , 𝑎 + 𝑏), where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are relatively prime integers that are not both
zero?

8. Can you find three pairwise relatively prime integers from among the integers 66,
105, 42, 70, and 165?

9. A rectangle 72 dm by 120 dm is to be covered with squares which are of the same

size. What is the largest size of the square that can be used to exactly cover the
rectangle?

10. Mrs. Kho wishes to cut as many pieces of rope of equal lengths as she can from 3
strands that are 70 cm, 98 cm and 112 cm long. If she wishes the pieces to be as long
as possible and does not wish to waste any rope, how long should she cut each piece?

Major - Number Theory Page 11

 The Euclidean Algorithm
Session 15

Aside from the three methods previously discussed to find the GCF of two or more
numbers, we can also use a systematic method, or algorithm, to find the GCF of two positive
integers. This method is called the Euclidean algorithm. It is named after the ancient Greek
mathematician Euclid who described this algorithm in his book The Elements.

The Euclidean Algorithm. Let 𝑟0 = 𝑎 and 𝑟1 = 𝑏be integers s.t. 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏 > 0. If the
division algorithm is successively applied to obtain 𝑟𝑗 = 𝑟𝑗+1 𝑞𝑗+1 + 𝑟𝑗+2 with 0 < 𝑟𝑗+2 <
𝑟𝑗+1for j = 0, 1, 2, …, n – 2 and 𝑟𝑛+1 = 0, then (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑟𝑛 , the last remainder.

If we let 𝑟0 = 𝑎 and 𝑟1 = 𝑏 be positive integers with 𝑎 ≥ 𝑏. By successively applying

the division algorithm, we find that
𝑟0 = 𝑟1 𝑞1 + 𝑟2 , 0 ≤ 𝑟2 < 𝑟1 ,
𝑟1 = 𝑟2 𝑞2 + 𝑟3, 0 ≤ 𝑟3 < 𝑟2 ,
⋮
𝑟𝑗−2 = 𝑟𝑗−1 𝑞𝑗−1 + 𝑟𝑗 , 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑗 < 𝑟𝑗−1,
⋮
𝑟𝑛−3 = 𝑟𝑛−2 𝑞𝑛−2 + 𝑟𝑛−1 , 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑛−1 < 𝑟𝑛−2,
𝑟𝑛−2 = 𝑟𝑛−1 𝑞𝑛−1 + 𝑟𝑛 , 0 ≤ 𝑟𝑛 < 𝑟𝑛−1 ,
𝑟𝑛−1 = 𝑟𝑛 𝑞𝑛

We can assume that we eventually obtain a remainder of zero since the sequence of
remainders 𝑎 = 𝑟0 > 𝑟1 > 𝑟2 >. . . ≥ 0 cannot contain more than 𝑎 terms. We can see that
(𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑟0 , 𝑟1 ) = (𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ) =. . . = (𝑟𝑛−3 , 𝑟𝑛−2 ) = (𝑟𝑛−2 , 𝑟𝑛−1 ) = (𝑟𝑛−1 , 𝑟𝑛 ) = (𝑟𝑛 , 0) = 𝑟𝑛 .
Hence, (𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑟𝑛 , the last nonzero remainder or the GCF of 𝑎 and 𝑏 is 𝑟𝑛 .

Example 1: Find the GCF of 30 and 72 using the Euclidean algorithm

Write 72 = 30 (2) + 12
30 = 12(2) + 6
12 = 6(2) + 0
We now see that (12,6) = (6,0) = 6. Thus, the GCF of 72 and 30 is 6 or (72,30) = 6,
the last nonzero remainder.
Example 2: Find the GCF of 324 and 306 using the Euclidean algorithm.

TRY THE FOLLOWING: Use Euclidean algorithm to evaluate the following.

a. (252,198)
b. (378,858)
c. (666,1414)
d. (20785,44350)

Major - Number Theory Page 12

 The Least Common Multiple
Session 16

Another equally important concept, like the greatest common factor, is the least
common multiple of the given integers.

The Least Common Multiple (LCM) of any two or more integers is the smallest
positive integer which is divisible by all integers. In other words, it is the smallest multiple
of each of the integers or it is the smallest factor that can divide the integers with a zero
remainder.

A more formal definition is given as follows:

Definition. Given two integers 𝑎 and 𝑏, then the least common multiple (LCM) of 𝑎 and 𝑏
is the positive integer 𝑚, denoted by 𝑚 = [𝑎, 𝑏], satisfying the following conditions:

i. 𝑎|𝑚 and 𝑏|𝑚, and

ii. If 𝑎|𝑛 and 𝑏|𝑛, then 𝑚 ≤ 𝑛.

For example, given 𝑎 = 4 and 𝑏 = 6, then find [4,6] = 𝑚, list all the multiples of the
given integers.
Multiple of 4 = {4, 8, _______________, …}
Multiples of 6 = {6, ________________, …}

Then the set of common multiples 𝑛 of 4 and 6 is

{ ________________________, …}
But the least common multiple of 4 and 6 is ____.

REMARKS:
The following are some immediate consequences of the definition.
a) (𝑎, 𝑏) ≤ [𝑎, 𝑏]
(4,6) ≤ [4,6]

b) [𝑎, 𝑏] = [−𝑎, 𝑏] = [𝑎, −𝑏] = [−𝑎, −𝑏]

[4,6] = [−4,6] = [4, −6] = [−4, −6]

𝑎𝑏
c) [𝑎, 𝑏] = (𝑎,𝑏), for positive integers 𝑎 and 𝑏
(4)(6)
[4,6] = (4,6)

d) [𝑎, 𝑏] = 𝑎𝑏 iff (𝑎, 𝑏) = 1

[5,6] = ___ because _________________.

Major - Number Theory Page 13

METHODS TO FIND THE LCM
Aside from using remarks 𝑐 to find the LCM of two integers, the following methods
can be used also:

The Intersection of Sets Method. List down the multiples of the given integers and find the
smallest common multiple of the given integers.

Example 1: Find the LCM of 10 and 15.

Prime Factorization Method. Write the prime factorizations of the integers and then multiply
all the common prime factors with the highest exponents. The product will then be
multiplied to the remaining factors that are not common to the given integers.

Example 2: Find the LCM of 12 and 20.

Example 3: Find the LCM of 24 and 64.

Continuous Division Method. Divide all the integers by prime factors until the quotient of
each integer is one. Multiply the prime divisors.

Example 4: Find the LCM of 36 and 84.

Example 5: Find the LCM of 12, 36, and 48.

Example 6: Find the LCM of -12, -18, -28, and – 32.

Major - Number Theory Page 14

PROBLEM SOLVING

Solve the following problems:

1. Teacher Joy wants to group his pupils into groups 3 or 8 or 12. But he found that there
would always be 2 pupils left. What is the least possible number of pupils in the class?

2. Major Major restaurant offered a free Cornetto for every 6th customer and a free hand
towel for every 8th customer. What is the least number of customers that the
restaurant had if 7 enjoyed both Cornetto and hand towel?

3. Mr. Binay, a security guard, is off-duty every fifth day. His wife, a nurse, gets a day off
every sixth day. If both of them are off-duty today (present day), then when will they
be off-duty again together the fourth time?

4. On its 10th anniversary, Mart One gave away a wallet for every 8th customer and a
notebook for every 12th customer. After 100, customers, how many had received both
a free wallet and a notebook?

5. Two Florida buses leave their Cubao terminal at 8 P.M. Bus A takes 40 minutes to
complete its route while Bus B takes 1 hour and 10 minutes. Assuming that the buses
are on time, when is the next time they will arrive together at the same terminal?

6. Mr. Ramos works in a factory with two sons. He is really happy with his job because
he gets to spend some time with his beloved sons not only at home but also at work.
He is allowed to take a break every 140 minutes while his two sons are allowed to
take breaks in 210 minutes and 280 minutes. How many minutes will they have to
wait after their first break together to get together again?

7. Ms. Ballesteros is really into gardening and she does on her own yard. She has a
rectangle-shaped garden full of beautiful flower beds but she decides that she needs
more trees. She wants to plant trees on every side and she would like to have them
placed the same distance from each other. If the long sides of her garden are each 24
m long and the short side each 18 m long, what is the fewest number of trees she
should plant?

8. Mr. and Mrs. Marzan are soon moving into their new home. They would like to have
their bathroom floor tiled. The bathroom is rectangle shaped and has sides 4.6 m and
6 m. What’s the side of the biggest square-shaped tile (in centimeters) that could be
used so that no space is left without tiles? (Don’t forget he can’t cut the tiles and
disregard the grout for the tiles)

Major - Number Theory Page 15

 9. Steve, who is only 7, wants to be an architect when he grows up so his parents have
built him a little shed in the backyard. Today, he has some bricks with which he is
planning to make his masterpiece! If his bricks has dimensions 10 cm, 20 cm, and 25
cm, what’s the volume of the smallest cube (in cm3) he could build using these bricks?

10. Mrs. Co owns a small grocery store. She has just received 3 sacks of sugar weighing
27 kg, 36 kg and 72 kg and she wants to put them in equal-sized bags before she sells
them. What’s the least number of bags she would need if she doesn’t want any sugar
to be left without a bag?

11. When people joining a competition are grouped in 4s, 5s or 6s, 1 person is left out
each time. If we know that there are at least 150 people joining the competition, what
is the least number of people in this group?

12. Mrs. Rivera has baked 84 raisin cookies, 106 muffins and 128 chocolate chip cookies
which all smell delicious! They smell so good she would like to keep 4 raisin cookies,
6 muffins and 8 chocolate chip cookies for herself though she knows she has to cut
down on sweets. She’ll then put the rest into boxes with equal number of each type.
What would be the largest number of cookies or muffins in each box?

13. Mrs. Garcia has just baked a fruit cake for her son’s birthday party. The cake is shaped
like a rectangular prism with dimensions 6 cm, 8 cm, and 10 cm. She would like to cut
the cake into equal-sized cubes so that it’s easier for the kids to eat it. What’s the least
number of cubes she could get so that no part of the cake remains?

14. What is the smallest positive integer divisible by 1 up to 12?

15. The LCM and GCF of two positive integers are 72 and 6, respectively. Find the product
of these two integers.

16. Give pairs of positive integers a and b that have a greatest common factor of 18 and
least common multiple of 540.

17. Prove: If 𝑎 = 𝑏, (𝑎, 𝑏) = [𝑎, 𝑏].

18. True or False. If the propositions is false, five a counter-example.

a. If (𝑎, 𝑏) = (𝑎, 𝑐), then [𝑎, 𝑏] = (𝑎, 𝑏).
b. (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑘 )[𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑘 ] = 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑘
c. [𝑎2 , 𝑎𝑏, 𝑏 2 ] = [𝑎2 , 𝑏 2 ]
d. [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐](𝑎𝑏, 𝑏𝑐, 𝑎𝑐) = [𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐]

Major - Number Theory Page 16

 The Number of Divisors of an Integer
Session 17

NUMBER OF DIVISORS

List all the positive divisors of the following integers:

1) 8 = ________________________________________________ Number of + divisors: _____
2) 24 = ________________________________________________ Number of + divisors: _____
3) 28 = ________________________________________________ Number of + divisors: _____
4) 100 = ________________________________________________ Number of + divisors: _____
5) 125 = ________________________________________________ Number of + divisors: _____

Without listing the positive divisors, is there a way by which we can determine the
number of divisors of a number? Here is the answer:
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
Let the positive integer n has prime factorization 𝑛 = 𝑃1 1 𝑃2 2 𝑃3 3 … 𝑃𝑘 𝑘 . Then, the
number of positive divisors of n is given by the formula:

𝑑(𝑛) = (𝑒1 + 1)(𝑒2 + 1)(𝑒3 + 1) … (𝑒𝑘 + 1)

The above formula directs us to express the integer n in its canonical form and then
consider the exponents.

Examples: Find the number of positive divisors 𝑑(𝑛) of the following:

1. 𝑛 = 12
2. 𝑛 = 1000
3. 𝑛 = 1001
4. 𝑛 = 32, 400
Exercises
A. Evaluate each of the following
a) 𝑑(94)
b) 𝑑(144)
c) 𝑑(25 ∙ 34 ∙ 53 ∙ 72 ∙ 11)
d) 𝑑(12100 )
e) 𝑑(10!)

B. Find the smallest integer n with 𝑑(𝑛) equal to each of the following integers
a) 1
b) 2
c) 3
d) 6

Major - Number Theory Page 17

 The Sum of Divisors of an Integer
Session 18

Add the positive divisors of the following integers

1) 8 = ________________________________________________
2) 24 = ________________________________________________
3) 28 = ________________________________________________
4) 100 = ________________________________________________
5) 125 = ________________________________________________

𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
Let the positive integer n has prime factorization 𝑛 = 𝑃1 1 𝑃2 2 𝑃3 3 … 𝑃𝑘 𝑘 . Then, the
sum of the positive divisors of n is given by the formula:
𝑒 +1 𝑒 +1 𝑒 +1
𝑃1 1 − 1 𝑃2 2 − 1 𝑃𝑘 𝑘 − 1
𝜎(𝑛) = ∙ ∙…∙
𝑃1 − 1 𝑃2 − 1 𝑃𝑘 − 1

𝑒
We can derive the above formula by considering 1 + 𝑃1 + 𝑃12 + ⋯ + 𝑃1 𝑘 as a
𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
geometric series. Hence, the sum can be found by 𝑟−1 , where 𝑎 is the first term, 𝑟 is the
common ratio and 𝑛 is the number of terms.
Consider the following:
𝑒
𝜎(𝑃1 1 ) =
𝑒 𝑒
𝜎(𝑃1 1 ∙ 𝑃2 2 ) =
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
𝜎(𝑃1 1 ∙ 𝑃2 2 ∙ … ∙ 𝑃𝑘 𝑘 ) =
Examples: Use the formula to evaluate the following:
1. 𝜎(200) =

2. 𝜎(720) =

3. 𝜎(10000) =

4. 𝜎(9!) =

5. 𝜎(215 − 1) =

Major - Number Theory Page 18

Examples: This time, find the sum of the positive divisors 𝜎(𝑛) of the following prime
numbers:
1. 𝑛 = 19

2. 𝑛 = 37

3. 𝑛 = 97

Challenge: What can you conclude about the sum of the positive divisors of any prime
number?

Examples: Without using the formula, find the sum of the positive divisors 𝜎(𝑛) of the
following integers:
1. 𝑛 = 72
Express 24 in its prime form. Thus, 72 = 2332. To find the sum of the positive
divisors, add 20 up to 23, add 30 up to 32 and multiply the results.
𝜎(72) = ( )( ) = ( )( ) = _________
Check using the formula whether the results are the same.

2. 𝑛 = 520

3. 𝑛 = 4900

SEATWORK:

Find a partner and find the sum and number of positive divisors of the integers to
be written by your teacher on the board. Write your answers in a one-half sheet of pad
paper crosswise.

Major - Number Theory Page 19

 Linear Diophantine Equations
Session 21

Consider the following variation on an old problem:

“In a corral, there are cowboys and horses. There are 20 legs in all. How many belong
to horses?”

If we let h be the number of horses and c be the number of cowboys in the corral, then
we know that
4h + 2c = 20,
assuming that all the horses and the cowboys are whole. This equation has infinitely many
solutions – for example,
5
−1 0
ℎ 3 √2
|
𝑐 20 10 − 2√2
12 10
3

But none of these fit the requirements of the problem; we want h and c to be
integers.
Equations of these sort, in which we look for solutions in a restricted class of
numbers – be they positive integers, negative integers, rational numbers, or whatever – are
called Diophantine equations, after Diophantus.

In this session, we will consider the simplest Diophantine equation: the linear
Diophantine equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐
where a, b, and c are integers. The equation ax + by = c clearly has infinitely many
solutions in rational numbers, namely those given by
(𝑐 − 𝑎𝑡)
𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑦 =
𝑏
for any rational number t, if 𝑏 ≠ 0. But such an equation may have no solutions at all in
integers. for example, 2x + 4y = 5 has none. (Why?)

Example 1. Solve the problem posed above by trial and error.

The theorem below can help in solving linear Diophantine equations.
Let a and b be integers with 𝑑 = (𝑎, 𝑏). The equation 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 = 𝑐 has no integral
solutions if 𝑑|𝑐. If 𝑑|𝑐, then there are infinitely many integral solutions. Moreover, if 𝑥 =
𝑥0 , 𝑦 = 𝑦0 is a particular solution of the equation, then all solutions are given by

𝑏
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + (𝑏/𝑑)𝑛, 𝑦 = 𝑦0 − ( ) 𝑛,
𝑑
where n is an integer.

Major - Number Theory Page 20

 Example 2: Determine the integral solutions of the Diophantine equation 21𝑥 +
14𝑦 = 70.

Example 3: Find the integral solutions of the equation 15𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 7.

Example 4: A wallet contains 5-peso and 10-peso coins amounting to Php 45. How
many of each kind will produce the given amount?

(mental) Exercises
1. For each of the following linear Diophantine equations, either find all solutions, or
show that there are no integral solution.
a. 2𝑥 + 5𝑦 = 11
b. 17𝑥 + 13𝑦 = 100
c. 60𝑥 + 18𝑦 = 97
2. Determine the integral solutions for which x and y are positive.
a. 30𝑥 + 17𝑦 = 300
b. 54𝑥 + 21𝑦 = 906
c. 19𝑥 + 20𝑦 = 1909
3. A postal clerk has only P14 and P21 stamps to sell. What combinations of these may
be used to mail a package requiring postage of exactly P350?
4. A grocer orders apples and oranges at a total cost of P839. If the apples cost him P25
each and oranges cost him P18 each, how much each type of fruit did he order?
5. At a restaurant, the total cost of lobster is P110 and of chicken is P80. What can you
conclude if the total bill is P1000?
6. A shopper spends a total of P549 for mangoes, which cost P18 each and green apples,
which cost P33 each. What is the minimum number of pieces of fruit the shopper
could have bought?
7. Marion’s Theater charges P180 for adult and P75 for children for one advanced
screening. If the total receipts were P180,000, and assuming that more adults than
children were present, what is the minimum number of people who attended the
affair?
8. Vanessa’s piggy bank contains 59 coins, all 1-peso, 5-peso and 10-peso coins. If the
total value of coins is P200, what combinations of coins are possible?
9. The enrolment in the number theory class of Mr. Laciste consists of sophomores,
juniors and seniors. If each sophomore contributes P125, each junior P90, and each
senior P50, the class will have a fund of 2500. If there are 26 students, how many are
seniors?
10. Separate 1891 into two parts such that one part is a multiple of 21 and the other is a
multiple of 31.

Major - Number Theory Page 21

 Definition and Properties of Congruence
Session 22

INTRODUCTION TO CONGRUENCES
Congruences often arise in everyday life. For instance, clock works either in modulo
12 or 24 for hours, and modulo 60 for minutes and seconds, calendar works modulo 7 for
days of the week and modulo 12 for months. At the beginning of the nineteenth century,
this language of congruences was developed in number theory by Karl Friedrich Gauss. Its
definition is formally stated below.

Definition. Let m be a positive integer. If a and b are integers, we say that a is congruent
to b modulo m if 𝑚|(𝑎 − 𝑏).

If a is congruent to b modulo m, we write 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚). If 𝑚|(𝑎 − 𝑏), we write 𝑎 ≡

𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), and we say that a and b are incongruent modulo m.

Note that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) if and only if there is an integer k such that 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑘𝑚. We
also use the notation 𝑎 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚 = 𝑟 to denote that r is the remainder obtained when a is
divided by m.
TRUE OR FALSE
1. 22 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 9) ______________
2. 23 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8) ______________
3. 7 ≡ −13(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6) ______________
4. 3 ≡ −6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 9) ______________
5. −13 ≡ −5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ______________
6. 19 𝑚𝑜𝑑 5 = 4 ______________
7. −8 𝑚𝑜𝑑 7 = 6 ______________

A collection of m integers {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } is called a complete residue system modulo

m if every integer b modulo m is congruent to exactly one of the elements in the collection.
It is a set of integers such that every integer is congruent modulo m to exactly one integer of
the set.
Example 1: 19 ≡ 16 ≡ 13 ≡ 10 ≡ 7 ≡ 4 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
20 ≡ 17 ≡ 14 ≡ 11 ≡ 8 ≡ 5 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3)
21 ≡ 18 ___________________________ (mod 3)

Therefore, the set {_______________} forms a complete residue system modulo 3.

The division algorithm shows that 0, 1, 2, …, m – 1 is complete system of residues

modulo m. This is called the set of at least nonnegative residues modulo m. This means that
every integer is congruent modulo to one of the integers of the set 0,1,2, … , 𝑚 − 1, namely,
the remainder when it is divided by m.
Major - Number Theory Page 22
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING:
1. Yes or No: Determine whether each of the following pairs of integers are congruent
modulo 7.
a. 1, 15 d. -1, 8
b. 0, 42 e. -9, 5
c. 2, 99 f. -1, 699

2. For which positive integers m are each of the following statements true?
a. 27 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ______________________________
b. 100 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ______________________________
c. 1001 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) ______________________________

3. What time does a clock read

a. 29 hours after it reads 11 o’clock? _____________________
b. 100 hours after it reads 3 o’clock? _____________________
c. 50 hours after it reads 5 o’clock? _____________________

4. What is the last digit of 3150? _____________________

5. What are the last two digits of 7157? _____________________

PROPERTIES OF CONGRUENCES
Let m be positive integer. Congruences modulo m satisfy the following properties:
1. If a is an integer, then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚). [Reflexive Property]

2. If a and b are integers s.t. 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), then 𝑏 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚). [Synthetic Property]

3. If a, b, and c are integers with 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) and 𝑏 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), then 𝑎 ≡ 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚).
[Transitive Property]

4. If a, b, and c are integers s.t. 𝑎 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), then [Equality Property.

a. 𝑎 + 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 + 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚),
b. 𝑎 − 𝑐 ≡ 𝑏 − 𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚),
c. 𝑎𝑐 ≡ 𝑏𝑐(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), and
d. 𝑎𝑘 ≡ 𝑏 𝑘 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), if k is a positive integer.

Major - Number Theory Page 23

Example 2. Find the remainder when 4220 is divided by 65.

Solution: The nearest power to 65 is 43 = 64 ≡ −1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 65). Then we have

(43 )73 ≡ (−1)73
4219 ≡ −1
4≡4

Multiplying the last two congruences, we obtain

4220 ≡ −4 ≡ 61(𝑚𝑜𝑑 65)
Thus, the remainder when 4220 is divided by 65 is 61, i.e.
4220 ≡ 61(𝑚𝑜𝑑 65)

Example 3: Find the remainder when ∑50

𝑥=1 𝑥! is divided by 8.

Solution: Without the application of the properties of congruences, this would be a tiresome
computation. Since 8 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8), the 4!= 24 ≡ 0(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8). Hence, 𝑥! ≡ 0 for 𝑥 ≥ 4 and so
50

∑ 𝑥! = 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 50!
𝑥=1
≡ 1 + 2 + 6 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 8)

Hence, the quantity ∑50

𝑥=1 𝑥! has a remainder of 1 upon division by 8.

Example 4: Show that 6767 – 4 has a factor 63.

Solution: Since 67 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 63), then by congruence property 4d, we have

673 ≡ 43 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 63).
Also, (67) ≡ (1)22 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 63)
66

Thus, by congruence property 4c,

6767 = 6766 ∙ 67 ≡ 1 ∙ 4 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 63).
Thus, 63|(6767 − 4).

THEOREMS ON CONGRUENCES:
1. Fermat’s Theorem. If p is a prime and (𝑎, 𝑝) = 1, then
𝑎𝑝−1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

Example 5: What is the remainder when 230 is divided by 31?

2. If p is prime, then 𝑎𝑝 ≡ 𝑎(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

Example 6: What is the remainder when 231 is divided by 31?

Level-Up Exercises:
1. Find the least positive residue modulo 13 of each of the following integers.
a. 27 c. – 2
b. 101 d. – 98

Major - Number Theory Page 24

 2. Find the units digit of the following:
a. 735
b. 983
c. 3101
d. 11101
e. 1349
3. Find the least positive residue of the following:
a. 347 (mod 8)

b. 435 (mod 17)

c. 528 (mod 24)

d. 615 (mod 35)

e. 917 (mod 26)

4. Find the remainder when

a. 6589 is divided by 63

b. 2110 is divided by 19

c. 7109 is divided by 6

d. 314162 is divided by 163

e. ∑20
𝑥=1 𝑥! is divided by 9.

Major - Number Theory Page 25

 Linear Congruences
Session 23

Definition. A congruence of the form

𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚),

where x is an unknown integer, is called a linear congruence in one variable.

We first note that if 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is a solution of the congruence 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), and if 𝑥1 ≡

𝑥0 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), then 𝑎𝑥1 ≡ 𝑎𝑥0 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚), so that 𝑥1 is also a solution. Hence, if one member
of a congruence class modulo m is a solution, then all members of this class are solutions.

Example 1. Find all solutions of 9𝑥 ≡ 12(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15).

Linear Congruence Theorem. Let a, b, and m are integers with 𝑚 > 0 and (𝑎, 𝑚) = 𝑑. If 𝑑|𝑏,
then 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) has no solutions. If 𝑑|𝑏, then 𝑎𝑥 ≡ 𝑏(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚) has exactly d incongruent
solutions modulo m given by
𝑚
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ( ) 𝑘
𝑑
where 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is a particular solution of the equation, and 𝑘 = 0,1,2, … , 𝑑 − 1

Example 2. Find all solutions of 8𝑥 ≡ 16(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12).

Example 3. Solve the linear congruence 6𝑥 ≡ 7(𝑚𝑜𝑑 23).

Example 4. Solve the linear congruence 3𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6).

Example 5. Find the values of x in the linear congruence 45𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6) where the values
of x are negative.

Example 6. Find the values of x in the linear congruence 35𝑥 ≡ 60(𝑚𝑜𝑑 98) where the values
are greater than 98.

Exercises: Find all solutions of each of the following linear congruences.

a. 25𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
b. 9𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 25)
c. 3𝑥 ≡ 6(𝑚𝑜𝑑 9)
d. 19𝑥 ≡ 30(𝑚𝑜𝑑 40)
e. 103𝑥 ≡ 444(𝑚𝑜𝑑 999)

Major - Number Theory Page 26

 Chinese Remainder Theorem
Session 24

In this session, we will consider system of congruences that involve only one variable,
but different moduli. Such system arose in ancient Chinese puzzles.

The Chinese Remainder Theorem. Let 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , … , 𝑚𝑟 be pairwise relatively prime

positive integers. Then the system of congruences

𝑥 ≡ 𝑎1 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚1 ),

𝑥 ≡ 𝑎2 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚2 ),

𝑥 ≡ 𝑎𝑟 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑟 ),

has unique solution 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 … 𝑚𝑟 .

We can construct a simultaneous solution to the system of congruences mentioned

above. To do this, let 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑀/𝑚𝑘 = (𝑚1 𝑚2 … 𝑚𝑘−1 𝑚𝑘 … 𝑚𝑟 )/𝑚𝑘 . We know that (𝑀𝑘 , 𝑚𝑘 ) =
1 since (𝑚𝑗 , 𝑚𝑘 ) = 1 whenever 𝑗 ≠ 𝑘. Hence, we can find an inverse 𝑦𝑘 of 𝑀𝑘 modulo 𝑚𝑘 , so
that 𝑀𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑘 ). We now form the sum
𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑀1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑀2 𝑦2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑀𝑟 𝑦𝑟 ,
The integer 𝑥 is a simultaneous solution of the 𝑟 congruences.

Example 1. Solve the system

𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6)
𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

Solution:
a. Find for 𝑀. 𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3 = ________________________________
b. Find for 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , and 𝑀3 using the formula 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑀/𝑚𝑘 .
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝑀1 = 𝑚 𝑀2 = 𝑚 𝑀3 = 𝑚
1 2 3

c. Find the values of 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , and 𝑦3 using the formula 𝑀𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑘 )

____ 𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ____ 𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 6) ____ 𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

d. To find for 𝑥, apply the formula 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑀1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑀2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑀3 𝑦3

Major - Number Theory Page 27

Example 2. Find a number that leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by 3, a remainder of 2
when divided by 5, and a remainder of 3 when divided by 7.

Solution:
a. Find for 𝑀. 𝑀 = 𝑚1 𝑚2 𝑚3 = ________________________________
b. Find for 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , and 𝑀3 using the formula 𝑀𝑘 = 𝑀/𝑚𝑘 .
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝑀1 = 𝑚 𝑀2 = 𝑚 𝑀3 = 𝑚
1 2 3

c. Find the values of 𝑦1 , 𝑦2 , and 𝑦3 using the formula 𝑀𝑘 𝑦𝑘 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚𝑘 )

____ 𝑦1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3) ____ 𝑦2 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5) ____ 𝑦3 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)

d. To find for 𝑥, apply the formula 𝑥 = 𝑎1 𝑀1 𝑦1 + 𝑎2 𝑀2 𝑦2 + 𝑎3 𝑀3 𝑦3

Example 3. Find the three integers that leaves a remainder of one when divided by either 2
or 5, but that is divisible by 3.

Work in Pairs!
1. Find all the solutions of each of the following system of linear congruences
a. 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 15) b. 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5)
𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 17) 𝑥 ≡ 2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7)
𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 12)

2. Find all the solutions to the system of linear congruences 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 2), 𝑥 ≡
2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 3), 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 5), 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 7), and 𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 11).

3. Find all the solutions to the system of linear congruences 𝑥 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 999), 𝑥 ≡
2(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1001), 𝑥 ≡ 3(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1003), 𝑥 ≡ 4(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1004), and 𝑥 ≡ 5(𝑚𝑜𝑑 1007).

Major - Number Theory Page 28

 Application of Chinese Remainder Theorem
Session 26

1. Find the least positive integer which leaves remainders 1, 2, 3, and 5 when divided by
2, 3, 5, and 7, respectively.

2. Find a multiple of 11 that leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by each of the integer
2, 3, 7, and 13.

3. If a number of notebooks are divided equally among 77 students, there will be 27 left.
On the other hand, if these are divided among eight people, there will be none left.
What is the smallest number of notebooks there are?

4. A troop of monkeys store their bananas in eleven piles of equal size with a twelfth pile
of six left over. When they divide the bananas into 17 equal groups, none remains.
What is the smallest number of bananas they can have?

5. When students in a certain school are grouped by 2’s, 3’s, 4’s, 5’s or 6’s at a time, there
remain 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 students, respectively. When the students are grouped by 7’s,
no student is left. What is the smallest possible number of students in the school?

6. Chinese generals counted troops remaining after a battle by lining them up in rows of
different lengths, counting the number of left over each time, and calculating the total
from these remainders. If a general had 1200 troops at the start of the battle and if
there were 3 left over when they lined up 5 at a time, 3 left overs when they lined up
6 at a time, 1 left over when they lined up 7 at a time, and none left over when they
lined up 11 at a time. How many troops remained after the battle?

Major - Number Theory Page 29

 Wilson’s Theorem and Fermat’s Little Theorem
Session 28

WILSON’S THEOREM
If p is prime, then (p – 1)! ≡ (mod p).

Examples:
1. What is the remainder when 6! Is divided by 7?

2. What is the remainder when 10! Is divided by 11?

FERMAT’S LITTLE THEOREM

If p is prime and a is a positive integer with 𝑝|𝑎, then 𝑎𝑝−1 ≡ 1(𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑝).

Examples:
1. What is the remainder when 36 is divided by 7?

2. 36 (mod 7) =________.

3. 510 (mod 11) = ________.

As a consequence of the theorem, we can say that “If p is a prime and a is a positive
integer, then ap ≡ (mod p)”.

Examples:
4. What is the remainder when 511 is divided by 11?

5. 813 (mod 13) = _______.

6. 3201 (mod 11) = _______.

7. Solve: 7𝑥 ≡ 12 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 7).

8. Solve: 4𝑥 ≡ 11 (𝑚𝑜𝑑 19).

Major - Number Theory Page 30

 Euler Function
Session 29

Euler’s generalization of the Fermat’s Little Theorem depends on a function which

indeed was invented by Euler (1707 – 1783) but named J. J. Sylvester (1814 – 1897) in 1883.

The Euler function, or totient function 𝝋 is a very important number theoretic

function having a deep relationship to prime numbers and the so-called order of integers.

The Euler function 𝝋: ℤ+ → ℤ+ is a mapping association to each positive integer n the

number 𝝋(𝒏) of integers m relatively prime to n. (In other words: 𝝋(𝒏) is the number of
positive integers 𝒎 with (𝑚, 𝑛) = 1). For example, 𝝋(𝟔) = 𝟐 (since only 1 and 5 are
relatively prime to 6), or 𝜑(15) = 8 (for 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 11, 13, and 14 are relatively prime to
15). The following table shows the function values for the first 15 natural numbers.
𝒏 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

𝝋(𝒏) 1 1 2 2 4 2 6 6 4

Do you discover some formation rule? If so, you should go on researching, because
you could solve number theoretic problems being open so far … If not, you might be
interested in some of the most important properties of the Euler function.

1
1. If n = pk where p is prime, then 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝑝𝑘 − 𝑝𝑘−1 = 𝑝𝑘 (1 − 𝑝).
Example: Calculate 𝜑(16) and 𝜑(81).

𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
2. If the prime factorization of n is given by 𝑛 = 𝑝11 𝑝22 … 𝑝𝑘𝑘 , we have 𝜑(𝑛) =
1 1
𝑛 (1 − 𝑝 ) … (1 − 𝑝 ).
1 𝑘
Example: Calculate 𝜑(24) and 𝜑(360).

3. The sum over the Euler function values 𝜑(𝑑) of all divisors d of an integer number n
exactly gives n.
Example: For n = 12:
𝜑(1) + 𝜑(2) + 𝜑(3) + 𝜑(4) + 𝜑(6) + 𝜑(12) = 1 + 1 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 4 = 12
Verify this for n = 16.

Major - Number Theory Page 31

LAST EXERCISES:

1. Calculate the following:

a. 𝜑(2k)
b. 𝜑(94)
c. 𝜑(16000)
d. 𝜑(9𝑝)
2. Find the number of positive integers ≤ 2000 that are prime to 2000.
3. Find the number of positive integers ≤ 2000 that have a factor common with 2000.
4. Verify that 𝜑(𝑛) = 𝜑(𝑛 + 1) = 𝜑(𝑛 + 2) if 𝑛 = 5186.
5. Find the number of positive integers ≤ 2000 that are prime to 100.
6. For what values of 𝑛 is 𝜑(𝑛) odd?

Major - Number Theory Page 32