2.

Project Scheduling
 It use schedule to plan and subsequently report progress and apply control within the project
environment.
 Activities are finished in correct order and on time.  Project meets quality goals.
 Project is within budget.  People receive info and direction.
2.1.Scheduling Tools and Techniques
 Scheduling = Planning + Time
 It is very important for
 the contractor to know when and how much labor is needed;
 vendors to know when to deliver materials; and
 subcontractors to know when they can do their work.
2.1.1. Bar chart

2.1.2. Network Diagram

A) Network on A-O-A
B) Network on A-O-N

1. Draw the arrow network for the project given in table below using AOA and AON?
Note: IPA-Immediately preceding activity.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

Critical-Path Method (CPM) for AOA Networks

The CPM involves 4 main steps:
 A forward pass to determine activities early-start times;
 A backward pass to determine activities late-finish times;
 Float calculations; and
 Identifying critical activities.
Path, Critical Path and Critical Activities:
 Path:
 A path is a unique set of connected tasks or activities from beginning to end of the network.
 The length of each path is determined by adding the activity times on the path.
 Critical Activities:
 The most significant activities that can govern the completion date of the whole project.
 Activities all of which must finish on time for the whole project to finish on time.
 These are activities which have zero total float.
  For Critical Activity, the earliest start time (EST) is the latest start time (LST) and the earliest finish
time (EFT) is the same as the latest finish time (LFT).
 Activities having some float are not critical, since the available time is excess of the required activity
duration. These activities are termed as Non-Critical Activities.
 Delay in non-critical activity up to the available total float will not delay the project completion.
 Critical Path:
 A path from the start node to the finish node containing only critical tasks is called a critical path.
 The critical path itself represents the set or sequence of predecessor/successor activities which will
take the longest time to complete.
 The duration of the critical path is the sum of the activities' durations along the path. Thus,
Sometimes critical path can be described as the longest path through a network, and hence the
shortest project time.
 Any delays along the critical path would imply that additional time would be required to complete
the project.
 The critical path is the path through the project network in which none of the activities have slack,
that is, the path for which ES=LS and EF=LF for all activities in the path.
 A delay in the critical path delays the project. Similarly, to accelerate the project it is necessary to
reduce the total time required for the activities in the critical path.
Terminology:
Forward and Backward Pass:
 Forward Pass: The process of calculating earliest event time in a forward direction (left to right).
Considering that the project starts at time zero, the earliest occurrence time at each node is found by
going from node to node in the order of increasing node numbers keeping in mind the logical
relationships between the nodes as shown by the connecting arrows.
Earliest event time (TE):
It is the earliest possible occurrence of an event. TE is generally written above the event node.
Earliest start time (EST) and Earliest finished time (EFT)
(i) Earliest start time of an activity (i, j) [EST (i, j)]:
 It is the earliest time when an activity (i, j) commences given that its precedent activities must be
completed first.
 Since the starting point of an activity is the ‘’tail event’’, the earliest start time of an activity is
the TE of the ‘’tail event’’.
Earliest start time of an activity (EST) = TE of the ‘’tail event’’ = TEi
(ii) Earliest finished time of an activity (i, j) [EFT (i, j)]:
 It is the earliest time when an activity can be finished. EFT equal to the earliest start time for the
activity plus the time required to complete the activity.
Earliest finished time of an activity = Earliest start time of an activity + Duration of an activity.
EFT (i, j) = EST (i, j) + D (i, j)
 Backward pass: process of calculating latest event time in a backward direction (right to left).
Latest event time (TL):
It is the latest possible occurrence of an event without delaying the project completion time. TL is
generally written below the event.
 Latest finished time (LFT) and Latest start time (LST) of Activities:
(i) Latest finished time of an activity (I, j) [LFT (I, j)]:
 It is the latest time when an activity may be finished without delaying the completion time of the
project. Since the finishing point of an activity is the ‘’ head event’’ the Latest finished time of
an activity is the same as TL of the head event.
Latest finished time of an activity (LFT) = TL of the head event TLJ
(ii) Latest start time of an activity (I, j) [LST (i, j)]:
 It is the latest time when an activity may be started without delaying the completion time of the
project.
Latest start time of an activity (LST) = Latest finished time of an activity (LFT) – Duration of the
activity
LST (i, j) = LFT (i, j) – D (i, j)

 Forward Pass & Backward Pass

The forward pass determines the early-start times of activities, while the backward pass determines
the late-finish (LF) times.
 Total Float (TF) = Total Slack = LF – EF = LS – ES = LF – ES – d
Float or Slack Time in Activity:
 The slack time for an activity is the time between its earliest and latest start time, or between its
earliest and latest finish time.
 Slack is the amount of time that an activity can be delayed past its earliest start or earliest finish
without delaying the project. The slack time indicates the “flexibility” in starting and completion of
tasks.
 Float indicates the range within which the start and finish time of an activity may vary without
affecting the completion time of the project. The additional time available to complete a non-critical
activity.
Most commonly used floats are: Total float, Free float, Independent float, and Interference Float
Float: There are many activities where the maximum time available to finish the activity is more than
the time required to complete the activity. The difference between the two times is known as float
available for the activity.
There are three types of float:
1. Total float:
 It is the spare time available when all preceding activities occur at earliest possible times & all
succeeding activities occur at latest possible times.
 It is the maximum time by which an activity can be delayed without delaying the completion time
of the project.
Total float (FT) =Latest finished time (LFT) - Earliest finished time (EFT)
= Latest start time (LST) - Earliest start time (EST)
This is calculated as (TF(i,j) = [LST(i,j)]– [EST(i,j)]) or ([LFT(i,j)]– [EFT(i,j)])
Precedence float calculation rules.

NOTES:
A) All activities assumed continuous in duration.
B) The Total Float for all activities is always equal to their Late Finish Time minus their Early Finish
Time.
C) The Free Float calculations shown are for each type of relationship. If an activity has several
following activities, then the Free Float for the activity is the smallest of the Free Float calculations
made for each following activity.
2. Free float(FF):
 It is time available when all preceding activities occur at the earliest possible time & all succeeding
activities also occur at the earliest possible times. With free float available for an activity, a project
manager knows that the float can be used without changes the status of any non-critical activity to
become critical.
 It is the difference b/n EST of the succeeding activity and EFT of the activity under consideration.
 It is also the amount of time by which the start of an activity may be delayed without delaying the
start of a following activity.
 It is the float available for an activity without affecting the total float of the succeeding activity.
 It is based on the assumption that all events occur at their earliest event time.
Free float (FF) = EST of succeeding activity – EFT of the activity under consideration
=TEj - EFT = TEj - (TEi +D)
Free float = Total float - head event slack

Free float (FF) = EST of succeeding activity – EFT of the activity under consideration

Critical activities have TF = 0 and TF >= FF, it follows that the FF of all critical activities is zero.

Activity D EST EFT LST LFT FF TF

A 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
B 10 1 11 1 11 0 0
C 7 1 8 4 11 3 0
D 14 1 15 5 19 4 4
E 8 11 19 11 19 0 0
F 5 8 13 14 19 6 6
G 1 19 20 19 20 0 0
3. Independent Float:
 It may be defined as the amount of time by which the start of an activity can be delayed without
affecting the earliest start time of any successor activity, assuming that preceding activity has
finished at its latest finish time.
Independent Float = free float – tail event slack
 It is the amount of time by which the start of an activity may be delayed without affecting the
preceding or the following activity. It is also the excess of minimum available time over the activity
duration.
 It is based on the assumption that preceding activity finishes as late as possible and succeeding
activity start as early as possible.
Independent Float = Earliest date for succeeding event – Latest date of preceding event – Activity
duration
That is Independent Float= TEj - TLi –D
For network diagram above, the independent float for activity “C” is

4. Interference Float: Interference Float= Total Float – Free Float.

Example, the IF of Activity C is 3 (its TF) minus 0 (its FF). Indeed, it can be seen that each day that C delays its
early start of 1 increases the earliest possible start of Activity F.
This float assumes that the activity ends as late as possible (at its LSD), and all its successors begin as early as
possible, at their ESD. Activity C, the IndF formula can result in a negative number. Since time cannot be negative,
this result simply means that there is no way for this activity to satisfy the conditions assumed for this float.
Identifying Critical Activities
Critical activities are the ones having TF = 0. They form a continuous path of the critical activities that
is the longest in the network (Critical Path).
Example: Consider the following network diagram to identify Critical Path, Earliest start time, earliest
finish time, Latest stars time, Latest finish time, Total float and determine project completion time.
20 16 36 Duration (D) Activity D EST EFT LST LFT TF FF Remark
G A 8 0 8 0 8 0 0 Critical
ESD EF 8 12 20 38 18 54 B 12 8 20 26 38 18 0
Activity B 18 C 18 8 26 8 26 0 0 Critical
LSTF LF 26 18 38 20 6 26 D 4 8 12 46 50 38 14
0 E E 6 20 26 44 50 24 0
44 24 50 F 20 26 46 26 46 0 0 Critical
0 8 8 8 4 12 0 26 4 30 54 6 60 G 16 20 36 38 54 18 18
A D H J H 4 26 30 50 54 24 24
0 0 8 46 38 50 50 24 54 54 0 60 I 8 46 54 46 54 0 0 Critical
0 14 24 0 J 6 54 60 54 60 0 0 Critical
8 18 26 26 20 46 46 8 54
C F I
8 0 26 26 0 46 46 0 54
0 0 0
The critical path is defined as the longest path through the network. Path A-C-F-I-J has Length of 60
weeks
1. Compute the EST, EFT, LST, LFT, TF,FF, and the critical activities.
Activity Duration Predecessor Activity Duration Predecessor
A 6 - F 2 A,D
B 4 - G 10 B
C 8 - H 12 C,E
D 8 B J 8 F
E 6 B K 6 F,G
L 4 H
2. Draw the logic network and perform the CPM calculations for the schedule shown next.

(a) (b) (c)

(d) (e)

(f) (g)
2.1.Precedence Diagram Method (PDM)
 It is to produce a more accurate scheduling network diagram. The PERT and CPM techniques are
essentially limited to “finish-start” relationships (i.e., activity B cannot start until activity A is
completed). PDM was developed subsequent to the PERT/CPM techniques.
 Its function is to permit a more accurate representation of relationships among various activities.
 It is a method of constructing a project schedule network diagram that uses boxes/nodes to represent
activities and connects them with arrows that show the dependencies.
 The Four ways of developing Precedence Diagram Methods (PDM)
These methods are:
 Finish-Start: In this dependency, an activity cannot start before a previous activity has ended. This
is the most commonly used dependency.
 Start-Start: In this dependency, there is a defined relationship between the start of activities.
 Finish-Finish: In this dependency, there is a defined relationship between the end dates of
activities.
 Start-Finish: In this dependency, there is a defined relationship between the start of one activity
and the end date of a successor activity. This dependency is rarely used.

Precedence Diagram Method Dependencies

Steps to Developing a Precedence Diagram
1. Break your Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) into activity levels.
2. List all activities and their sequences in a table.
3. Add relationships and dependencies to each activity in the table.
4. Draw the diagram.
B. AON Critical Path Computation

3. Compute the EST, EFT, LST, LFT, TF,FF, and the critical activities.
2.2.Program Evaluation and Review Technique
2.2.1. Scheduling with Uncertain Durations
Construction works or many projects involve variability in activity durations due to uncertainties
ranging from adverse weather, machinery breakdown, lack of prior experience, material shortage, late
delivery of supplies and etc. which affect the activity progress and schedule.
The Program Evaluation Review Technique, or PERT
 It is one of the most widely used project management tools which cope with uncertain activity
completion times (e.g. for a particular activity the most likely completion time is 4 weeks but it could
be anywhere between 3 weeks and 8 weeks).
 It is based on the assumption that an activity’s duration follows a probability distribution instead of
being a single value or multiple task time estimates (probabilistic nature).
PERT Activity Durations
PERT differs from CPM in that it bases the duration of an activity on three estimates, which are
required to compute the parameters of an activity’s duration distribution:
 pessimistic time (tp) - the time the activity would take if things did not go well (worst case scenario)
 Most likely time (tm) - the consensus best estimate of the activity’s duration it occurs when
execution is done under normal conditions.
 Optimistic time (to) - the time the activity would take if things did go well (best case scenario) or
when execution goes extremely well.
Probability Calculations
Based on the estimates, the average duration time, te, standard deviation, σ, and variance, υ, are
approximated as:

The earliest expected time of completion, TE, is the summation of expected elapsed time for each
activities.

The standard deviation, σte, is computed to calculate the probability to determine the chance of
finishing the project on time.

The earliest expected time of completion, TE, and standard deviation, σte, of an activity form a
probability curve. If σte, is large compared to TE, the variance, υ, is wide where as if σte, is small
compared to its TE, then the estimates are confident that the actual time will not be far from the TE.
To calculate the probability of completing a project by a certain allowable date Ti, requires the use
of probability curve or Z-table, TE, and σte.
The value of Z i.e. number of standard deviation from mean is calculated by:
Where:
Ti = any date chosen (allowable completion date);
TE = critical path earliest expected completion date; and
σte = critical path standard deviation.

Normal Curve Standard Deviation

Example 1: Given the following Project Network with Probabilistic Time Estimates.

Figure 3-18 Project Network with Probabilistic Time Estimates

Calculate or Determine
A. Time expected for each Activity
B. Early& lately start, Finish time of each activity
C. Total Variance the project
D. The project completion period
E. The probability that the project can will complete in 30 weeks
F. The probability that the project can will complete in 22 weeks
Solution
A. Time Expected (Te) = (O+4m+P)/6
For activity 1, Te= (6+4*8+10)/6= 8 and the variance = (P-O) 2 /36 for activity 1 = (10-8)2=0.44

Table 3-2 activity time estimate Table 3-3 activity start, finish & slack times
B. Early& lately start, Finish time of each activity
The early start, early Finish, lately start, lately finish of the actives are determined as the table 3.3
Activity D EST EFT LST LFT TF FF Remark
1 8 0 8 1 9 1
ES D EF 2 6 0 6 0 6 0 Critical
Acti vi ty 3 3 0 3 2 5 2
LS TF LF 8 5 13 13 4 17 4 5 8 13 16 21 8
4 10 5 3 6 9 6 9 0 Critical
16 8 21 9 7 16 21 8 25 6 4 3 7 5 9 2
0 8 8 8 Finish 7 2 3 5 14 16 11
1 9 0 16 8 7 9 16 9 16 0 Critical
1 1 9 16 9 25 9 4 9 13 12 16 3
9 4 13 11 10 4 13 17 21 25 8
0 6 6 9 16 0 25 11 9 16 25 16 25 0 Critical
Start 2 6 3 9 12 3 16
0 0 6 5
6 0 9
0 3 3
3 3 4 7
2 2 5 6
5 2 9

3 2 5
7
14 11 16

C. Total Variance of the project is calculated in table 3.2

D. Completion period/ Critical time of the project

Start-2-5-8-11 and the project completion time is: 6 + 3 + 7 + 9=25 weeks.
E. The probability that the project can will complete in 30 weeks
The probability that project is completed within specified time is calculated using the following
formula:

Where: - µ = tp = project mean time s = project standard deviation

x = proposed project time Z = number of standard deviations x is from mean
From Table below Z score of 1.91 corresponds to a probability of 0.4719. Thus P (30) = 0.4719+0.50=
0.9719
F. The probability that the project is completed within 22 weeks is

From Table Z score of -1.14 corresponds to a probability of 0.3729. Thus P (22) = 0.5000 - 0.3729 =
0.1271
Example 2: A company is launching a new product and has made estimates of the time for the various
activities associated with the launch as follows:
Required:
1. Draw the network diagram.
2. Calculate the expected time and variance of each activity.
3. Find out the expected length of critical path and its standard deviation.
4. Find the probability that the launching will be completed in 29 days.
5. Find the duration, which has 95% probability of completion.

Critical Path B-C-F-G-I

2.3.Line of Balance (LOB) or Linear Scheduling Method
Construction projects vary in size, type, and nature. The efficiency of scheduling methods varies
according to the type of project they serve. In general, bar charts are appropriate for small, simple
projects.
CPM networks are used for medium- to large-scale projects with a large number of small activities.
Some construction projects, such as roads, earthwork, or utility piping, consist of a few activities (usually
in large quantities) that must be completed in the same order or sequence.
 It is a management control process used in construction where the project contains blocks of
repetitive work activities, such as roads, pipelines, tunnels, railways and high-rise buildings.
 It is a management control process for collecting, measuring, and presenting facts relating to time,
cost, and accomplishment –all measured against a specific plan.
LOB assists project management by:
 Comparing a formal objective against actual progress.
 Examining the extent of any deviations from specific plans, in terms of knock-on effects.
 Identifying in advance problematic areas where corrective action may be required.
 Forecasting future performance.
The benefits of using the LOB technique are:
 Optimized resources for a large number of repeated work activities.
 Allows easier cost and time optimization analysis.
 Easy to modify, update and change the schedule.
 Better management of subcontractors and resources.
 Identifies issues in advance.
To do a LOB, the following is needed:
 A contract schedule or objective chart;
 A production plan or lead-time chart for the production process itself;
 Control points cumulative inventories; and
 A program status chart on which to plot LOB and the cumulative quantities of units that have passed
through the control points of the assembly/production process.
 Remember that the shape of the LOB will change over time, especially if the production process has
a beginning and an end. Remember, too, that LOB charts show where the problem is but not
necessarily why the problem exists or what the solution is.
2.3.1. Basic Representation
Line of Balance (LOB) Chart
 An LOB diagram shows the repetitive project work as a single line on a graph.
 It differs from a bar chart which shows a particular activity’s duration, by showing the rate at which
the work has to be undertaken to stay on schedule, as well as the relationship of one trade or process
to the subsequent trade or process. The project timeline is represented along the x-axis of the LOB
diagram. The work areas that define the project are represented along the y-axis.
 In the figure above, it can be seen that Activity A lasts a 10 weeks. The productivity of A, spread
across each of the work areas, is 2 weeks per floor.
 If Activity B has a productivity rate of 1 week per floor, then it can begin work at the end of the second
week.

 As Activity B continues, at the end of the week 4 work can begin on the second floor; at the end of
week 6 work can begin on the third floor, and so on.
 The horizontal red dashed lines represent the breaks in Activity B work, where the workforce is
waiting for Activity A to clear the way for them to continue. In this example, starting Activity B as
soon as possible will result in a lost productivity of 4 weeks.

 The diagram below shows that by delaying the start of Activity B for 4 weeks, the workforce can
continue uninterrupted, and hence are more productive. This enables a better understanding of how
workforces follow one another through activities.
The advantages of LOB include:
 Allowing a clearer understanding of the amount of work taking place at a certain time in a specific
place.
 Resources can be optimized for a large number of repeated work activities.
 As all information is available for each activity, it allows easier cost and time optimization analysis.
 It is relatively easy to modify, update and change the schedule.
 It allows better management of subcontractors and resources.
 It allows problem areas to be identified in advance.

2.3.2. LOB Calculations

The goal of using the Linear scheduling method (LSM) is to achieve a resource-balanced schedule by
determining the proper crew size and number of crews to employ in each repetitive activity.
This is done such that:
1.The units are delivered at the rate that meets a pre-specified deadline
2.The logical CPM network is respected for each unit
3.Crews’ work continuity is maintained.
The analysis also involves determining the start & finish times of all activities in all units and the
crews’ assignments.
Types of Diagrams Used in LOB Scheduling Technique
1.Production Diagram: It shows the relationships between activities for a single unit.
2.Objective Diagram: Used to plot the actual or planned number of units produced vs. time.
3.Progress Diagram: This shows the number of units for which the activity has finished.
The CPM-LOB formulation involves:
 Crew synchronization/ organization
 Calculating resource needs
 Drawing the LOB schedule
Steps Required to Build a Schedule by Using the LOB/LSM
Three simple steps are necessary to build a schedule by using the LOB/LSM:
1.Determine the work activities, we expect only a few activities in LOB/LSM schedules.
2.Estimate activity productivity rates. Such estimation is similar to determining durations. We still
estimate durations, but we are more concerned with production rates.
3.Develop a sequence for the activities, similar to determining logical relationships. All relationships
are start to start (SS) (with lags) with finish to finish (FF). Before applying the LOB/LSM, we must
make sure it is the most suitable method.
How the LSM/LOB Works
 In the LSM, since the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents distance, the slope
represents the ‘‘speed,’’ or rate, of production. When we have two or more activities, the
productivity rate will differ from one to another.
 The horizontal distance between two lines represents the float of the earlier activity. In the
LOB/LSM, we call it the time buffer.
 The vertical distance represents the distance separating the two operations. We call it the distance
buffer.
 Lines are not allowed to intersect because an intersection literally means that the successor has
gotten ahead of the predecessor, which is impossible.
 Figure. The linear Scheduling Method (LSM)
Line of Balance (LOB)/ Linear Scheduling Method (LSM) Example
For example, Consider a carpentry crew installing and taping drywall for a total of10,000 square feet
(SF). The production rate for the crew is 500 SF per day for installation and taping. The painting crew
is directly behind at a production rate of 800 SF per day.
Assume that the painting crew starts on day 2 (1 day after the carpentry crew started), then, at the end
of day 3, the carpentry crew would have finished 500. 3 =1,500 SF, but the painting crew would have
finished 800. 2 = 1,600 SF, which is impossible. There are four solutions for this problem:
1. Speed up the rate of the carpentry crew2. Slow the rate of the painting crew3. Make the painting
crew start later (calculate the time buffer)4. Make the painting crew work in intervals: once they catch
up with the carpentry team, they stop for a period, resume, and so on
Solution 1 would increase the slope of activity A.
Solution 2 would decrease the slope of activity B.
Solution 3 would increase the time buffer. All three solutions aimed at preventing the intersection of
the two lines.
Solution 4 would be represented in an LSM diagram as shown in Figure 11.16. The horizontal lines
(slope=0) represent an interruption or stoppage time (no production). If the productivity of the crew
changes, the slope changes too. Therefore, alternatively, instead of completely halting activity B during
intervals, we can reduce the crew size to slow the rate until there is a safe time buffer (a combination
of solutions 2 and 4).
The time buffer is necessary only if the rate of the successor is faster than the rate of the predecessor.
If the rate of the successor is slower than that of the predecessor, the time buffer can start at zero.
Naturally, the successor (activity B) will finish after the predecessor (activity A). To calculate the time
buffer, we start from the end: Allow activities A and B to finish simultaneously. Then,
Duration A =Duration B + Time buffer or Time buffer = Duration A – Duration B
With multiple activities, you must consider two activities at a time. Starting from the beginning, do the
following:
1.Compare the durations of activities 1 and 2.
 If activity 2 has a shorter duration, determine the time buffer from equation 11.10.
 If activity 2 has a longer duration, there is no need for a time buffer (practically, we need a
minimum buffer because a predecessor and a successor cannot start at exactly the same time).
2.Repeat step 1 for activities 2 and 3 and so on.
CHAPTER 1. RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
3.1.Resource Definition
3.2.Resource Management
Resource leveling (smoothing) Resource scheduling
3.3.Resource Allocation
3.4.Resource Aggregation (Loading)
3.5.Resource Leveling (Smoothing)
3.5.1. Method of Moments for Resource Smoothing
3.5.2. Heuristic Procedure for Resource Smoothing
3.6.Scheduling with Limited Resource
CHAPTER 2. PROJECT TIME-COST TRADE-OFF

4.1.Time-Cost Trade-Off
4.2.Activity Time-Cost Relationship
4.3.Project Time-Cost Relationship
4.4.Shortening Project Duration