COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE

DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY

Assessment of Woody Plant Species Diversity of Gorogocha Natural Forest, In Baka Dawula Aari
District, South Ethiopia Region

RESEARCH
By:
Yaykob Sapena
Id.No: SNS/2196/10

Advisor: Desalegn Delelegn (PhD Candidate)

Research Submitted to Department of Biology College of Natural Science School of

Undergraduate Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Bachelor Science (B.Sc.)
in Biology (Biological Science and Laboratory Technology).

March 14, 2024

ARBA MINCH, ETHIOPIA

 ARBA MINCH UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF NATURAL SCIENCE
DEPARTEMENT OF BIOLOGY
EXAMINERS APPROVAL PAGE

This is to certify that the research titled “Assessment of Woody Plant Species Diversity of
Gorogocha Natural Forest, In Baka Dawula Aari District, South Ethiopia Region” by Yaykob
Sapena, submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.)
degree in Biology (Biological Science and Laboratory Technology), complies with the rules and
regulations of Arba Minch University and meets the accepted standards of originality and quality.

Name of Advisor Signature Date

Internal Examiner Signature Date

Principal Advisor Signature Date

I declare that this B.Sc. research is my own original work and has not been submitted for a degree
at any other university. All sources of material used in this research have been properly
acknowledged.

Name: Yaykob Sapena Sharo

Signature__________________ Date_________________________
Table of contents Page

Contents
Table of contents .............................................................................................................................. i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF TABLE ........................................................................................................................... iv
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v
LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. vi
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. vii
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1. Background of the Study and Justification ...................................................................... 1
1.2. Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 3
1.3. Basic Research Questions ................................................................................................ 4
1.4. Objectives of the study ..................................................................................................... 4
1.4.1. General Objective: .................................................................................................... 4
1.4.2. Specific Objectives: .................................................................................................. 5
1.5. Scope of the study ............................................................................................................ 5
1.6. Significance of the study .................................................................................................. 6
1.7. Limitations of the study.................................................................................................... 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................................ 7
2.1. General Overview of Forests............................................................................................ 7
2.2. Forest cover change in Ethiopia ....................................................................................... 8
2.3. Drivers of forest cover change ......................................................................................... 8
2.4. Threats of woody species diversity in Ethiopia ............................................................... 9
2.4.1. Deforestation ........................................................................................................... 10
2.4.2. Land Degradation.................................................................................................... 10
2.4.3. Invasive Species ...................................................................................................... 11
2.5. Conservation of forest resources .................................................................................... 12
2.6. Importance of conserving forests ................................................................................... 13
2.7. The Role of Forest Biodiversity Conservation ............................................................... 14
2.8. Major Vegetation Types of Ethiopia .............................................................................. 14
2.8.1. Desert and Semi-desert Scrubland Vegetation ....................................................... 15

i
 2.8.2. Acacia-Commiphora Woodland and Bush-land Vegetation................................... 15
2.8.3. Wooded Grassland of the Western Gambella Region ............................................ 15
2.8.4. Combretum-Terminalia Woodland and Wooded Grassland................................... 16
2.8.5. Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest and Grassland Complex ................................ 16
2.8.6. Moist Evergreen Afromontane Forest .................................................................... 16
2.8.7. Transitional Rainforest............................................................................................ 17
2.8.8. Ericaceous Belt ....................................................................................................... 17
2.8.9. Afroalpine Belt........................................................................................................ 18
2.8.10. Riverine vegetation ................................................................................................. 18
2.9. Other relevant concepts .................................................................................................. 19
2.9.1. Species diversity ..................................................................................................... 19
2.9.2. Evenness ................................................................................................................. 19
2.9.3. Population structure ................................................................................................ 20
3. Materials and Methods .......................................................................................................... 21
3.1. Description of the study area .......................................................................................... 21
3.2. Sampling Design and Data Collection Methods ............................................................ 23
3.2.1. Sampling Design ..................................................................................................... 23
3.2.2. Data collection methods .......................................................................................... 24
3.3. Sources of Data .............................................................................................................. 24
3.4. Methods of Data Analysis .............................................................................................. 24
3.5. Vegetation of the study area ........................................................................................... 27
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................ 31
4.1. Species diversity of the Forest ........................................................................................... 31
5. Conclusion and Recommendations ........................................................................................... 35
5.1. Conclusions: ....................................................................................................................... 35
5.2. Recommendations: ............................................................................................................. 35
References: .................................................................................................................................... 37
Appendix 1:................................................................................................................................... 38
Appendix 2:................................................................................................................................... 39
Appendix 3:................................................................................................................................... 40
Appendix 4:................................................................................................................................... 41
Appendix 5:................................................................................................................................... 42

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First, I want to express my deep gratitude to my advisor, Desalign Delelegn (PhD candidate), for
his generous and unwavering support throughout the research process. I also appreciate Arbaminch
University, particularly the Department of Biology, for providing a program that has greatly
enhanced my knowledge. Additionally, I am thankful to my colleague Asimera Amde, a lecturer
in Botanical Science at Jinka University, for his sincere advice and feedback on my research. My
thanks also go to Milkias Mena, an assistant lecturer in GIS at Jinka University, for his work on
the Arch GIS map of the study area. Last but not least, I am grateful to my best friend, Embakom
Endrias, for his assistance with data collection. Finally, I want to thank all my friends for their
support throughout the completion of this paper.

iii
 LIST OF TABLE

Table 1: The names of the families and the number of species they include, along with their
percentage contribution. ................................................................................................................ 31

iv
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Direct and underlying causes of forest decline (Setiamy & Deliani, 2019) .................... 9
Figure 2: Invasive Alien species management matrix source. ...................................................... 12
Figure 3: Map of the study area .................................................................................................... 22
Figure 4: Map of study area (A) and Gorogocha Natural Forest (B) photo @ Yaykob Sapena .. 23
Figure 5: Sex of the respondents ................................................................................................... 26
Figure 6: Photograph of a farmer interview .................................................................................. 26
Figure 7: Age of the respondents .................................................................................................. 27
Figure 8: Partial view of Gorogocha Natural forest with some degraded area within it .............. 28
Figure 9: Ecological importance of woody plant species ............................................................. 29
Figure 10: Ecological factors affecting woody plant species ....................................................... 30
Figure 11: Field observation view of Lantana camara (an invasive species) ............................... 30

v
LIST OF ACRONYMS

BDAD: Baka Dawula Aari District

ETB: Ethiopian Birr
E.g.: For Example
GNF: Gorogocha Natural Forest
GDP: Growth Domestic Product
KI: Key Informant
IVI: Important Value Index
LDCs: Least Developing Countries
M.A.S.L: Mean Above Sea Level
MM: Millimeter
NFIR: National Forest Inventory Report
PFM: Participatory Forest Management
I.e.: That Is
UN: United Nation
USD: United States Dollar
SDG: Sustainable Development Goals

vi
 ABSTRACT

The research was carried out in Gorogocha Natural Forest, located in the Baka Dawula Aari
District, South Ethiopia Region. This study aims to assess the woody plant species diversity with
the objective of determining the types of woody plants, abundance/richness and evenness,
ecological importance, and ecological factor that influences the forest. The research were
employed a systematic and purposive sampling technique. A total of 10 sample plots, each spaced
20 meters apart, were established. Vegetation data were collected through assessments of trees
and shrubs within main plots measuring 20m x 20m (or 400m²), seedlings and saplings within two
sub-plots measuring 2m x 2m (or 4m²), and herbaceous species within three sub-plots measuring
1m x 1m (or 1m²) within each main plot. All plants within each plot were counted and recorded.
Socioeconomic data were gathered through questionnaires and interviews with 40 informants,
aged 20 to 65, who were purposively chosen to assess the ecological significance and factors
impacting the forest. In the study area, 32 woody plant species from 31 genera and 21 families
were identified across 10 sample plots. The Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Salicaceae families were
the most dominant, contributing 58.1%, 6.5%, and 6.5% of the species, respectively. The
remaining 18 families each contributed 3.24% of the species, with only one species and one genus
per family. A Shannon-Wiener Index of 2.8 and a Simpson's Index of 0.933 indicate that the forest
ecosystem is highly diverse with a well-balanced species distribution. An IVI of 0.85 indicates the
species is notably important in the Gorogocha Natural Forest, though its significance may vary
with context and ecosystem factors. The study suggests that comprehensive ecological and ethno-
botanical research, along with monitoring, is essential for land rehabilitation, controlling invasive
species like Lantana camara, and ensuring sustainable forest use.

Key Words/Phrases: Baka Dawula, Diversity, Natural Forest, Plant species

vii
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1.Background of the Study and Justification

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, Ethiopia's diverse geography, including rugged mountains,
flat-topped plateaus, deep river valleys, and rolling plains, has led to the country being covered by
some of the most abundant forest cover in tropical Africa. These forests play a crucial role in human
survival and well-being, hosting a significant portion of terrestrial plant and animal species. They
provide essential resources such as food, oxygen, shelter, recreation, and spiritual nourishment, and
serve as the origin of over 5,000 commercially-traded products, ranging from pharmaceuticals to
timber and clothing. Moreover, these forests contribute to maintaining soil fertility, providing wildlife
habitats, safeguarding water sources, and reducing the risks of natural disasters like landslides and
floods.

According to, Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, the mountainous forests of the Ethiopian highlands were once
known for their rich variety of woody plant species. However, over the years, these forests have
suffered from degradation and fragmentation. This decline can be attributed to the growing population
pressure, which has led to expanded crop cultivation and livestock grazing in less suitable areas.
Furthermore, the impact of agricultural development, resettlement projects, and charcoal production
has significantly affected the availability of woody plant resources. Additionally, the introduction of
invasive alien species has posed a serious threat to natural forest ecosystems across different regions
of Ethiopia. These activities have collectively contributed to an increase in deforestation and soil
erosion in the highland areas of the country. The author also mentions that to reduce the threat,
sustainable forest management has been implemented by using conservation methods. One of these
methods involves setting aside forest areas with limited access for local communities, which has been
proposed as a way to address deforestation and its consequences. In particular, advancements in plant
biotechnology offer new possibilities for multiplying and conserving plant biodiversity in the short
and long term, utilizing in vitro culture techniques. There has been notable advancement in the
conservation of endangered, rare, ornamental, and medicinal plant species, particularly those that are
vegetative propagated and originate from temperate and tropical regions. Furthermore, insufficient
awareness and a narrow emphasis on conserving and sustainably utilizing woody plant species have
resulted in inadequate conservation efforts.

1
In Ethiopia, a forest is characterized by an aggregation of trees, plants, and other forms of biodiversity
found in areas such as forest lands, along roadsides, beside rivers, on farmland and grazing lands, as
well as in residential areas or parks. These forests can occur naturally or be cultivated through various
methods. Given Ethiopia's extensive land area and varied physical landscapes, it hosts a range of both
natural and artificially created vegetation types that meet this definition of a forest (Mengesha et al.,
2020). In addition to this, the author also states, that Ethiopia’s economic expansion necessitates
greater utilization of forest resources, encompassing wood products essential for construction,
furniture, electrification, and the pulp and paper sector. Additionally, non-timber forest products like
bamboo, honey, forest coffee, fodder, gum and resin, beeswax, and traditional medicinal herbs play
crucial roles in supporting the livelihoods of local communities dependent on forests. Establishing
and sustainably managing forests not only supports economic objectives but also offers substantial
opportunities to foster social and environmental advantages. These efforts can mitigate rural poverty,
combat land degradation and soil erosion, and enhance water filtration and retention capabilities.
According to, Oljirra, 2019, Ethiopia, the second most populous country in Africa, has experienced
frequent famines caused by insufficient rainfall and the depletion of natural resources. At the
beginning of the twentieth century, around 420,000 square kilometers (35% of Ethiopia’s land) was
covered by trees but recent research indicates that forest cover is now less than 14.2% due to
population growth. Deforestation may have exacerbated the already limited precipitation levels, with
expanding populations contributing to further forest loss and potential famine. As the population
grows, so do the demands on natural resources. Over the past five decades, Ethiopia has lost 98% of
its forested areas.
According to, the Foundation, 2003, forests in Ethiopia play a crucial role in erosion control, as tree
roots help prevent soil washouts. Forests and their contributions in terms of timber, sustenance,
livelihoods, and safeguarding watersheds are essential for ensuring a reliable and sufficient food
supply for people. Nevertheless, the decline of forests and deterioration of land are diminishing their
ability to support food security and provide additional advantages like fuel-wood and animal feed in
Ethiopia.

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, forests are experiencing changes in various ways, with their
areas being diminished by deforestation and natural disasters such as volcanic eruptions. As a result,

2
forest coverage is decreasing globally, partly due to logging activities and the conversion of habitats
to croplands, which accounts for up to 40 percent of forest losses in Ethiopia. Deforestation is
particularly severe in northeastern Ethiopia, leading to the bareness of mountainous areas and the
gullied valleys. Streams that used to have water year-round are now mainly dry in the dry season.
Several factors have accelerated the decline of woody species diversity in Ethiopia, including the size
and distribution of human and domestic animal populations, resource consumption levels, market
factors, and policies. Additionally, the lack of awareness and inadequate attention to the conservation
and sustainable use of woody plant species have contributed to the current situation. Consequently,
this research aims to address this deficiency by conducting a thorough assessment of woody plant
species diversity within the Gorogocha Natural Forest, located in the Baka Dawula Aari District of
the South Ethiopia Region.
1.2. Statement of the problem

According to Oljirra, 2019, in the realm of developing nations, particularly in Africa, Ethiopia stands
out for its rich historical, cultural, and biological diversity. However, the country has seen a
staggering 98% decline in its forested areas over the past half-century. This alarming trend is driven
by deforestation and the expanding population, which is exacerbating the issue and pushing the
country towards famine. As the population continues to swell, so do the demands on natural resources.
At the start of the 20th century, approximately 420,000 square kilometers (35% of Ethiopia’s land)
was covered by trees. However, recent studies indicate that forest coverage has plummeted to less
than 14.2% due to population growth. Despite the pressing need for forested lands, a lack of education
among residents has contributed to an ongoing decrease in forested areas. The degradation of forests
due to fuel-wood consumption and related activities has led to loss of biodiversity, deterioration of
water catchments, and a rise in greenhouse gas emissions, with far-reaching consequences.
Deforestation is a very serious issue in developing countries. It has been occurring at rapid rates,
primarily to clear land for agriculture and the production of fuel wood for domestic use.
Forests make up one of the world’s most important precious natural resources and play a crucial role
in global ecological balance (Setiamy & Deliani, 2019). The forests of the world cover about 4 billion
hectares (FAO, 2010). They are vital for the conservation of the ecosystem, maintenance of water
quality, prevention and reduction of natural hazards such as floods, erosion, landslides, avalanches,
and drought, and hence in regulating the climate on the regional level. Gorogocha Natural Forest in
Baka Dawula Aari District is one of the forested areas that have important socio-economic and

3
ecological functions and advantages for the entire community due to its rich biodiversity. However,
this forest has been consistently depleted through activities such as agricultural expansion,
deforestation, and the collection of firewood for various purposes. In addition to this, there is a lack
of assessment and documentation of the diversity of woody plant species present in this forest. Hence,
it is important to conduct comprehensive biodiversity and ecological research to raise awareness
among policymakers and the entire community about the advantages of this diverse ecosystem and
implement suitable conservation measures. Understanding the variety of woody plant species, their
abundance, ecological importance, and ecological factors provides essential insights for the efficient
management of forest ecosystems. Consequently, this research aims to bridge this gap by
documenting the diverse range of woody plant species, their abundance, and distribution patterns,
and providing recommendations for the overall community and future researchers regarding the
ecological significance and factors influencing woody plant species diversity.
1.3. Basic Research Questions

1. What types of woody plant species exist in the Gorogocha Natural Forest?
2. What specific woody plant species are presented in the study area?
3. What was the abundance of the woody plant species within the study site identified?
4. What is the ecological importance of woody plant species in the study area?
5. What ecological factors influence the diversity and composition of woody plant species?
1.4.Objectives of the study

1.4.1. General Objective:

 To assess woody plant species diversity in Gorogocha Natural Forest, in Baka Dawula Ari
District, South Ethiopia Region.

4
 1.4.2. Specific Objectives:
 To identify the woody plant species existing in the Gorogocha Natural Forest.
 To find the woody plant species richness and evenness in the study area.
 To assess the abundance of the woody plant species in the study district.
 To assess the ecological importance of woody plant species in the study district.
 To analyze the ecological factors influencing the diversity and composition of woody plant
species.
1.5. Scope of the study
Gathering information on the variety of woody plant species is crucial for creating effective
conservation strategies for forest flora. This study aims to assess the diversity of woody plant species,
focusing specifically on practices and challenges within the GNF. Due to limitations in funding and
time, the study was limited to this particular natural forest. A systematic and purposive research
method were applied for this research. The study assessed the woody plant species diversity (evenness
and richness), ecological importance, and ecological factor of GNF; in the BDAD, SER, spanning
from October 2016 to July 2016.

5
 1.6.Significance of the study

According to Setiamy & Deliani, 2019, forests make up one of the world’s most important precious
natural resources and play a crucial role in global ecological balance. In addition to this, the author also
states, they are vital for the conservation of the ecosystem, maintenance of water quality, prevention
and reduction of natural hazards such as floods, erosion, landslides, avalanches, and drought, and hence
in regulating the climate on the regional level.
According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, forests play a vital role in supporting human life and prosperity.
They are home to a vast majority of terrestrial animal and plant species. Forests offer us sustenance in
the form of food, oxygen, shelter, leisure activities, and spiritual sustenance. Moreover, they serve as
the origin of more than 5,000 marketable goods, including pharmaceuticals, timber, and clothing.
Furthermore, these resources contribute to preserving the fertility of agricultural land, providing
habitats for wildlife, safeguarding water sources, and mitigating the likelihood of natural calamities
like landslides and floods.
Understanding the variety of woody plant species diversity (richness and evenness), their abundance,
ecological importance, and ecological factors provide essential insights for the efficient management
of forest ecosystems. Assessing the diversity of woody plant species diversity can help us understand
the ecological importance of the ecosystem. This study can serve as a valuable resource for researchers,
policymakers, and the broader community interested in the flora. It can provide baseline data for future
studies on plant ecology, conservation biology, and ecosystem dynamics. Overall, the assessment of
woody plant species diversity in Gorogocha Natural Forest is significant for advancing our
understanding of this unique ecosystem, supporting conservation efforts, promoting sustainable
management practices, and helping other researchers who may like to pursue further research on woody
plant species diversity in forests.
1.7. Limitations of the study

The limitations of this study were the lack of available secondary information sources, time constraints,
and shortage of budget.

6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1.General Overview of Forests

According to Mohammed et al., 2023, globally, about 30 percent of the land was covered by forests
which accounted for about 3,952 million hectares. However, gradually the coverage is declining from
time to time at a rate of 12.9 million ha/year mainly as a result of different anthropogenic factors. Food
Aid Organization (FAO, 2020). From this, Africa’s forest cover is estimated to be 650 million ha,
constituting 17 percent of the world’s forests. Ethiopia, as a result of its diverse physio-geographic
features, is one of the East African countries endowed with rich biological assets is enabled the country
to be one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots and one of the 12 Vavilov centers of crop genetic diversity.
According to the National Forest Inventory Report (2018), the forest cover of the country is estimated to
be 15.7%. According to Mohammed et al., 2023, the country possesses a variety of vegetation resources,
including lowland scrubs and tropical rainforests, which consist of both natural and cultivated forests.
The natural forests encompass various types, such as moist and dry tropical Afromontane forests,
woodlands, and shrublands, while the planted forests consist of industrial plantations and small-scale
woodlots. Forests are also crucial for Ethiopia’s ecological diversity and economic development.
In 2012-13, the forest sector in Ethiopia contributed economic benefits worth 111.2 billion Ethiopian Birr
(ETB) or 16.7 billion USD, which is equivalent to 12.86% of the country's Gross Domestic Product
(GDP). Additionally, the forest ecosystems also provided valuable contributions to other sectors,
particularly agriculture, amounting to 6.77% of GDP. These figures were reported by the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) in 2016 and the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and UNEP
in 2020. The rapid growth of Ethiopia's population, along with the increasing demand for forest products
and the expansion of agricultural and grazing land, is a major factor contributing to the ongoing
deforestation in the country's natural forest systems. A recent report indicated that the average annual
forest loss is estimated at 91,000 hectares Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(MEFCC), 2018). Additionally, indirect threats include gaps in the enforcement of forest policies and
regulations, unclear forest user rights, a lack of private investment in forestry development, inadequate
land use planning, and gaps in the implementation of participatory forest management (PFM) FAO (Food
and Agriculture Organization), 2015).

7
 2.2. Forest cover change in Ethiopia

According to Setiamy & Deliani, 2019, changes in forest cover are a dynamic and widespread process
that is driven by both natural events and human activities, leading to significant impacts on natural
ecosystems. The conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable management of tropical forests have
emerged as key concerns in developing nations. According to data from the Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, around 4,168 million hectares of the Earth's land surface were
covered by woodlands and forests in the 1990s. However, ongoing deforestation and forest degradation
are posing challenges to continued access to forest resources. Despite their vital role in supporting
livelihoods and regulating climate, forests worldwide are facing immense pressure due to deforestation
and degradation caused by the growing human and livestock populations and widespread rural poverty.
2.3. Drivers of forest cover change

According to Setiamy & Deliani, 2019, a wide variety of factors, such as the expansion of agriculture,
uncertain land ownership, global markets, colonization, construction of roads and infrastructure, urban
development, mining activities, grazing, uncontrolled fires, political instability, collection of fuel wood,
and logging of timber, have an impact on deforestation. Deforestation is the primary reason for changes
in forest cover in tropical regions, including Ethiopia, and this is influenced by multiple factors. The
main reasons for deforestation in Ethiopia include rapid population growth, low agricultural
productivity and economic challenges in the country, shifting cultivation, livestock farming, and fuel
use in arid areas. The authors also mention, that there are two main categories of drivers: immediate
(direct) drivers and underlying drivers.
Immediate (direct drivers): Deforestation and forest degradation are human activities that directly
impact forest cover and lead to the loss of carbon reserves. Agriculture is considered the primary cause
of approximately 80% of global deforestation. Immediate causes of deforestation in Ethiopia include
the expansion of smallholder traditional farming due to population growth in forested areas, large-scale
development projects, population growth, logging and other forest product collection, and forest fires.
Underlying (indirect drivers): The fundamental reasons for deforestation encompass a variety of
political, cultural, and socio-economic factors, such as ineffective policies, inadequate governance and
law enforcement, land ownership issues, poverty in rural areas, limited investment and financial
resources, population growth, migration, and civil unrest.

8
 Forest Decline

Direct Causes Underlying Causes

Natural Causes: Natural from HA: Market failures:

Hurricanes Agricultural expansion Unpriced forest goods and services
Pests Cattle ranching Monopolies and monopolistic forces
Natural fire Roads Socio-economic and political causes:
Floods Logging Population growth & density
Economic growth

Agents: Excessive consumption

Slash and burn farms Oil corporations Global warming
Agribusiness Loggers War
Cattle ranchers Non-timber commercial- Mistaken policy interventions:
Miners’ corporations’ Wrong incentives
Gov’t investment
Governance weakness:
Concentration of land ownership
Non-existent ownership and land tenure
Figure 1: Direct and underlying causes of forest decline Illegal activities & corruption
(Setiamy .& Deliani, 2019)
2.4.Threats of woody species diversity in Ethiopia

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, Ethiopia is a mountainous country with great geographic
diversity like rugged mountains, flat-topped plateaus deep gorges incised river valleys, and rolling
plains. These diversified topographic features made the country to be covered by the richest forest
cover in tropical Africa. These forests are essential for human survival and well-being. They harbor
two-thirds of all terrestrial animal and plant species. They provide us with food, oxygen, shelter,

9
recreation, and spiritual sustenance, and they are the source of over 5,000 commercially traded
products, ranging from pharmaceuticals to timber and clothing. However, forests change in various
ways. Its areas can be reduced either by deforestation or by natural disasters such as volcanic
eruptions. As a result, the expanse of forest areas is declining across the globe, partly through
logging activities and also due to the conversion of habitats to croplands (agricultural expansion)
accounts for up to 40 percent of Ethiopian forest losses. Especially deforestation is high and severe
in northeastern Ethiopia. Because of the disappearance of forests, most of the mountainous sides
are bare. Particularly some of the current contributory factors that accelerated the decline of woody
species diversity in Ethiopia are the size and distribution pattern of human and domestic animal
populations, the level of resource consumption, market factors, and policies. In addition,
understanding of woody plant species conservation in a narrow sense due to a low level of
awareness, the attention on woody species conservation and sustainable use has so far been
inadequate.
2.4.1. Deforestation

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, deforestation refers to the conversion of forested areas into
other types of land use, such as agriculture, urban development, logging, or wasteland. This process
leads to the removal of large sections of forests, resulting in increased water and mineral flow into
streams. In Ethiopia, deforestation has been occurring at an alarming rate, while afforestation efforts
have been minimal. This is due to factors such as clearing for fuel, expanding agricultural land,
construction, and urban development, as well as a lack of awareness among communities about the
importance of preserving forests. The intensive logging practices also harm the structure and
composition of natural plant species, leading to a decline in forest diversity and agricultural
productivity. These activities pose a significant threat to biodiversity conservation and the
regeneration of plant species. Additionally, disturbances caused by livestock can further hinder the
regeneration and growth of woody species, ultimately contributing to their decline in forest
populations.

2.4.2.Land Degradation

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, land degradation refers to the deterioration of ecosystems
and their ability to produce resources over a long period. It is caused by various human activities

10
such as urban development, road construction, recreational activities, forest fires, agriculture, and
logging. These activities result in the destruction and degradation of natural habitats for woody
plants in Ethiopia. This degradation poses a significant risk to endangered plant species, with human
activities being the primary cause of risk for 83% of these species. Additionally, the discharge of
pollutants into the environment further threatens plant species diversity, affecting individual species
and entire ecosystems. Pollutants are particularly detrimental to water-dwelling species, such as
those found in rivers, lakes, coasts, and oceans, leading to flora death and ecosystem destruction.
As a result of these practices, woody species diversity is greatly suppressed in Ethiopia, accelerating
the degradation of natural habitats that support many woody plant species.
2.4.3.Invasive Species

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, non-native plant species that have invaded Ethiopia pose a
serious threat to the country's native plants and biodiversity. This growing environmental and
economic issue has been identified by conservation biologists as the second most significant threat
to endangered plant species worldwide. Invasive alien species are a major obstacle to the
conservation and sustainable use of plant diversity at global, regional, and local levels, impacting
ecosystems and the services they provide. One particularly invasive alien species in Ethiopia is
Lantana camara, which severely hinders the health and regeneration of woody plant species due to
its widespread distribution. This highly aggressive exotic species acts as an environmental weed in
many countries, negatively affecting vegetation biodiversity by forming dense thickets that
outcompete native plants for resources. Additionally, Lantana camara has detrimental effects on
land resources, agriculture, and livestock production systems, posing a potential threat to food
security.

11
 Alien Species Introduction
Two ways
Intentional Accidental

Healthy and Resilience of the Ecosystem

Import risk analysis Laws and Regulations Quarantine & border control

Assessment Undetected
Harmless Harmful detected

Is eradication feasible? Surveys and inventories

Yes Yes
Eradication Beach heads discovered
Monitoring No Invasive Yes
No
Remains Harmless?? No Appropriate mix of control methods
Yes effective Ineffective
Neutral beneficial Limited adverse effect ongoing adverse effect

Mitigation
A healthy population of native species resilience and natural ecosystem

Figure 2: Invasive Alien species management matrix source.

2.5.Conservation of forest resources

According to Mebrat & Gashaw, 2013, the rapid decline of species in Ethiopia is a significant challenge
that has prompted the adoption of conservation practices in the country. Conservation aims to understand
how to protect species, communities, and ecosystems and investigates the reasons behind the decrease
in species diversity. Two approaches, in-situ and ex-situ conservation, are being used to safeguard
vegetation diversity. In-situ conservation involves preserving species within their natural habitats, while
ex-situ conservation involves collecting and protecting them outside their habitats, typically in gene

12
banks. Protecting and conserving woody plant species at various levels, including ecosystems,
landscapes, communities, populations, individuals, and genes, is crucial for maintaining the health and
vitality of ecosystems. Conservation efforts involve establishing protected areas and implementing
management strategies that strike a balance between resource progress’ and meeting human needs.
Therefore, conducting ecological assessments of existing enclosed forests is essential for effective
planning and sustainable utilization of remaining forest resources.
2.6. Importance of conserving forests

 Soil and water conservation: Forests and trees help reduce the speed at which water runs off the
surface, preventing flash floods and soil erosion. They also promote gradual runoff, which helps
protect against drought.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration and mitigating global warming: Forests, forest soils, and
trees absorb a significant amount of CO2, helping to mitigate global warming.
 Habitat for wildlife and biodiversity conservation: Forests provide habitats for a diverse range of
wildlife, including rare plants, birds, and insects. They are important storehouses of biological
diversity and support native and endemic fauna and flora, which are valuable genetic resources.
 Clean water: Forests, such as mangroves, act as natural sponges, absorbing rainwater through tree
root channels and slowly filtering and releasing it into streams, rivers, and reservoirs.
 Pure air: Forests and trees release large amounts of oxygen, maintaining a balanced air composition.
They also help cleanse the air by intercepting airborne particles and pollutants. Protecting reservoirs,
rivers, and coastal lagoons from sedimentation: By preventing soil erosion, forests help protect
important water bodies from becoming filled with sediment.
 Medicinal plants: Forests are home to many medicinal plants used in traditional medicine. They
also hold the potential for discovering new drugs to treat modern ailments.
 Ecotourism: Ecotourism is a growing sector in the tourism industry, offering employment and
revenue opportunities. Forests provide unique attractions for tourists interested in nature and
conservation.
 Leisure and recreation: Forests offer various opportunities for leisure and recreational activities
for both local populations and tourists.
 Meditation and spiritual sites: Forests provide peaceful environments for meditation and spiritual
practices. Examples include places like Grand Bassin Lake, surrounded by beautiful forests, which
attract pilgrims during festivals and serve as tourist attractions (Source: (Pawar & Rothkar, 2015)).

13
2.7.The Role of Forest Biodiversity Conservation

According to Worku, 2017, conserving biodiversity is currently a top priority for the global
community, receiving increasing attention in research and decision-making processes. The loss of
biodiversity has significant impacts on the lives of both present and future generations, making the
conservation of biodiversity essential. Biodiversity provides direct and indirect benefits to humans,
such as food, material goods, environmental regulation, reduced carbon emissions, and mitigation of
climate change. The primary goal of biodiversity conservation is to utilize resources sustainably.
Tourism is considered an option for sustainable economic development using biological resources,
contributing to sustainable socio-economic development, cultural preservation, and environmental
conservation. There is a close connection between tourism and biodiversity in terms of impacts and
interdependency, with various types of tourism directly relying on ecosystem services and biodiversity,
including ecotourism, agri-tourism, wellness tourism, and adventure tourism. Nowadays, tourism
serves as a powerful tool for providing economic and social benefits to local communities and
encouraging their support for conservation efforts. As a result, local communities are increasingly
backing protected area management systems, playing a crucial role in global biodiversity conservation.
2.8. Major Vegetation Types of Ethiopia

According to Asefa et al., 2020, Ethiopia is a land of geographical contrasts with elevations that range
from 125 m below sea level in the Danakil Depression to 4533 m above sea level in the Semien
Mountains, a world heritage site. The diverse climate of various ecological regions of the country has
driven the establishment of diverse vegetation, which ranges from Afroalpine vegetation in the
mountains to the arid and semi-arid vegetation type in the lowlands. The formation of Ethiopian
vegetation is highly connected to the climate and geological history of the country. The authors also
mention, four research studies have categorized the vegetation in Ethiopia into various types and sought
to group it based on the country's topography. Afroalpine and sub-afroalpine vegetation are widespread
in Ethiopia, unlike in other African ecosystems (IBC, 2005). These specific types of vegetation have
been designated as national protected areas due to the presence of numerous endemic plant and animal
species. They are predominantly found in the highlands at elevations ranging from 3200 to 4533 m.a.s.l.
The various vegetation types in Ethiopia are dependent on factors like topographic features (i.e.,
altitudinal variation and aspect), climate (i.e., mainly precipitation and temperature), geology, and soil

14
types The ecosystem types of the country were grouped into various types, however, this work depends
on the recent 12 major vegetation classification types that have further subdivided into (Mengist, 2020).
2.8.1. Desert and Semi-desert Scrubland Vegetation

This vegetation is common in areas having an elevation below 400masl. It is found in the northwestern
and northeastern, southern, southeastern, and eastern (Somali) parts of Ethiopia. The northern Afar and
northeastern Tigray are predominantly desert areas. The vegetation types are composed of small trees,
shrubs, and herbs, which may be succulent, geophytic, or annual and they are drought-tolerant species.
Floristically this vegetation type is not well-defined and has very scarce plant cover. This ecosystem
ranges from areas devoid of vegetation for example, the Danakil depression to areas moderately
vegetated with shrubs with a rare number of trees, bush/shrub-steppe, grass steppe, and a variety of
annual plants and succulents. The common trees and shrubs species are Acacia ehrenbergiana,
Boswellia ogadensis, Commiphora erosa, C. longipedicellata, Gyrocarpus hababensis, Kissenia
arabica, Ochradenus baccatus, Diceratella revoilii, Cadaba barbigera, C. divaricata, and Ziziphus hamur
(Mengist, 2020).
2.8.2.Acacia-Commiphora Woodland and Bush-land Vegetation

This vegetation type is common in dry lowland areas. It covers a larger area and has complex and many
vegetation types. This ecosystem is found within an altitudinal range of 900 and 1,900 m.a.s.l, the
vegetation type can stretch up to 400 m.a.s.l. It covers part of the southern and eastern lowlands and the
rift valley areas of Ethiopia (EBI, 2015). As a result of its diverse vegetation and location, the vegetation
is divided into two subtypes: those vegetation located in the rift valley areas as one group and the other
found in lowlands of eastern and southern Ethiopia as another category. The second subtype covers large
areas and constitutes varied vegetation types. This vegetation type has a total of 565 species, subspecies,
and varieties of vegetation, and 286 of them are exclusively found in this ecosystem. However, the rest
species are shared with other ecosystems such as desert and semi-desert scrublands, dry evergreen
Afromontane forest and grasslands, Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland, riverine
vegetation, salt-water lakes, salt-lake shores, marsh, and pan vegetation (Mengist, 2020).
2.8.3. Wooded Grassland of the Western Gambella Region

It is characterized by a tall grass layer and tree canopy that resist fire burning and temporary flooding.
In terms of species diversity, the Eco region has less diversity. The total number of species recorded is
about seven varieties of which only one species exclusively exists in the site. All the rest verities are

15
also recorded and exist with the nearby Eco region. The authors suspected that the low number of
species varieties may be due to a lack of detailed study because most types of species that are known
in the area are herbaceous flora, particularly grass species (Mengist, 2020).
2.8.4.Combretum-Terminalia Woodland and Wooded Grassland

This ecosystem constitutes species from the genera of Combretum and Terminalia (Combretaceae) and
woody species from Fabaceae of Lonchocarpus laxiforus, Pterocarpus lucens, Dalbergia melanoxylon,
and Piliostigma thonningii for example, but no from Acacia species. Acacia species are observed in
areas that have vertisols. They are usually located in humid lowland areas or river valleys of the country.
The understory is a mixture of herbs and grasses and the vegetation is characterized by small to
moderate-sized trees and they are large of deciduous leaves. Many grass species are well developed
and many of them Hyparrhenia, Panicum and Pennisetum genera are tall grass. However, during the
dry season, the grasses are burnt to sprout new grasses. This ecosystem has a total of 199 species,
subspecies, and varieties of woody plants, of which 81 of them are recorded only in Combretum-
Terminalia woodland, and wooded grassland ecosystems. Floristically, it is relatively diverse with a
high amount of unique subspecies, species, and varieties. The rest 118 species, subspecies, and varieties
are shared with other ecosystem groups and the highest amount is shared with Dry evergreen
Afromontane forest and grassland complex (74 species).
2.8.5. Dry Evergreen Afromontane Forest and Grassland Complex

One of the complex vegetation types in Ethiopia constitutes grasslands, shrubs, various-sized trees, and
a closed canopy forest composed of various strata. However, the agricultural practices in Ethiopia
seriously affected this ecosystem mainly in the northern part of the country and most of the bush-lands
area now were part of this group. Similarly, the southwestern forest and grassland complex are also
affected by human activities such as clearing the forest for coffee and tea plantations, expansion of
subsistence farming, and resettlement program expansion in the area reducing the forest coverage of
the area. The total plant variety recorded is 460 species and of these 128 have only been recorded from
this vegetation type. The rest is shared with adjacent and non-adjacent vegetation types.
2.8.6. Moist Evergreen Afromontane Forest

It is characterized by the existence of strata of the highest rich up to 40 meters long and evergreen trees.
Before the 2010 vegetation classification in Ethiopia, this vegetation constitutes two subtypes: the
Afromontane rainforest and the transitional rainforest. The moist evergreen Afromontane forest is

16
found in the southwestern highlands between an elevation of (1500- ) -1800 and 2600 (-3000) meters
and an annual rainfall of 700-2000 millimeters and above. Annual rainfall of 700-2000 millimeters and
above. It also comprises the Harenna forest on the southern slopes of the Bale Mountains and a patch
of forest in Wembera and around Wendo Genet. The dominant tree species are Podocarpus falcatus,
Pouteria (Aningerid) adolffriederid and the mountain bamboo - Arundinaria alpina and many other
medium-sized trees are common. It is an important source of timber and non-forest timber products.
The total number of woody plant species recorded in this vegetation type is 135. However, only 18 of
them are recorded, but the rest 117 species are shared with the rest vegetation groups.
2.8.7.Transitional Rainforest

This vegetation type was recognized as independent vegetation in the 1970s by Chaffey and it was
named “Lowland broadleaved forest”. However, it was merged under the moist Afromontane forest
when the vegetation types of Ethiopia were grouped into nine types. Later when the vegetation types
of Ethiopia were categorized into twelve types, the transitional rainforest stood as an independent
vegetation type. This vegetation has 101 species types and varieties and 47 of them are recorded only
in this vegetation type. The rest species were commonly recorded from the moist evergreen
Afromontane forest (36 species), riverine vegetation (30 species), with dry evergreen Afromontane
forest and grassland complex (15 species), three species are in common with Combretum-Terminalia
woodland and wooded grassland. Floristically, the Transitional rainforest constitutes more amount of
unique plant species than the moist evergreen Afromontane forest, which is the second next to Acacia-
Commiphora woodland and bush-land.
2.8.8. Ericaceous Belt

An Ericaceous belt is developed on all high mountains of eastern Africa. The ericaceous belt is found
in most mountainous areas of Ethiopia. Although the altitude range varies from one mountain to
another, mostly the ericaceous species exist between 3000 and 3200 meters. This vegetation type is
found in between the montane forest and the alpine vegetation. A total of 56 species, subspecies, and
varieties of woody plants have been recorded in this vegetation type and none of them are exclusively
found in the Ericaceous belt. All the species types are also commonly found in Dry evergreen
Afromontane forests and grassland complexes, 21 types in the Afro-alpine belt; seven species types
are found in moist evergreen Afromontane forest; three have been recorded from both this vegetation
type and Combretum- Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland. Therefore, the Ericaceous belt has

17
a low diversity, with no unique woody species, subspecies, and varieties, and all of them are shared
with the adjacent vegetation types.
2.8.9. Afroalpine Belt

This vegetation type is found next to an ericaceous belt towards the peak of gigantic mountains and
comprises the Ethiopian massifs which have been dominated by mountain grasslands and scattered
shrubs such as Helichrysum and Alchemilla species with scatter stands of the endemic giant lobelia
(Lobelia rhynchopetalum). The belt is characterized by five distinct life forms: “giant rosette plants,
tussock grasses (and sedges), acaulescent rosette plants, cushion plants, and sclerophyllous shrubs
(and dwarf- shrubs)”. Immediately after the Ericaceous belt, small-sized trees, and shrubby herbs are
abundant. Moving far to the upper part of the mountains, the vegetation is dominated by giant herbs,
small herbs, and grasses. It is commonly found in areas above 3200 meters, however, it is not common
in all mountainous areas with elevation above. The number of species is too small, which is 22 types
of which only single species are recorded, but the rest is shared with other vegetation types. For
instance, 21 species are also recorded from the Ericaceous belt, and 20 types are found commonly
with Dry evergreen Afromontane forests and grassland complexes. The most common vegetation
types are giant Lobelias, Helichrysum, Alchemilla, Festuca, Poa, Deschampsia, etc. grass types which
are common in the temperate region.
2.8.10. Riverine vegetation

This vegetation is commonly found on riversides. Ethiopia has a large number of rivers and tributaries.
All the rivers and their tributaries have riverine forests in areas below approximately 1800 meters
altitude. The vegetation constitutes tall trees and riparian woodlands. The total number of vegetation
types recorded in this group is 242 varieties and 64 of them are only available in riverine vegetation.
A large number of vegetation types, 102 vegetation types, are shared with dry evergreen Afromontane
forest and grassland complex, 56 species are commonly shared with Moist Afromontane forest, 32
species types with Acacia-Commiphora woodland and bush-land, 30 with Transitional rainforest, 13
with Combretum-Terminalia woodland and wooded grassland, 10 with desert and semi- desert
vegetation, and three vegetation types with Ericaceous belt. Floristically, it is moderately diverse, but
with a relatively low number of unique woody species.

18
 2.9. Other relevant concepts
2.9.1. Species diversity

According to A. Worku, 2006, a biological community has an attribute that we call species diversity
and many different ways have been suggested for measuring it. Recent interest in conservation has
generated a strong focus on how to measure species diversity in both plants and animals using different
diversity indices. Biodiversity has a broad meaning than species diversity as it includes genetic,
species, ecosystem and cultural diversity. However, species diversity is still a large part of the focus
of biodiversity at local and regional scale. The idea of diversity involved two distinct components:
species richness and evenness.
Two statistical distributions have been fitted to species-abundance data: the logarithmic series and the
lognormal distribution and they recognized two categories diversity indices i.e. Type I and II indices.
Type I indices are most sensitive to change in the rare species in the community sample. The Shannon-
Wiener index is example of type I index. Type II indices are most sensitive to changes in more
abundant species. Simpson index is an example of type II index. However, in most community works
both data type I & II are obtained. In the present study Shannon-Wiener index was adopted. This is
because, Shannon-Wiener function stands the most popular measure of species diversity, which
combines species richness and evenness, yet not, affected by sample size. Based on this relationship,
two types of data can be collected: the number of species and the number of individuals in each plot.
Information content is a measure of the amount of uncertainty so that the larger the value of 𝐻′ the
greater the uncertainty. The Shannon-Wiener measure 𝐻′, increase with the number of species in the
community. The values of H’ is between 1.5 and 3.5 and it does rarely exceed 5.0 in practice (A.
Worku, 2006).
2.9.2. Evenness

Since heterogeneity/diversity contains two separate ideas-such as species richness and evenness, then
ecologist tried to measure the evenness component separately. On the other hand expressed this concept
as equitability. Its base is on the fact that most communities of plant and animals contain a few dominant
species and many species that are relatively uncommon. Evenness measure attempts to quantify this
unique representation against a hypothetical community in which all species are equally common such
that all species have equal abundances in the community, and hence, evenness is maximal (A. Worku,
2006).

19
 2.9.3. Population structure

According to A. Worku, 2006, population structure is the numerical distribution of individuals of

differing size or age within a population of a given species at a given moment of time. It can also be
defined as the distribution of individuals of each species within a population in arbitrarily defined
diameter height classes. Population structure data have long been used by foresters and ecologists to
investigate the regeneration profile of a species of a given population in the study quadrats/plot.

The author also mentions, in a broad sense, that computing the population structure of a given
population can tell us two sets of information. First, the distribution of plants among age, or size class
categories which again tell us something about the history and the future of the population and second
information provided by age/size distribution is the immediate means of identifying the poorly
represented stages of life history of a given population.

20
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Description of the study area

The study was carried out in Gorogocha Natural Forest located in Baka Dawula Aari District; South
Ethiopia Region this natural forest is very close to Jinka town. Baka Dawula Aari District is located
in the South Ethiopia Region and covers about 35,000 hectares. It lies between latitudes 50 46′N and
50 54′N, and longitudes 360 27′E and 360 40′E. The BDAD is located 583km by Gofa far away from
Addis Ababa and 392 km away from Hawassa. The altitude ranges from 800 to 3000 m.a.s.l. Baka
Dawula Ari Woreda is bordered on the South, by Bena Tsemay Woreda, on the west by Salamago
Woreda, and north by South Ari Woreda east by Malle Woreda. (Source: According to the health
office of Baka Dawula Ari District in 2020).
According to the 2021 Baka Dawula Ari Woreda Wash Sdg Master Plan, administratively, the District
is divided into eleven (11) rural and one (1) urban kebeles. The population number is 82,997 (78,900
rural and 4,097 urban, respectively). Climatically the area is characterized by bimodal rainfall with
the main rainy season occurring from early August through November and the short rain from late
March through May. The mean annual rainfall is 1342.03mm and the mean annual temperature is
21.960C.
The Gorogocha Natural Forest is located in the Baka Dawula Ari District, South Ethiopia Region,
and serves as the study area for this research. GNF is a protected, area in BDAD, known for its rich
biodiversity and unique ecosystem. The forest is home to a variety of woody plants many of which
are shrubs and trees. Studying Gorogocha Natural Forest can offer important insights into how species
and ecosystems are interconnected, underscoring the importance of preserving our natural
environments for the benefit of future generations.

21
Figure 3: Map of the study area

22
(A) (B)
Figure 4: Map of study area (A) and Gorogocha Natural Forest (B) photo @ Yaykob Sapena

The study area covers 189.18 hectares and features a range of topographical characteristics. This
region is a significant forested zone that holds considerable socio-economic and ecological
importance, offering benefits to the community through its rich biodiversity. GNF is a protected area
within BDAD, known for its varied biological resources and unique ecosystem. The forest is home to
a wide array of woody plants, including different shrubs and trees.
3.2.Sampling Design and Data Collection Methods

3.2.1. Sampling Design

A systematic sampling technique was used for this study to collect the vegetation data in the forest.
A total of 10 sample plots, for tree and shrub assessment (main plot size of 20mx20m/or 400m2),
seedling and sapling (two sub-plots 2mx2m/or 4m2), and herbaceous species (three sub-plots of
1mx1m/or 1m2) within each main plot were applied. All plant species in all plots were counted and
recorded. The sampling area of the study was designated based on the nature of the vegetation type.
Socio-economic data were collected from a total of 40 KI from ages 20-65 purposively.

23
 3.2.2. Data collection methods
3.2.2.1.Field Observation

To gather information from a primary source, the researcher conducted field observation in specific
areas of the Gorogocha natural forest, by considering factors such as representative sampling,
ecological diversity, and diversity of woody plant species. Observation helps the researcher to gather
first-hand information about the woody plant species within the forest.
3.2.2.2.Field Surveys

Field surveys entailed direct observation, measurement, and sampling of woody plants, specifically
focusing on the diversity (richness and evenness), ecological importance, and ecological factors
influencing the diversity of woody plant species in the GNF, such as shrubs and trees. This involved
the use of tools such as quadrates, meters, camera traps, GPS devices, and data loggers.
3.2.2.3. Socio-economic survey
To assess the ecological importance and ecological factors that influence the forest, socioeconomic
data was collected from 40 Key Informants from ages 20-65; and were analyzed by SPSS. A close-
ended questionnaire was used. The questionnaire was made using the English language. The key
informants were purposively selected and interviewed; based on issues like, ecological importance,
and ecological factors that influence the forest.
3.3. Sources of Data
For this study, both primary and secondary data were used to investigate the research questions and
objectives. Primary data was gathered through field observation and surveys focusing on botanical
identification, species abundance, ecological importance, and ecological factors influencing the
diversity of woody plant species at the study site. Secondary data was collected from publications,
websites, books, and journal articles to supplement the primary data collection efforts.
3.4. Methods of Data Analysis
The species diversity was determined using the Shannon-Wiener- diversity index (H`). The index
takes the species richness (the number of species in the sample plots) and evenness of species
(abundance distribution among species) into consideration.
 Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H') will be calculated as:
 𝐻 ′ = ∑𝑆𝑖=1 𝑃𝑖𝑙𝑛𝑃𝑖 , Where:
 𝐻 ′ = 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
 𝑃𝑖 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

24
 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑚
 𝑆 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦
 ∑ = 𝑆𝑢𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑚𝑏𝑜𝑙
 Shannon's equitability (Evenness) is calculated by dividing 𝐻 ′ by 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 (𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑠) or
𝐻′ 𝐻′
 Evenness (E) = 𝐻𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑙𝑛𝑠

Dominance is the product of mean basal areas of trees with the total number of trees per species
while relative dominancy is given by the formula:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
 Dominance (D) = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑑
𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 (RD) = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥100

The similarity in woody species composition between different community types is computed by
using the Sorensen coefficient of similarity (𝑆𝑠)index:
2𝑎
 𝑆𝑠 = 2𝑎+𝑏+, where:

𝑆𝑠= Sorensen coefficient of similarity index, a = number of species common to both communities,
b = number of species in Community1, and c = number of species in Community2.
Density: Density is defined as the number of plants of a certain species per unit area.
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (RD) = 𝑥 100
𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Frequency: Frequency is defined as the probability or chance of finding a plant species in a given
sample area or quadrant. It is calculated as:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑎 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑠
 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = 𝑥 100
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠

The frequencies of the Tree and Shrub species in all 10 plots were computed.
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠
 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 100

Plant community types were determined by using Cluster analysis from excel-2010 software
ecological version 5.3 for Windows.
Importance value (IV): it was calculated to find out the relative ecological importance of each
study species in the woodland. IV was calculated as the sum of relative abundance/density (%),
relative dominance (%), and relative frequency (%) of the species following (A. Worku, 2006)
Calculated by using the formula indicated below:
 IVI =Relative density + Relative frequency + Relative dominance

25
  Socio-economic data were collected from a total of 40 KI from ages 20-65 purposively.
3.5.Socio-economic Data Analysis
Socio-economic data were collected from 40 key informants, aged between 20 and 65, who were
chosen purposively. Of these participants, 34 (60%) were male and 16 (40%) were female. The
informants comprised farmers, community elders, and representatives from the Baka Dawula Aari
District Agricultural Office. Data collection was carried out through questionnaires and semi-
structured interviews (See Appendix).

Figure 5: Sex of the respondents

Figure 6: Photograph of a farmer interview

Based on the age distribution of the socio-economic data, a total of 40 key informants aged between
20 and 65 were selected purposively. Among these, 20-40 (20%), 41-50 (25%), 51-60 (30%), and
above 60 (25%) (Appendix).

26
Figure 7: Age of the respondents

3.5. Vegetation of the study area

The vegetation in the study area is primarily classified as moist evergreen montane forest. This
region is a crucial forested zone that serves an important socio-economic and ecological function,
providing substantial benefits to the community through its diverse biodiversity. The Gorogocha
Natural Forest (GNF), a protected area within the Baka Dawula Aari District, is notable for its rich
biological resources and distinctive ecosystem. The study identifies common species in the area,
including Indigofera tinctoria, Delonix regia, Annona reticulata, Lagerstroemia speciosa, and
Vachellia sieberiana, which are found in both natural and cultivated environments. Nonetheless,
human activities such as agricultural expansion, overgrazing, urban development, firewood
collection, and tree cutting place considerable pressure on the vegetation in Gorogocha Natural
Forest.

27
 Figure 8: Partial view of Gorogocha Natural forest with some degraded area within it

This study indicates that, according to the socio-economic data from 40 informants, the four main
ecological benefits of woody plant species in the area are their role in preserving biodiversity
(particularly for birds), their varied ecological contributions through different species (Fig), and their
importance in providing habitats that maintain a balanced ecosystem. Additionally, these plants have
medicinal properties, making them valuable to local communities and traditional healing practices.
Their extensive root systems are crucial for preventing soil erosion, thereby stabilizing the soil and
maintaining land integrity. However, 4 elder respondents (15%) noted that although there was once

28
a significant amount of forest vegetation, it has frequently been cleared due to human activities such
as deforestation for agricultural expansion and settlement.

Figure 9: Ecological importance of woody plant species

The research findings reveal that forests are significantly impacted by four key ecological factors:
invasive species, population growth, and agricultural practices. The invasive species (Lantana
camara) is particularly problematic, as it disrupts local ecosystems by outcompeting native plants
and animals, leading to reduced biodiversity and altered habitat dynamics. Logging and urban
development further degrade forest health and the ecosystem services they provide. Moreover,
intensive farming practices can harm adjacent ecosystems, while increasing human populations
elevate the demand for land and resources.

29
Figure 10: Ecological factors affecting woody plant species

Figure 11: Field observation view of Lantana camara (an invasive species)

30
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1. Species diversity of the Forest

A total of 32 woody plant species, representing 31 genera and 21 families, were identified across 10
sample plots within the study area (see Appendix). The families Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, and Salicaceae
were the most dominant, contributing 58.1%, 6.5%, and 6.5% of the species, respectively. Each of the
remaining 18 families, which accounted for 3.24% each, was represented by only one species and one
genus (Table). While this study concentrated on the diversity of woody species, further research is
necessary in ethno-botanical studies to draw conclusions about regeneration status and floristic
composition.

Table 1: The names of the families and the number of species they include, along with their
percentage contribution.

No Family Name Number of species %

Febaceae 58.1
1 8
Lamiaceae 6.5
2 2
Saliceceae 6.5
4 2
Moraceae 6.5
5 2
Sapindaceae 3.24
6 1
Lythraceae 3.24
7 1
Combreteceae 3.24
8 1
Boraginaceae 3.24
9 1
Asteraceae 3.24
10 1
Acanthaceae 3.24
11 1
Adoxaceae 3.24
12 1
Malyaceae 3.24
13 1
Proteaceae 3.24
14 1
Annonaceae 3.24
15 1

31
 Apocynaceae 3.24
16 1
Verbanaceae 3.24
17 1
Rubiaceae 3.24
18 1
Phyllanthaceae 3.24
19 1
Olaceae 3.24
20 1
Malvaceae 3.24
21 1
Anacardiaceae 1 3.24
22

Shannon Wiener Index Diversity

(H') Number of the species
35
30
25
20
15
Shannon Wiener Index
10
Diversity (H') Number of the
5 species
0

Figure 12: Shannon Wiener Index Diversity (H)/shows dominance of families

The dominance and abundance of a forest using the Shannon-Wiener Index (H') and Simpson's Index,
was interpreted below, these indices as follows:
1. Shannon-Wiener Index (H')

The Shannon-Wiener Index (H') is a measure of species diversity that accounts for both abundance and
evenness of species present. The formula is:

H′=−∑ (pi⋅lnpi)

Where Pi is the proportion of individuals found in the ith species.

32
  Value Interpretation:
 A higher H' value indicates greater diversity, implying a more even distribution of species and
greater species richness.
 A lower H' value suggests lower diversity, possibly dominated by a few species.

With an H' value of 2.8, the forest exhibits a relatively high level of diversity. Although the exact
interpretation can depend on the specific context and the maximum possible H' value (which depends
on the number of species), an H' value of 2.8 typically indicates a well-distributed community with
multiple species contributing fairly evenly to the ecosystem.

2. Simpson's Index (D)

Simpson's Index is another measure of diversity, focusing more on the dominance aspect. It has
different formulations, but one common version is:
D=1−∑ (Pi2)
Where pi is the proportion of individuals found in the i-th species.
 Value Interpretation:

The value ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 indicates no diversity (or complete dominance by one species)
and 1 indicates infinite diversity.
A higher value indicates greater diversity and less dominance by a single species.

 With a Simpson's Index value of 0.933, the forest also shows high diversity, with low dominance
by any single species. This value suggests that most species have a significant representation in the
forest, and no single species is overwhelmingly dominant.
 Combined Interpretation:
The combination of a Shannon-Wiener Index of 2.8 and a Simpson's Index of 0.933 suggests that
the forest ecosystem is quite diverse, with a healthy distribution of species. The high values for both
indices indicate that the species present are not only numerous but also fairly evenly distributed,
with no single species dominating the ecosystem. In summary, this forest is characterized by high
biodiversity, with a rich variety of species that are fairly evenly distributed, indicating a balanced
and stable ecosystem.
 The Importance Value Index:

33
The Importance Value Index (IVI) is a measure used in ecology to determine the relative importance
of a species in a given area. It combines three components: relative density, relative frequency, and
relative dominance. The formula for calculating IVI is:
IVI=Relative Density + Relative Frequency+ Relative Dominance
The values: relative Dominance (RD): 0.57, relative Frequency (RF): 0.26, and relative Density
(RDe): 0.02.
IVI=0.57 + 0.26 + 0.02, IVI=0.85
An IVI of 0.85 suggests that the species being analyzed is relatively important within the Gorogocha
Natural Forest, although the importance could vary depending on the context and ecosystem. Here's
a breakdown of the components:
1. Relative Dominance (0.57): This high value indicates that the species has a significant presence
in terms of biomass or basal area compared to other species. It may be a large, mature species
that contributes substantially to the forest's structure.
2. Relative Frequency (0.26): This moderate value suggests that the species is relatively common
in the area. It may not be the most widespread species, but it has a noticeable presence.
3. Relative Density (0.02): The low relative density indicates that the number of individuals of
this species is relatively low compared to others. This could mean that while the species is
present and possibly dominant in terms of size, it is not as abundant in number.

34
5. Conclusion and Recommendations
5.1. Conclusions:

Based the outcomes, the forest ecosystem shows a significant level of biodiversity, as evidenced
by a Shannon-Wiener Index of 2.8 and a Simpson's Index of 0.933. These values indicate a diverse
range of species that are not only abundant but also well-distributed, signifying a stable and
balanced ecosystem. The lack of dominance by any single species further emphasizes the
ecosystem's health and resilience. The species analyzed, with an Importance Value Index (IVI) of
0.85, plays an important ecological role due to its high dominance and moderate frequency, despite
its low abundance. These findings highlight the need for ongoing conservation efforts to maintain
the ecosystem's stability and protect its valuable biodiversity.

5.2. Recommendations:

Involving local communities is essential for conservation and forest management to mitigate
the loss of the forest and its resources. To minimize human impact on the Gorogocha Natural
Forest and ensure sustainable management in the future, the following recommendations are
proposed:

1. Monitor Key Species Populations: Regularly monitor the populations of ecologically

important species, particularly those with high dominance and moderate frequency but low
abundance, to ensure their stability and address any potential threats.
2. Implement Comprehensive Conservation Strategies: To preserve the forest's
biodiversity and ecological balance, prioritize conservation efforts that protect a wide range
of species, especially those with significant ecological roles as indicated by high IVI
values.
3. Promote Habitat Protection: Focus on protecting and restoring natural habitats to support
the diverse species composition and prevent habitat degradation, which could disrupt the
ecosystem's balance.
4. Support Research and Monitoring: Invest in ongoing research and monitoring programs
to track changes in biodiversity indices and ecological dynamics, enabling adaptive
management strategies in response to environmental changes.

35
5. Enhance Community Involvement and Education: Engage local communities in
conservation efforts and raise awareness about the importance of biodiversity, fostering a
sense of stewardship and encouraging sustainable practices.
6. Invasive Species Management: Develop and enforce strategies to prevent the introduction
and spread of invasive species, which could disrupt the balanced ecosystem and threaten
native species diversity.

36
References:

Asefa, M., Cao, M., He, Y., Mekonnen, E., Song, X., & Yang, J. (2020). Ethiopian vegetation
types, climate and topography. Plant Diversity, 42(4), 302–311.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pld.2020.04.004
Mebrat, W., & Gashaw, T. (2013). Threats of Woody Plant Species Diversity and Their
Conservation Techniques in Ethiopia. Plant Science and Phytology, 1(3), 10–17.
www.eajournals.org
Mengesha, T., Edosa, M., Firdu, G., & Shiferaw, M. (2020). Trees , Forests and Profits in
Ethiopia : An Assessment of Tree-Based Landscape Restoration Investment Opportunities in.
Environment, Forest and Climate Change Commission, July, 24.
Mengist, W. (2020). An Overview of the Major Vegetation Classification in Africa and the New
An Overview of the Major Vegetation Classification in Africa and the New Vegetation
Classification in Ethiopia. January. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajz.20190204.12
Mohammed, A., Bahmud, S., & Abdulahi, A. (2023). The Status of Forest Development in
Ethiopia: Challenges and Opportunities: A Review Paper. International Journal of Novel
Research in Interdisciplinary Studies, 10(6), 7–19. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10409611
Oljirra, A. (2019). The causes, consequences and remedies of deforestation in Ethiopia. Journal
of Degraded and Mining Lands Management, 6(3), 1747–1754.
https://doi.org/10.15243/jdmlm.2019.063.1747
Pawar, K. V., & Rothkar, R. V. (2015). Forest Conservation & Environmental Awareness.
Procedia Earth and Planetary Science, 11, 212–215.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeps.2015.06.027
Setiamy, A. A., & Deliani, E. (2019). No 主観的健康感を中心とした在宅高齢者における 健
康関連指標に関する共分散構造分析Title. 2, 5–10.
Worku, A. (2006). Population Status and Socio-economic Importance of Gum and Resin Bearing
Species in Borana Lowlands, southern Ethiopia. A Thesis Submited To The School Of
Graduate Studies, Addis Ababa University, Department of Biology, 102.
http://etd.aau.edu.et/bitstream/123456789/26/1/Adefires Worku.pdf
Worku, M. (2017). The Role of Forest Biodiversity Conservation Practices for Tourism
Development in a Case of Tara Gedam Monastery, South Gonder Zone, Ethiopia. Journal of
Ecosystem & Ecography, 07(02). https://doi.org/10.4172/2157-7625.1000231

37
Appendix 1:
A catalog of plant species found in Gorogocha Natural Forest, including their scientific names,
family classifications, growth forms, vernacular names (referred to locally as Aarigna), and
categorized by habit as follows: T = Tree, Sh = Shrub, Vern. Name = Vernacular name in Aarigna:
Scientific Name Family Name Habit Vern. Name/Local Name
Ocimum gratissimum Lamiaceae Sh Xuxul7aa
Dovyalis abyssinica Saliceceae T/Sh Chigandda
Vachellia xanthophloea Febaceae T Enaro/Gugufirre
Latana Camara Verbenaceae Sh Lolla
Urena lobata Malvaceae T Kanakassile
Bridelia micrantha Phyllanthaceae T Gembella
Fraxinus pennsylvanica Olaceae T Lalasi
Indigofera tinctoria Febaceae T/Sh Dangarassa halkko
Hamelia patens Rubiaceae T Zo7oo matta
Sena alata Febaceae T/Sh Dangrassa mith
Dovyalis caffra Selicaceae T Burtutukke
Vangueria madagascariensis Rubiaceae T Chigandda
Vachellia sieberiana Febaceae T Zage
Delonix regia Febaceae T Zage
Albizia lebbeck Febaceae T/Sh Sankarra
Dodonaea viscosa Sapindaceae Sh Pishitto
Albizi julibrissin Febaceae T Laade
Carissa spinarum Apocynaceae Sh Zayiitonni
Annona reticulata Annonaceae T Lallo
Protea susannae Proteaceae T Lolla
Triumfetta rhomboidea Malvaceae Sh Oha
Acanthus eminens Acanthaceae St Etriwanjii
Lagerstroemia speciosa Lythraceae T Bobba
Terminalia argentea Combreteceae T Gasarre
Ficus recemosa Moraceae T Gelashogembella
Vitex agnus-castus Lamiaceae Sh/T Sobbo
Cordia superba Boraginaceae T Gara
Pluchea carolinesis Asteraceae Sh/T Buzo
Ficus cerica Moraceae T Gasare
Searsia chirindensis Anacardiaceae T Walasse
Laburnum anagyroides Febaceae T Atare Mith
Sambucus nigra Adoxaceae T/Sh Yello

38
Appendix 2:
List of plant species collected in Gorogocha Natural forest with density and frequency and their
percentage
Species Density Frequency Density % Frequency %
Ocimum gratissimum 0.02 0.26 0.005 0.025
Dovyalis abyssinica 0.5 0.06 0.25 0.5
Vachellia xanthophloea 0.5 0.06 0.25 1.5
Latana Camara 0.5 0.06 0.25 0.025
Urena lobata 0.25 0.032 0.25 3.2
Bridelia micrantha 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Fraxinus pennsylvanica 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Indigofera tinctoria 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Hamelia patens 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Sena alata 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Dovyalis caffra 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Vangueria adagascariensis 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Vachellia sieberiana 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Delonix regia 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Albizia lebbeck 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Dodonaea viscosa 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Albizi julibrissin 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Carissa spinarum 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Annona reticulata 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Protea susannae 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Triumfetta rhomboidea 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Acanthus eminens 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Lagerstroemia speciosa 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Terminalia argentea 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Ficus recemosa 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Vitex agnus-castus 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Cordia superba 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Pluchea carolinesis 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Ficus cerica 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Searsia chirindensis 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Laburnum anagyroides 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Sambucus nigra 0.25 0.032 0.02 3.2
Total 8.52 1.336 1.34 89.6
Total/ha 22.2 141.54 141.12 2.11

39
Appendix 3:
List of questionnaire prepared for socio economic and conservation status survey of Gorogocha
Natural forest:
Questionnaire:
1st. Background characteristics of the Respondents
The background features of the respondents including sex, age, educational status, and Work
experience:
1. Sex of the respondents: a) Male b) Female
2. Age of the respondents: a) 20-40 b) 41-50 c) 51-60 d) above 60
3. Educational status of the respondents
a) Diploma
b) Degree
c) Master's degree
4. Work experience of the respondents
a) 1-5
b) 6-11
c) Above 12
2nd. General Research Questionnaire
1=Strongly Disagree 2=Disagree 3=Neutral 4=Agree 5=strongly agree

Questions Regarding the Ecological Importance & Ecological Factor That Influences the Forest.

Do You Agree For The Following Issues (Ecological Importance And Ecological Factor?).

No 1 2 3 4 5

Ecological Importance of Woody Plant Species

1 Woody plant species help prevent soil erosion in the study district.
2 Woody plant species are important for carbon sequestration in the study
district
3 Woody plant species contribute to water retention in the study district
4 Woody plant species are crucial for maintaining biodiversity in the study
district.
5 Woody plant species have medicinal uses in the study district.
6 Woody plant species are economically beneficial to the local
community in the study district.

40
 7 Woody plant species play a role in climate regulation in the study
district.
Ecological Factors Affecting Woody Plant Species
1 Agricultural practices influence the diversity of woody plant species in
the study area.
2 Climate variability is a key factor affecting the diversity and abundance
of woody plant species in the study area.

3 Topography plays a significant role in shaping the diversity and

composition of woody plant species in the study area.

4 Human activities such as logging and land clearing impact the diversity
and abundance of woody plant species in the study area.

5 The presence of invasive species affects the diversity of native woody

plant species in the study area.

6 Population increment influences the diversity of woody plant species in

the study area.

Appendix 4:
"Human activity within the forest"

41
Appendix 5:
Interview with Farmers

42