DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC EQUIPMENT

UNIT –III
MUSCULAR AND BIOMECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
3.1 RECORDING AND ANALYSIS OF EMG WAVEFORM

Electromyography (EMG) is a technique used to record and analyze the electrical activity
produced by skeletal muscles. It is widely used in clinical diagnostics and research to assess
muscle function, detect abnormalities, and understand neuromuscular physiology.
Hereare some detailed notes on the recording and analysis of EMG waveforms:

1. Basics of EMG

 EMG Signal: The electrical activity of muscles, known as the EMG signal, is generated
by the depolarization of muscle fibers during contraction.
 Motor Unit: A motor unit consists of a single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it
innervates. The action potentials of motor units are the primary sources of EMG signals.

2. Recording EMG Signals

 Electrode Types:
o Surface Electrodes: Placed on the skin over the muscle. Suitable for larger,
superficial muscles.
o Intramuscular Electrodes: Needle or fine wire electrodes inserted into the
muscle. Suitable for deeper or smaller muscles.
 Electrode Placement: Proper placement is critical for accurate recording. Electrodes
should be placed parallel to muscle fibers to maximize signal quality.
 Preparation: Skin should be cleaned to reduce impedance. For intramuscular
electrodes, sterile techniques must be used.
 Amplification: EMG signals are typically weak (microvolts to millivolts) and require
amplification. Differential amplifiers are used to increase the signal strength while
minimizing noise.

3. Components of EMG Signals

 Raw EMG Signal: The unprocessed signal which contains information about muscle
activation and noise.
 Rectified EMG: Converts all negative values of the raw EMG signal to positive,
providing a measure of the signal’s absolute amplitude.
 Filtered EMG: Removes unwanted frequencies (e.g., 60 Hz power line interference)
using low-pass, high-pass, or band-pass filters.
4. Analysis of EMG Signals

 Time-Domain Analysis:
o Root Mean Square (RMS): A measure of the signal’s amplitude, providing an
estimate of muscle contraction intensity.
o Mean Absolute Value (MAV): Similar to RMS, represents the average of the
absolute value of the EMG signal.
o Integrated EMG (iEMG): The area under the rectified EMG curve over time,
indicating the total muscular effort.
 Frequency-Domain Analysis:
o Power Spectral Density (PSD): Analyzes the distribution of signal power
across different frequencies.
o Median Frequency (MF) and Mean Frequency (MNF): Used to assess
muscle fatigue; typically, these frequencies decrease as muscles fatigue.
 Time-Frequency Analysis: Techniques like Short-Time Fourier Transform (STFT)
and Wavelet Transform provide insights into how the frequency content of the EMG
signal changes over time.

5. Clinical and Research Applications

 Diagnostics: EMG is used to diagnose conditions like neuropathies, myopathies, and

neuromuscular junction disorders.
 Rehabilitation: EMG biofeedback is used in physical therapy to help patients regain
muscle control.
 Ergonomics: EMG helps in assessing muscle load during different tasks, aiding in the
design of ergonomic tools and workspaces.
 Sports Science: EMG is used to analyze muscle function and fatigue in athletes,
optimizing training and performance.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF PROCESS OF EMG

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF FORCED ANDELECTROMYOGRAPHY (EMG) SIGNAL

 3.2 FATIGUE CHARACTERISTICS

Fatigue characteristics in a muscular and biomechanical context refer to the way

muscles and the body as a whole respond to prolonged physical activity, leading to a decrease
in performance and efficiency. This concept can be studied and analyzed using various
equipment and methods. Here's a brief overview:

Muscular Fatigue Characteristics

1. Types of Fatigue:
o Central Fatigue: Originates in the central nervous system, leading to reduced
motor neuron activation.
o Peripheral Fatigue: Occurs within the muscle itself, due to factors like the
accumulation of metabolic byproducts (e.g., lactic acid) or depletion of energy
stores.
2. Measurement of Muscular Fatigue:
o Electromyography (EMG): Measures the electrical activity produced by
skeletal muscles to assess muscle activation and fatigue.
o Muscle Biopsies: Analyze muscle tissue samples to study changes in muscle
fibers and metabolic markers.
o Isokinetic Dynamometry: Measures muscle strength and power, providing
data on muscle performance and fatigue.

Biomechanical Fatigue Characteristics

1. Gait Analysis:
o Studies changes in walking patterns, stride length, and symmetry to assess
fatigue's impact on locomotion.
o Equipment: Force plates, motion capture systems, wearable sensors.
2. Kinematic Analysis:
o Involves studying the movement of body segments to detect changes in joint
angles, velocities, and accelerations due to fatigue.
o Equipment: Motion capture systems, inertial measurement units (IMUs).
3. Kinetic Analysis:
o Measures forces and torques acting on the body to understand the mechanical
loads experienced during movement.
o Equipment: Force plates, pressure sensors, load cells.

Common Biomechanical and Muscular Equipment

1. Force Plates: Measure the ground reaction forces generated by the body during
activities like walking, running, and jumping.
2. Motion Capture Systems: Use cameras and markers placed on the body to track
movements in three dimensions.
3. Electromyography (EMG) Devices: Capture the electrical activity of muscles to
analyze muscle activation patterns and fatigue.
 4. Isokinetic Dynamometers: Measure muscle strength and power at constant limb
movement speeds, useful for assessing muscle fatigue and recovery.
5. Wearable Sensors: Include accelerometers, gyroscopes, and IMUs that provide real-
time data on body movements and postures.

Applications

 Sports Performance: Monitoring athlete fatigue to optimize training and prevent

injury.
 Rehabilitation: Assessing patient progress and tailoring rehabilitation programs for
conditions like stroke or musculoskeletal injuries.
 Ergonomics: Designing workplaces and tools to minimize fatigue and improve
productivity and safety.
 Clinical Studies: Understanding the effects of various diseases and conditions on
muscle and biomechanical performance.
3.1 ELECTRICAL MUSCLE STIMULATORS
Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) is a type of electrotherapy stimulates a muscle
contraction using electrical impulses in order strengthen weak muscles, reduce
swelling, relieve pain and help heal wounds.

Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES)uses high intensities that cause excitation of

peripheral nerves to produce a muscle contraction.

The impulses are generated by a device and delivered through electrodes (pads that adhere to
the skin) over the middle of the muscles that require stimulating. The impulses from EMS
mimic the action potential (stimulus required to make the muscle contract) coming from the
central nervous system. This causes the muscles to contract.
USES OF EMS

There are several uses for EMS and NMES which include:

 Pain relief. EMS can be used at low levels to reduce the amount of pain you
experience. This can be done by modulating the amount of pain signals to the brain or
releasing natural pain-killers called endorphins.
 Muscle contraction. EMS can be used at different intensities to stimulate a muscle or
help maintain muscle tone. Examples of this type of therapy include:
o Following a stroke, EMS can be used to maintain some muscle tone in the
shoulder to improve function and reduce pain.
o To treat urinary incontinence, EMS may be used to contract the pelvic floor
muscles.
o Following surgery, EMS can be used to stimulate the muscles in the thigh to
increase strength.

Benefits of EMS include:

 Decreasing pain
 Promote tissue healing
 Increase muscle strength
 Maintaining and regaining muscle activity

Muscle stimulators, also known as Electrical Muscle Stimulators (EMS) or Neuromuscular

Electrical Stimulation (NMES) devices, are tools designed to elicit muscle contractions using
electrical impulses. Here are some key points about them:

1. Purpose: Muscle stimulators are primarily used for muscle rehabilitation, physical
therapy, and enhancing muscle strength and endurance in athletes.
2. Function: They work by delivering electrical impulses to electrodes placed on the skin
over targeted muscle groups. These impulses mimic the action potentials that come
from the central nervous system, causing muscles to contract.
3. Types:
 o TENS (Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation): Primarily used for
pain relief by targeting nerves rather than muscles directly.
Transcutaneous Electrical Nerve Stimulation
(TENS)
Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) uses low-voltage electrical currents to relieve
pain. A TENS unit is a small device that delivers the current at or near your nerves to block or
change your perception of pain. Healthcare providers use TENS to treat a range of conditions,
including osteoarthritis, tendinitis and fibromyalgia.

Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) is a type of pain relief therapy. It uses a low-
voltage electrical current to block pain or change your perception of it. TENS therapy works well
for a lot of people.

A TENS unit is a battery-powered device with electrodes that deliver electrical impulses through
the surface of your skin. A provider places the electrodes at or near trigger points (muscle knots) or
affected nerves.

Many healthcare providers offer TENS therapy in office or hospital settings. They can also give you
a prescription for a TENS unit to use at home. Or you can purchase an over-the-counter (OTC)
TENS unit at your local pharmacy without a prescription.

Regardless of the type of TENS unit you choose, it’s a good idea to talk to your healthcare provider
first. Many of these units have FDA approval, but it’s important to choose the right device for your
needs. Your provider can also give you guidance on how and where to apply the electrodes.

Health conditions treated with TENS

Healthcare providers use transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) to treat a wide range
of acute (short-term) and chronic (long-term) conditions, including:

 Back pain.
 Osteoarthritis.
 Fibromyalgia.
 Tendinitis.
 Bursitis.
 Chronic pelvic pain.
 Diabetes-related neuropathy.
 Peripheral artery disease (PAD).

Healthcare providers have two theories about how TENS works:

1. The electrical current stimulates nerve cells that block the transmission of pain signals. This
changes the way you perceive pain.
2. The electrical current raises the level of endorphins (your body’s natural pain-killing
chemicals), which then trigger your body’s pain-relieving power.

A TENS device is about the size of a small cell phone. It comes with several sets of electrodes,
wires and end pads. Here’s how it works:

 The electrodes connect to the TENS unit at one end and have 2-inch by 2-inch pads at the
other end.
 Each pad has adhesive backing so it’ll stick to your skin.
  You (or your provider) position the pads on your skin along nerve pathways in the affected
area.
 The TENS unit delivers pulses of electrical energy.
 You can adjust the intensity, frequency and duration of the pulses. (The goal is to adjust the
settings until the electrical impulses feel strong but comfortable.)

TENS therapy usually helps ease pain during the treatment. But the level of pain relief following
the session varies from person to person. Some people claim that they feel better for up to 24 hours
after the session. Others say their pain returns as soon as they turn off the TENS unit.

Uses TENS on or near:

 Infected tissues.
 Damaged skin.
 Varicose veins.
 Eyes.
 Mouth.
 Neck (front or side).
 Head.
 Genitals.
 Areas of numbness.
 Areas of your body that have recently received radiation therapy.

Always check with your healthcare provider before using TENS, especially if you have existing
health conditions.

Benefits of transcutaneous electrical stimulation?

Listed below are some notable TENS unit benefits:

 It’s noninvasive.
 You can use it alone or in addition to pain relievers.
 It may reduce medication dosages in some people. (Always talk to your healthcare provider
before changing your medications.)
 TENS units are small and portable.
 The method effectively relieves pain for many people.

Disadvantages of TENS therapy?

Possible TENS side effects include:

 Allergic reaction to adhesives.

 Uncomfortable sensations. (Some people don’t like the prickling, tingling feeling.)
 Burns from the electrodes (rare).

EMS (Electrical Muscle Stimulation):

Specifically targets muscles to improvestrength, endurance, and recovery.

Electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) is a type of electrotherapy stimulates a

muscle contraction using electrical impulses in order strengthen weak muscles, reduce
swelling, relieve pain and help healwounds. Neuromuscular electrical stimulation (NMES) uses
high intensities that cause excitation of peripheral nerves to produce a muscle contraction.
The impulses are generated by a device and delivered through electrodes (pads that adhere to the
skin) over the middle of the muscles that require stimulating. The impulses from EMS mimic the
action potential (stimulus required to make the muscle contract) coming from the central nervous
system. This causes the muscles to contract.

Use EMS
There are several uses for EMS and NMES which include:

 Pain relief. EMS can be used at low levels to reduce the amount of pain you experience.
This can be done by modulating the amount of pain signals to the brain or releasing natural
pain-killers called endorphins.
 Muscle contraction. EMS can be used at different intensities to stimulate a muscle or help
maintain muscle tone. Examples of this type of therapy include:
o Following a stroke, EMS can be used to maintain some muscle tone in the shoulder
to improve function and reduce pain.
o To treat urinary incontinence, EMS may be used to contract the pelvic floor muscles.
o Following surgery, EMS can be used to stimulate the muscles in the thigh to
increase strength.

Benefits of EMS

Benefits of EMS include:

 Decreasing pain
 Promote tissue healing
 Increase muscle strength
 Maintaining and regaining muscle activity.

It may help in treating various conditions that affect muscle strength, such as:

 spinal cord injuries

 postsurgery muscle weakness
 strokes
 muscle control issues

Electrical muscle stimulation involves sending electrical impulses to the muscles. This process may
promote blood flow and strengthen the muscles. It may also affect pain signals, reducing
discomfort. Electrical muscle stimulation is available to treat various muscle issues and pain.
However, additional studies must confirm the effectiveness as a general treatment for a wider range
of conditions.

4. Benefits:
o Muscle Strength: Can help improve muscle strength, especially in injured or
weakened muscles.
o Endurance: Enhances muscle endurance by stimulating a greater number of
muscle fibers.
 o Rehabilitation: Aids in muscle rehabilitation after injury or surgery by
preventing muscle atrophy and promoting circulation.
o Pain Management: EMS can also assist in pain management by stimulating
endorphin release and improving blood flow.
5. Usage: Typically used under the guidance of a healthcare professional or physical
therapist. Incorrect use or settings can lead to discomfort or injury.
6. Effectiveness: While muscle stimulators can be effective, results vary depending on
individual factors such as muscle condition, the intensity of stimulation, and
consistency of use.
7. Safety: Generally safe when used correctly. However, individuals with certain medical
conditions (like pacemakers or pregnancy) should avoid using EMS devices without
medical supervision.
8. Considerations: Always follow manufacturer guidelines for electrode placement,
intensity levels, and duration of use. It's important to start with lower intensity levels
and gradually increase to a comfortable level.
9. Regulation: EMS devices are regulated by health authorities in many countries to
ensure safety and effectiveness standards are met.
10. Research: Ongoing research continues to explore the full range of benefits and optimal
usage of muscle stimulators in various clinical and athletic settings.
 3.2 NERVE STIMULATOR

Nerves carry messages from the brain to the muscles. They also carry messages from
sensors back to the brain. They are the 'wires' of the body.

Nerves are like an elongated bag of salty water. The outside of the nerve is positively charged.
In other words it is polarised. That charge is lost when the top end of a nerve cell is stimulated.
This is called depolarisation. The wave of depolarisation runs down the cell from the brain to
the muscle.

The nerve swells out near the muscle at the 'neuro-muscular junction'. The nerves cell releases
a special chemical called Acetyl-choline into the gap between the nerve and the muscle.

A nerve stimulator supplies electrons to depolarise a nerve. The number of electrons supplied
per stimulus equals the current. To make sure that the nerve is completely depolarised we keep
winding up the stimulating current until the muscular response does not increase any more,
then we add another 10%. This is called the supra-maximal stimulus. At this point we assume

that the nerve supplying the muscle is completely depolarised. As a result the muscle must be
maximally stimulated by the nerve. The muscle contraction that results must also be maximal.
(The contraction is also called a twitch). The muscle response to the stimulus is called a twitch.
The amount or strength of movement is called the twitch height. (From the height of the trace
on a recorder.) To allow comparison of twitches it is essential that this current remains constant
to ensure the nerve is always completely depolarised.

Types of Nerve Stimulator

Changing resistance

The connection between the electrodes and the skin is not constant. If the electrodes dry out
or come a bit loose from the skin their resistance will increase. There are two ways a nerve
stimulator can respond to this change... with a constant voltage or a constant current. Electrical
engineers give us the equation:
Voltage = Current × Resistance

Constant Voltage Nerve Stimulators

Constant voltage nerve stimulators are relatively easy and cheap to make. Unfortunately if the
voltage remains constant when resistance increases then the current must decrease. As a result
the nerve may not be completely stimulated. The muscle contraction will then be depressed.
The anaesthetist will falsely think that the neuromuscular blocking drug is still working. This
can be dangerous if the patient moves during a delicate phase of surgery.

Some constant voltage nerve stimulators will display the current actually delivered and will
alarm if it falls below some predefined threshold.

Constant Current Nerve Stimulators

Constant current nerve stimulators are the safest but also the most expensive to build. As the
resistance of the electrodes goes up they compensate by increasing their voltage. As a result
the current stays constant. The stimulation of the nerve remains constant. Any change in
response is occurring at the neuromuscular junction or in the muscle itself.

There is a limit to how high the nerve stimulator can raise the voltage. At this point the
stimulator should give an audible and visual alarm that the stimulating current has not been
reached.

Types of Stimulus

1. Single twitch

The simplest stimulus is a single twitch.

A fixed current is used to stimulate the nerve for a brief period of time. This is known as a
square wave stimulus. If more than 80% of the receptors are blocked then there will be a
decrease in the height of the twitch or no twitch at all.

The amount of movement in response to a supra maximal stimulus before any relaxant is given
is known as the 'Control Twitch Height. Successive twitches are often reported as a percentage
of this control height. eg. a patient can have his neuromuscular blocking drugs reversed when
his first twitch reaches 20% of control.

2. Train of four
To help overcome the problem of forgetting the control height the 'Train of 4' was
developed. Four twitches are given at 1/2 second intervals. The first twitch in the train can be
used as a control. Each successive twitch becomes lower as the Acetyl choline in the nerve
terminal is depleted. After a pause of 30 seconds the Acetyl choline in the nerve terminal will
have built up again so the test can be repeated.

As well as estimating the 'fade' of twitches in the 'Train of 4' it is also useful to simply count
the twitches. Fewer stimuli make it across the neuromuscular junction as the block becomes
deeper. For most general surgery a block down to 2 twitches is adequate.

When only one twitch is visible the patient may still be able to move slightly. If you give
relaxant until no twitches are visible you no longer whether you are giving a little bit to much
or a lot too much.

3. Post Tetanic Count:

The post tetanic count was developed to allow the control of deep blockade. After a period
of rapid stimulation (tetany) the nerve cells 'gear up' for action. After a brief pause the
twitch height will be increased above baseline for that degree of block.

This example shows the train of 4 at the

same depth of block before and after tetany. Notice that not only is the height of the twitches
increased but also the number of twitches.

This is the way post tetanic count is used. Relaxant is gradually given until no twitches at all
are visible. Then a burst of tetany is given, a pause, then one twitch every second for 10
seconds. The anaesthetist simply counts how many twitches are visible. When only 1 or 2
twitches are visible the block is deep enough for virtually any surgery.

4. Double burst stimulation

At the other end of the relaxant scale the anaesthetist may need to ensure that the neuromuscular
block has worn off. Fade in the train of 4 can be difficult to detect in minor block. The middle
2 twitches make it difficult to compare the first and the last. Double burst stimulation consists
of two sets of twitches that are separated by a brief interval to improve perception of fade. (The
first twitches and the brief pause are designed to prevent facilitation occurring between the first
and second burst.)

3.3 NERVE CONDUCTION VELOCITY MEASUREMENT

Nerve conduction velocity (NCV) measurement is a diagnostic test used to assess how fast
an electrical impulse travels through a nerve. Here’s how it generally works:

1. Electrodes Placement: Electrodes are placed on the skin over the nerve being tested.
Typically, one electrode stimulates the nerve with a mild electrical impulse, while
another electrode records the electrical activity generated downstream along the nerve
pathway.
2. Stimulation and Recording: The nerve is stimulated at one point, and the response is
recorded at another. This allows the measurement of both the latency (the time it takes
for the impulse to travel between the two points) and the amplitude of the electrical
signal.
3. Calculation of NCV: Nerve conduction velocity is calculated by dividing the distance
between the stimulating and recording electrodes by the difference in time between the
initial stimulus and the response. The formula is:

Typically, NCV is measured in meters per second (m/s) or sometimes in millimeters

per millisecond (mm/ms).

4. Interpretation: Normal values for nerve conduction velocity vary depending on the
nerve tested and the individual's age and health. Slower conduction velocities may
indicate nerve damage or disease, such as in conditions like carpal tunnel syndrome or
peripheral neuropathy.
5. Clinical Use: NCV tests are commonly used in the diagnosis and management of
various neurological disorders to assess the functioning of peripheral nerves. They can
help identify the location and extent of nerve damage, distinguish between different
types of nerve disorders, and track disease progression or response to treatment.

NCV testing is generally safe, though it may cause some discomfort or mild pain during
stimulation. It is performed by neurologists or specially trained technicians and is often part of
a broader neurological evaluation.
This test is used to diagnose nerve damage or destruction. The test may sometimes be used to
evaluate diseases of nerve or muscle, including:

 Myopathy
 Lambert-Eaton syndrome
 Myasthenia gravis
 Carpal tunnel syndrome
 Tarsal tunnel syndrome
 Diabetic neuropathy
 Bell palsy
 Guillain-Barré syndrome
 Brachial plexopathy

3.4 EMG BIOFEEDBACK INSTRUMENTATION

Electromyography (EMG) biofeedback instrumentation is a specialized technology used in

healthcare and research settings to measure and provide feedback on muscle activity. Here are
some key points on EMG biofeedback instrumentation:

1. Principle: EMG biofeedback relies on detecting and recording the electrical activity
produced by skeletal muscles during contraction and relaxation.
2. Electrodes: Sensors (electrodes) are placed on the skin over the muscles of interest.
These electrodes detect the small electrical signals generated by muscle fibers.
3. Signal Processing: The electrical signals picked up by the electrodes are amplified and
processed to provide meaningful data on muscle activity.
4. Feedback Mechanism: The processed EMG signal is then used to provide real-time
feedback to the user. This feedback can be visual (e.g., on a screen as a graph), auditory
(e.g., through tones), or tactile (e.g., through vibrations).
5. Applications:
o Rehabilitation: Helps patients regain control over specific muscles after injury
or surgery.
o Sports Training: Aids athletes in optimizing muscle activation patterns for
better performance.
o Biofeedback Therapy: Used in conjunction with relaxation techniques for
 stress reduction and pain management.
o Research: Provides quantitative data for studying muscle function and
performance.

6. Types of EMG Biofeedback Instruments:

o Surface EMG: Uses electrodes placed on the skin surface.
o Intramuscular EMG: Uses needle electrodes inserted directly into the muscle
tissue for more precise measurements.
7. Benefits:
o Encourages awareness and voluntary control of muscle activity.
o Can enhance rehabilitation outcomes by facilitating targeted muscle
strengthening.
o Provides objective data for monitoring progress and adjusting treatment plans.
8. Considerations:
o Proper placement of electrodes is crucial for accurate readings.
o Calibration and signal processing algorithms affect the quality of feedback
provided.
o Training and interpretation of EMG data require expertise to ensure effective
use in clinical and research settings.

EMG biofeedback instrumentation plays a valuable role in rehabilitation, sports science, and
research by providing real-time feedback on muscle activity, aiding in therapeutic interventions
and performance optimization.

3.5 & 3.8 STATIC MEASUREMNT – LOAD CELL

The Load Cell is an Electro – mechanical sensor employed to measure static and dynamic
force. Load Cells can be designed to handle a wide range of operating forces with high level
of reliability and hence its is one of the most popular transducer in industrial measurements.
The Load Cells derives it output from the deformation of an elastic member having high
tensile strength. The basic design parameters includes relative size and shape material density
and modulus of elasticity, strain sensitivity, deflection and dynamic response. Through a
careful choice of the material and structural configuration. A linear relationship between a
dimensional change and measured force can be achieved. The material so chosen should
posses the following properties.
(i) Linear Stress Strain relationship up to a fairly large elastic strain limit.
(ii) Low Strain Hysteresis over repeated loading.
(iii) Very low creep over long periods of loading.
(iv) Very low plastic flow due to strain.
The most popular configurations of load cells are :
(i) Column – type.
(ii) Proving Ring Type.
 (iii) Cantilever Beam Type.
(iv) Shear – Type.
In all the configuration deformation is sensed by the strain gauges. It is important that
in all cases the strain gauge should be suitably located so that the output strain is
linearly proportional to the input force with minimum Hysteresis and creep, high
readability and overload capacity. Some of the configuration have excellent immunity
to adverse side eccentric loads.
In all types of load cells, the stress developed due to force on loading is measured with
four electrical strain gauges. All four strain gauges are connected to form a four arm
active Wheatstone Bridge.
OPERATION :

1. Open the top cover of the trainer kit wooden box.

2. Connect the cantilever beam type load cell leads with the trainer kit terminals. Red lead with red
terminal. Black lead with black terminal. Green lead with green terminal. Yellow lead with yellow
terminal.

3. Connect the 3, pin mains plug of the training kit to the mains socket (230 Volt,  10%, 50 Hz
supply)

4. Keep Digital Voltmeter switch at Kg. Position.

5. Connect patch cord between output terminal and digital voltmeter terminal.

6. Switch ON the trainer kit, the display will light up and will show some reading.

7. Adjust zero pot to set 0.00 reading on display without apply any load on the pan.

8. Put 1 Kgs. Weights on the pan of the cantilever beam and adjust span pot to show 1.00 reading
on display.

9. Repeat steps 6 to 8.

10. Now apply loads in steps of 100 gms ad note down the reading in the following table in
increasing and decreasing mode.

11. Now, plot the graph between applied load and Digital Voltmeter reading in Kgs. With a
resolution of 0.01 Kg and applied load and measure non-=linearity, Hysteresis error etc.

12. Keep Digital Voltmeter at mV position.

13. Connect patch cord between instrumentation output terminal and Digital Voltmeter terminal.

14. At no load condition display will show reading. Note down this reading.

15. Apply load in steps of 100 gms. and note down readings in the given table in increasing and
decreasing mode.

16. Now, plot the graph between applied load and Digital Voltmeter reading in Kgs. With a
resolution of 0.01 Kg. and applied load and measure non-linearity, Hysteresis error etc.
 3.9 PEDOBAROGRAPH

A pedobarograph is a device used to measure and analyze pressure distribution on the

sole of the foot while walking or standing. It's particularly useful in podiatry and orthopedics
to assess foot mechanics, diagnose conditions like flat feet or high arches, and design orthotics
or footwear. The data it provides helps professionals understand how weight is distributed
across the foot during different activities, aiding in treatment planning and rehabilitation.

A pedograph, also known as a pedobarograph or plantar pressure measurement system,

is a tool used in podiatry, orthopedics, biomechanics, and sports science to analyze the
distribution of pressure on the plantar surface (sole) of the foot. Here are some detailed notes
on pedographs:

Components and Operation:

1. Pressure Sensors: Pedographs are equipped with pressure sensors that are placed in a
grid or array on a platform. These sensors measure the force exerted by the foot at
different points.
2. Platform: The platform where the foot is placed can vary in size and shape depending
on the specific pedograph model. It may be flat or shaped to accommodate different
foot sizes.
3. Data Collection: When a person stands or walks on the pedograph, the sensors detect
the pressure distribution in real-time. This data is collected and can be displayed
graphically or numerically for analysis.
4. Software Interface: Most modern pedographs are connected to a computer or a
handheld device through which the data is processed. Software interfaces provide visual
representations of pressure patterns and allow for detailed analysis.
Applications:

1. Clinical Assessment: Podiatrists and orthopedic specialists use pedographs to assess

foot function and diagnose conditions such as plantar fasciitis, diabetic foot
complications, and gait abnormalities.
2. Custom Orthotics: Pedographs help in designing and fitting custom orthotics (insoles)
by analyzing pressure points and redistributing weight to alleviate discomfort and
correct biomechanical issues.
3. Research and Biomechanical Studies: In research settings, pedographs are used to
study how different factors (shoe types, gait patterns, surface conditions) affect foot
pressure distribution. This aids in understanding biomechanics and optimizing athletic
performance.
4. Sports Science: Coaches and sports scientists utilize pedographs to analyze how
athletes distribute pressure during movements like running or jumping. This
information can help in injury prevention and performance enhancement.

Benefits:

 Objective Data: Provides quantitative data on pressure distribution rather than relying
solely on subjective assessments.
 Customization: Allows for personalized treatment plans and orthotic design based on
individual pressure patterns.
 Monitoring: Useful for monitoring changes over time in response to treatment or
rehabilitation programs.
 Education: Helps patients visualize and understand their foot mechanics and the
impact of footwear choices.

Limitations:

 Cost: High initial cost of equipment and software.

 Training: Requires training to properly interpret and utilize the data collected.
 Serial pedobarography was checked 4 times: preoperatively and 3 months, 6
months, and 12 months postoperatively. Discordance was seen among serial
pedobarographic results, even in the same patient. Clinical photograph (a) and standing
anteroposterior radiograph (b) preoperatively. Clinical photograph (c) and standing
anteroposterior radiograph (d) 1 year postoperatively. Serial pedobarography
preoperatively (e), 3 months postoperatively (f), 6 months postoperatively (g), and 12
months postoperatively (h). Abbreviations: L, left; R, right.

3.10 DYNAMIC MEASUREMENT

3. 11 VELOCITY

Dynamic measurement of velocity in the context of muscular and biomechanical

equipment involves the use of various technologies to assess the speed and movement of
muscles and limbs. This information is crucial for understanding human motion, diagnosing
medical conditions, improving athletic performance, and designing rehabilitation protocols.
Here are some methods and technologies used for dynamic measurement of velocity in this
field:
Methods and Technologies

1. Motion Capture Systems:

o Optical Motion Capture:
 Uses cameras and markers placed on the body to track the movement of
limbs and joints.
 Provides detailed 3D data on velocity and acceleration.
 Commonly used in biomechanics research, sports science, and
animation.
o Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs):
 Combine accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers to
measure orientation and velocity.
 Can be attached directly to the body or embedded in wearable devices.
 Used in gait analysis, sports training, and rehabilitation.
2. Electromyography (EMG):
o Measures the electrical activity produced by muscles during contraction.
o Provides indirect information about muscle velocity by analyzing the timing
and intensity of muscle activation.
o Used in clinical diagnostics, sports science, and ergonomics.
3. Force Plates:
o Measure the ground reaction forces exerted by the body during movement.
o Can be used to calculate velocity and acceleration of the center of mass.
o Used in gait analysis, balance assessment, and sports performance testing.
4. High-Speed Cameras:
o Capture rapid movements at high frame rates to analyze the velocity and
dynamics of muscle and limb movements.
o Used in biomechanics research, sports analysis, and physical therapy.
5. Isokinetic Dynamometers:
o Measure the force and velocity of muscle contractions under controlled
conditions.
o Provide data on muscle strength, power, and fatigue.
o Used in rehabilitation, sports science, and clinical assessments.

Applications

 Sports Science:
o Analyzing athletic performance and optimizing training regimens.
o Preventing injuries by understanding movement patterns and stresses on
muscles and joints.
 Rehabilitation:
o Designing personalized rehabilitation programs based on precise measurements
of muscle and joint velocities.
o Monitoring progress and adjusting treatments as needed.
 Ergonomics:
 o Evaluating workplace movements to reduce the risk of musculoskeletal
disorders.
o Designing tools and workstations that minimize strain and improve efficiency.
 Clinical Diagnostics:
o Assessing the function of muscles and joints to diagnose conditions like
muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, and arthritis.
o Planning surgical interventions and post-operative rehabilitation.

Dynamic measurement of velocity in muscular and biomechanical contexts is essential

for advancing our understanding of human movement, improving athletic performance, and
developing effective rehabilitation strategies.

3.11 ACCLERATION

Dynamic measurement of acceleration related to muscular and biomechanical

equipment involves using sensors and instruments to capture real-time data on the movement
and forces exerted by muscles during physical activities. This field combines principles of
biomechanics, which is the study of the mechanical aspects of living organisms, with advanced
technologies to improve the understanding and enhancement of human movement and
performance. Here are key components and concepts related to this topic:

Key Components:

1. Accelerometers:
o Devices that measure acceleration forces in multiple axes.
o Used to capture movement dynamics and quantify physical activity.
o Can be attached to different parts of the body or equipment.
2. Gyroscopes:
o Measure the orientation and angular velocity of an object.
o Often combined with accelerometers in Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) to
provide comprehensive motion data.
3. Force Plates:
o Measure the ground reaction forces during activities like walking, running, or
jumping.
o Provide data on balance, stability, and power output.
4. Electromyography (EMG):
o Measures the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles.
o Helps in understanding muscle activation patterns and fatigue.
5. Motion Capture Systems:
o Use cameras and markers to track body movements in three dimensions.
o Provide detailed kinematic data for analysis.
Applications:

1. Sports Performance:
o Analyzing athletes' movements to enhance performance and reduce injury risk.
o Customizing training programs based on individual biomechanics.
2. Rehabilitation:
o Monitoring progress in patients recovering from injuries.
o Designing and adjusting rehabilitation protocols for optimal recovery.
3. Ergonomics:
o Assessing workplace movements to improve safety and efficiency.
o Designing tools and equipment that minimize strain and injury risk.
4. Prosthetics and Orthotics:
o Enhancing the design of assistive devices to better mimic natural movement.
o Ensuring proper fit and functionality through precise measurements.

Incorporating dynamic measurement of acceleration into muscular and biomechanical

equipment offers significant potential for improving athletic performance, rehabilitation
outcomes, and ergonomic safety. As technology advances, these tools will become increasingly
sophisticated, providing deeper insights and more precise interventions tailored to individual
needs.

3. 11 GAIT

Dynamic measurement of gait related to muscular and biomechanical equipment

involves the analysis of walking patterns using advanced sensors and technologies to capture
detailed data on movement, muscle activity, and force distribution. This analysis is crucial in
fields such as rehabilitation, sports science, ergonomics, and prosthetics.

Key Components:

1. Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs):

o Comprise accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers.
o Measure acceleration, angular velocity, and orientation.
o Attached to the lower limbs, trunk, or footwear to capture gait dynamics.
2. Force Plates:
o Measure ground reaction forces and moments during walking.
o Provide data on balance, stability, and force distribution.
3. Pressure Insoles:
o Embedded with sensors to measure pressure distribution under the feet.
o Useful for analyzing foot mechanics and identifying abnormal gait patterns.
4. Motion Capture Systems:
o Use cameras and markers placed on the body to track movement in 3D.
o Provide detailed kinematic data, including joint angles, velocities, and
accelerations.

5. Electromyography (EMG):
o Records electrical activity of muscles during movement.
 o Helps in understanding muscle activation patterns and detecting muscle
imbalances.

Applications:

1. Clinical Gait Analysis:

o Used in diagnosing and treating gait abnormalities in patients with neurological,
orthopedic, or musculoskeletal disorders.
o Helps in planning and monitoring rehabilitation programs.
2. Sports Performance:
o Analyzes athletes’ gait to enhance performance and reduce injury risk.
o Tailors training regimens based on individual gait mechanics.
3. Ergonomics:
o Evaluates gait in workplace settings to improve safety and efficiency.
o Helps in designing ergonomic footwear and work environments.
4. Prosthetics and Orthotics:
o Assesses the effectiveness of assistive devices in replicating natural gait.
o Guides the design and customization of prosthetic limbs and orthotic devices.

Example Systems:

1. Wearable IMUs:
o Small, lightweight devices that provide real-time gait analysis.
o Can be worn on the legs, waist, or feet to monitor daily walking patterns.
2. Instrumented Treadmills:
o Equipped with embedded force plates and pressure sensors.
o Allow for controlled gait analysis in a lab setting.
3. Smart Insoles:
o Embedded with pressure sensors to monitor plantar pressure distribution.
o Provide insights into foot mechanics and gait abnormalities.
4. Wireless EMG Systems:
o Non-invasive sensors that capture muscle activity during gait.
o Enable remote monitoring and real-time feedback.

Data Analysis:

 Gait Parameters:
o Stride length, step length, cadence, speed, and symmetry.
o Joint angles, velocities, and accelerations.
 Force and Pressure Distribution:
o Ground reaction forces, center of pressure, and load distribution.
o Identifies areas of high pressure that may lead to injury.
  Muscle Activity:
o Timing and intensity of muscle activation.
o Detects muscle fatigue and coordination issues.

Challenges and Future Directions:

1. Data Accuracy and Reliability:

o Ensuring precise measurements in various environments and conditions.
o Reducing noise and artifacts in sensor data.
2. Integration and Usability:
o Developing user-friendly systems for continuous monitoring.
o Ensuring comfort and ease of use for patients and athletes.
3. Advanced Analytics:
o Utilizing machine learning and AI for predictive analysis.
o Personalizing gait analysis and recommendations based on individual data.
4. Real-World Applications:
o Extending gait analysis beyond lab settings to real-world environments.
o Utilizing mobile and wearable technologies for daily monitoring.

Dynamic measurement of gait provides valuable insights into the mechanics of

walking, helping to improve health outcomes, athletic performance, and the design of assistive
devices. Advances in sensor technology and data analysis will continue to enhance the
precision and applicability of gait analysis in various fields.

3.11 LIMB POSITION

Dynamic measurement of limb position related to muscular and biomechanical

equipment involves the real-time tracking and analysis of limb movements to assess muscle
activity, joint angles, and overall biomechanics. This technology is critical in areas like sports
science, rehabilitation, ergonomics, and prosthetics. Below are the key components,
applications, example systems, data analysis methods, and challenges associated with dynamic
measurement of limb position.

Key Components:

1. Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs):

o Comprised of accelerometers, gyroscopes, and sometimes magnetometers.
o Track limb movements in terms of acceleration, angular velocity, and
orientation.
o Often attached to limbs to capture detailed motion data.
2. Motion Capture Systems:
o Use cameras and reflective markers placed on the body to create a 3D
representation of limb movements.
o Provide high-precision data on joint angles and limb trajectories.
 3. Electromyography (EMG):
o Measures electrical activity produced by muscles during movement.
o Helps in understanding muscle activation patterns in relation to limb position.
4. Goniometers and Inclinometers:
o Measure joint angles and limb positions directly.
o Used in clinical settings for precise angular measurements.
5. Force Plates:
o Measure ground reaction forces, which can be used to infer limb loading and
positioning during movements like walking or jumping.

Applications:

1. Sports Performance:
o Analyzing athletes' limb movements to enhance technique and performance.
o Reducing injury risk by identifying and correcting improper movement patterns.
2. Rehabilitation:
o Monitoring limb movements in patients recovering from injuries or surgeries.
o Tailoring rehabilitation exercises based on precise measurements of limb
position and muscle activity.
3. Ergonomics:
o Assessing limb movements in workplace settings to design tools and
workstations that reduce the risk of musculoskeletal disorders.
o Improving productivity and comfort by optimizing limb positions during tasks.
4. Prosthetics and Orthotics:
o Designing and fitting assistive devices that closely mimic natural limb
movements.
o Ensuring the functionality and comfort of prosthetic limbs through detailed
analysis of limb position.

Example Systems:

1. Wearable IMUs:
o Small, portable devices that can be attached to limbs to capture movement data
in real-time.
o Useful for monitoring daily activities and sports movements outside of a lab
environment.
2. Optical Motion Capture Systems:
o High-resolution cameras and reflective markers that track limb movements with
great precision.
o Often used in clinical and research settings for detailed biomechanical analysis.
3. EMG Sensors:
o Non-invasive sensors that measure muscle activity and provide insights into
muscle function relative to limb position.
 o Can be combined with motion capture or IMUs for comprehensive movement
analysis.
4. Instrumented Treadmills and Force Plates:
o Measure forces and moments during dynamic activities.
o Provide data on how limb positions affect load distribution and ground reaction
forces.

Data Analysis:

 Kinematic Analysis:
o Joint angles, limb velocities, and trajectories.
o Identifies patterns and deviations in limb movements.
 Kinetic Analysis:
o Forces and moments acting on limbs.
o Analyzes the impact of different limb positions on loading and stress
distribution.
 Muscle Activation Patterns:
o Timing and intensity of muscle activation in relation to limb movements.
o Identifies imbalances and coordination issues.
 Signal Processing:
o Filtering and transforming raw sensor data to extract meaningful information.
o Techniques such as Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and wavelet analysis are
commonly used.

Challenges and Future Directions:

1. Data Accuracy and Reliability:

o Ensuring precise measurements in various environments and conditions.
o Minimizing noise and artifacts in sensor data.
2. Integration and Usability:
o Developing systems that are easy to use and integrate seamlessly into daily
activities.
o Ensuring comfort and ease of use for continuous monitoring.
3. Advanced Analytics:
o Leveraging machine learning and AI to analyze complex movement patterns
and predict injury risks.
o Personalizing insights and recommendations based on individual data.
4. Real-World Applications:
o Extending analysis beyond controlled lab settings to real-world environments.
o Utilizing mobile and wearable technologies for continuous monitoring.

Dynamic measurement of limb position offers significant potential for improving

athletic performance, rehabilitation outcomes, and ergonomic safety. Advances in sensor
technology and data analysis will continue to enhance the precision and applicability of limb
position measurement in various fields.