Advanced Mathematics for

Engineers and Scientists with

Worked Examples
Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples covers the core to
advanced topics in mathematics required for science and engineering disciplines. It is primarily
designed to provide a comprehensive, straightforward, and step-by-step presentation of mathemati-
cal concepts to engineers, scientists, and general readers. It moves from simple to challenging areas,
with carefully tailored worked examples of different degrees of difficulty. Mathematical concepts are
deliberately linked with appropriate engineering applications to reinforce their value and are aligned
with topics taught in major overseas curriculums.
This book is written primarily for students at Levels 3 and 4 (typically in the early stages of a degree
in engineering or a related discipline) or for those undertaking foundation degree, Higher National
Diploma (HND), International Foundation Year (IFY), and International Year One (IYO) courses
with maths modules. It is organised into four main parts:

● Trigonometry
● Advanced Mathematics
● Matrices and Vectors
● Calculus

Each of the above four parts is divided into two or more chapters, and each chapter can be used as
a stand-alone guide with no prior knowledge assumed. Additional exercises and resources for each
chapter can be found online. To access this supplementary content, please go to www.dszak.com.
Shefiu Zakariyah is a Chartered Engineer (CEng) and a senior member of IEEE (SMIEEE), with
over a decade of experience in teaching, content development and assessment, and technical training
and consulting.
 Advanced Mathematics for
Engineers and Scientists with
Worked Examples

Shefiu Zakariyah
Cover image: © Shutterstock

First published 2025

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© 2025 Shefiu Zakariyah

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Zakariyah, Shefiu, author.
Title: Advanced mathematics for engineers and scientists with worked
examples / Shefiu Zakariyah.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2024. | Includes
bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2023044241 | ISBN 9781032665108 (hardback) | ISBN
9781032663272 (paperback) | ISBN 9781032665122 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Engineering mathematics. | Mathematical physics.
Classification: LCC TA330 .Z185 2024 | DDC 620.001/51–dc23/eng/20240226
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023044241

ISBN: 978-1-032-66510-8 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-66327-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-66512-2 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781032665122

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 To the stimuli
Parents (late), sister (late), brother (late), and grandparents (late)
and
Wife, children, siblings, and friends
Contents
About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvi
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
Greek Alphabet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviii
Mathematical Operators and Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
Physical Quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
Prefixes Denoting Powers of Ten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxii

Chapter 1 Trigonometric Functions I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Ratios of Special Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4 Inverse Trigonometric Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.5 Quadrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.6.1 Sine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.6.2 Cosine Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.6.3 Tangent Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
1.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.8 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

Chapter 2 Trigonometric Functions II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Reciprocal of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.1 Sec Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2.2 Cosec Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.3 Cot Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 Inverse Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.1 Arcsin Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3.2 Arccos Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.3.3 Arctan Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.4 Transformation of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4.1 Translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.4.2 Stretch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
2.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Chapter 3 Trigonometric Identities I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.3 The Addition Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4 Multiple Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

vii
viii Contents

3.4.1 The Double-Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

3.4.2 The Triple-Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.4.3 The Half-Angle Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Chapter 4 Trigonometric Identities II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2 The Factor Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.3 The R Addition Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.5 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

Chapter 5 Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.2 Methods of Solving Trigonometric Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.2.1 Sketching a Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5.2.2 CAST Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
5.2.3 Quadrant Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.3 Changing the Interval of Transformed Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.1 Type 1: y = sin ax, y = cos ax, y = tan ax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3.2 Type 2: y = sin (x ± b) , y = cos (x ± b) , y = tan (x ± b) . . . . . . . . 165
5.3.3 Type 3: y = sin (ax ± b) , y = cos (ax ± b) , y = tan (ax ± b) . . . . . 167
5.4 Trigonometric Equations Involving Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4.1 The Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.4.2 Addition Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.4.3 Multiple Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.4.4 The Factor Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.4.5 R Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202

Chapter 6 The Binomial Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.2 What Is a Binomial Expression? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
6.3 Pascal’s Triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
6.4 Factorials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
6.5 Notation for Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.6 Relationship between Pascal’s Triangle and Combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
n
6.7 Binomial Expansions for (1 ± ax) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.7.1 When n Is a Positive Integer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
6.7.2 When n Is Negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.7.3 When n Is a Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
6.7.4 Validity of Binomial Expression. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
n
6.8 Binomial Expansion: (p + q) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.8.1 Method 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
6.8.2 Method 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Contents ix

6.9 Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234

6.10 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
6.11 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Chapter 7 Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.2 What Is a Partial Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
7.3 Resolving into Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.4 Types of Partial Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.4.1 Non-Repeated Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
7.4.2 Repeated Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
7.4.3 Irreducible Non-Repeated Non-Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
7.4.4 Irreducible Repeated Non-Linear Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
7.4.5 Improper Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
7.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
7.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

Chapter 8 Complex Numbers I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.2 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.2.1 j Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.2.2 Imaginary Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.3 Fundamental Operations of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.3.1 Addition and Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
8.3.2 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
8.3.3 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.3.3.1 Division by Real Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.3.3.2 Division by Complex Numbers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.4 Forms of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.1 Cartesian Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.4.2 Polar Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.4.3 Exponential Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
8.5 Conversion between Various Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
8.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
8.7 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

Chapter 9 Complex Numbers II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.2 Argand Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.3 Equations Involving Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
9.4 Phasor and j Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.5 De Moivre’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
9.5.1 Roots of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
9.5.2 Powers of Trigonometric Functions and Multiple Angles . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.6 Logarithm of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
9.7 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.9 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
x Contents

Chapter 10 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.2 Matrix Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
10.3 Types of Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
10.4 Matrix Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.4.1 Addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.4.2 Subtraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
10.4.3 Scalar-Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
10.4.4 Matrix-Matrix Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
10.5 Determinant and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
10.5.1 Single Matrix (1 by 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
10.5.2 Two-by-Two Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
10.5.3 Three-by-Three Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
10.5.4 Determinants of a Higher-Order Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
10.5.5 Properties of Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
10.6 Inverse of a Square Matrix and Its Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
10.6.1 Inverse of a 2 × 2 Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
10.6.2 Inverse of Any Square Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
10.7 Solving a System of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
10.7.1 Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
10.7.1.1 Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns . . . . . . . . . 390
10.7.1.2 Simultaneous Equations in Three Unknowns . . . . . . . . 393
10.7.2 Matrix Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
10.7.2.1 Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns . . . . . . . . . . 399
10.7.2.2 Simultaneous Equations in Three Unknowns . . . . . . . . . 401
10.8 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
10.9 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

Chapter 11 Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.2 Scalar and Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
11.3 Free Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
11.4 Vector Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
11.5 Collinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
11.6 Zero Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
11.7 Negative Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
11.8 Equality of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
11.9 Unit Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11.10 Cartesian Representation of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
11.11 Magnitude of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
11.12 Position Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
11.13 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
11.13.1 Addition of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
11.13.2 Subtraction of Vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
11.14 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
11.14.1 Multiplication by a Scalar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
11.14.2 Scalar (or Dot) Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
Contents xi

11.15 Vector Equation of a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

11.16 Intersection of Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
11.17 Angle between Two Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
11.18 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
11.19 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460

Chapter 12 Fundamentals of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.2 What Is Differentiation? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
12.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
12.4 Gradient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
12.4.1 Straight Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
12.4.2 Non-Linear Graph or Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
12.4.2.1 Drawing a Tangent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
12.4.2.2 Numerical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
12.4.2.3 Analytical Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
12.4.2.4 Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
12.4.2.5 Notations for a Derivative of a Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
12.5 Standard derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
12.5.1 Power (or Polynomial) Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
12.5.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
12.5.3 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
12.5.4 Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
12.6 Higher-Order Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
12.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
12.8 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Chapter 13 Advanced Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511

13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
13.2 Rules of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
13.2.1 Chain Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
13.2.2 Product Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
13.2.3 Quotient Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
13.2.4 Combined Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
13.3 Implicit Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
13.4 Logarithmic Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
13.5 Parametric Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
13.6 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
13.7 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564

Chapter 14 Applications of Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565

14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
14.2 Rate of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
14.2.1 Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
14.2.2 Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
14.2.3 Jerk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
14.3 Tangent and Normal Line Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
xii Contents

14.4 Increasing and Decreasing Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579

14.5 Stationary Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
14.5.1 Minimum and Maximum Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
14.5.2 Inflexion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
14.6 Curve Sketching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
14.7 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
14.8 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612

Chapter 15 Indefinite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613

15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
15.2 Indefinite Integral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
15.2.1 Constant of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
15.2.2 Integrating to Determine the Equation of a Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
15.2.3 Standard Integral Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
15.2.3.1 Integrating Power of x or xn (n ≠ −1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
1 1
15.2.3.2 Integrating Rational and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
x ax+b
15.2.3.3 Integrating Exponential Functions ex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
15.2.3.4 Integrating Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
15.3 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644
15.4 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 646

Chapter 16 Definite Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647

16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
16.2 Definite Integral. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
16.2.1 Area Under a Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
16.2.2 Area of a Curve Above and Below x-Axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
16.2.3 Area Bounded by a Curve and a Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
16.2.4 Area Bounded by Two Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
16.2.5 Integrating to Infinity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
16.3 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
16.4 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680

Chapter 17 Advanced Integration I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681

17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
17.2 Integration of Complicated Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
n
17.2.1 Binomial of the Form (ax + b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682
17.2.2 Linear Functions of the Form f ′ (ax + b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 685
f ′ (x)
17.2.3 Integration of the Form ∫ dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
f(x)
′
17.2.4 Integration of the Form ∫ [f (x)].[f (x) ] dx
n
and ∫ [f ′ (x) ].[f (x) ] dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
du
17.2.5 Integration of the Form ∫[ ].[f′ (u)].dx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
dx
17.3 Integration by Partial Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
17.4 Integration by Substitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
17.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
17.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
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Chapter 18 Advanced Integration II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717

18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
18.2 Parametric Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
18.3 Integration by Parts (Integration of Products) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
18.4 Integration of Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
18.4.1 Power of Sine and Cosine Functions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
18.4.2 Product of Sine and Cosine Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
18.4.3 Other Trigonometric Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
18.5 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
18.6 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750

Chapter 19 Application of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751

19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
19.2 Numerical Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
19.2.1 Trapezium Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
19.2.2 Simpson’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
19.2.3 Calculating Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 766
19.3 Applications of Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
19.3.1 Areas and Volumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
19.3.1.1 Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
19.3.1.2 Volumes of Solids of Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
19.3.2 Mean Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
19.3.3 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
19.4 Chapter Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
19.5 Further Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793

Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
About the Author
Shefiu Zakariyah is a Chartered Engineer (Engineering Council UK) with more than 15 years
of experience in research, and teaching engineering and mathematics courses within the higher
education sectors. In this period, he has worked for Loughborough University, the University of
Greenwich, the University of Cambridge, the University of Malaya, and the University of Namibia.
Currently, Shefiu is an Associate Lecturer with the University of Derby, an Ofqual subject mat-
ter specialist, a Materials Developer for NCUK, and a technical consultant. He also serves as a
Professional Registration Advisor (PRA) and Professional Registration Interviewer (PRI) for the
Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET) supporting engineers and technicians to gain pro-
fessional recognition. Shefiu served as an executive member of the IET Manufacturing Network and
played a significant role in the Laser Institute of America, serving on the technical subcommittee
for Control Measures and Testing (TSC-4). Furthermore, Shefiu was a member of the standard sub-
committee responsible for the Safe Use of Lasers in Research, Development, and Testing (ANSI
SSC-8-Z136-8). Shefiu has worked with learners from pre-university to postgraduate levels and is
committed to making complex concepts accessible.

xiv
How to Use This Book
Users
● A detailed explanation is provided for each concept using simple and digestible language so
that you can relax and enjoy studying this book. This is essential in order to enrich a self-study
style of learning and to meet any need for remote study. If you decide to skip any part, you can
head to the summary section where you will find a succinct yet rich overview of the chapter.
● You are advised to attempt the worked examples before checking the solution. This is to mea-
sure your understanding and check if there is any gap. Additional practice for each chapter is
available at www.dszak.com.
● Where applicable, alternative method(s) to solve a problem are provided in a box following
the first method introduced.
● Key formulas are numbered as (X.Y), where X is the chapter number and Y represents the
ordinal position of the equation in the chapter. In other words, an equation that is numbered
as (2.10) is the tenth equation in Chapter 2. A similar style is used for figures and tables.
● Important facts, terms, and formulas are clearly given in bold type (and placed in a box as
Formula OR Equation ) for emphasis and ease of reference.
● If you encounter a term or symbol, which might have been introduced but not explained in the
section you are reading, the author has provided a range of useful resources at the beginning
and end of this book, including a glossary and mathematical symbols, that you can easily refer
to. Also, the index is useful to cross-reference other applications and usage of the same term
or symbol.
● Whilst chapters are designed to be stand-alone, it will however be helpful in a few cases that
you read related chapter(s) or section(s). Also to mention that this book does not follow the
order of any syllabus, as it is intended for a wider audience.
● The first three chapters are designed to lay a foundation in arithmetic and algebra, equipping the
reader with the essential principles and building a robust base from which learners can expand
their mathematical understanding and skills. For those already familiar with the subject matter,
a quick review of these sections may suffice.

Instructors
● A set of PowerPoint slides for each chapter is provided online at www.dszak.com. Instructors
may modify these materials for educational purposes, provided that proper credit is given.
● Also, a bank of questions is available for adaptation with due acknowledgement.

xv
Acknowledgements
This book has come to fruition due to unparalleled support and contributions from many people that it
becomes impossible to mention them all, I’m sincerely grateful for their help and hope that they will
accept this general expression of gratitude. I want to start by thanking the staff at Routledge, Taylor
& Francis, for their confidence and support throughout this process, especially: Tony Moore (Senior
Editor), Lillian Woodall (Project Manager at Deanta), Gabriella Williams (then Editorial Assistant),
Frazer Merritt (then Editorial Assistant), and Aimee Wragg (Editorial Assistant). I can’t repay your
hard work, dedication, and patience.
My friends and colleagues in the teaching profession and industries have been very helpful and gen-
erous with their time in carefully reviewing this book and giving me constructive feedback. In this
regard, I am very grateful to (listed in alphabetical order): Dr Abdelhalim Azbaid El Ouahabi (PhD),
Dr Aliyu Ahmad (PhD), Bouchra Mohamed Lemine, Burket Ali (Head of Engineering and Comput-
ing, DMUIC), Dr Mayowa Kassim Aregbesola (PhD, previously with George Mason University),
Dr Paul Richard Hammond (MSc, PhD), Dr Richard Welford (DPhil), Dr Sarbari Mukherjee (MSc,
PhD), Salma Okhai (BSc Combined Science, PGCE (Secondary, DMUIC), Dr Shamsudeen Hassan
(PhD, CEng, MEI), and Tim Wilmshurst (MSc, FIET, CEng).
Finally but most importantly, I owe a lot to my family who have been my source of inspiration and
motivation. I would like to thank my wife: Khadijah Olaniyan (B.A., Loughborough University), and
my daughters and sons (fondly called ‘Prince(ss)’ and ‘Doctor’) for everything, including proofing
and helpful tips.

xvi
Abbreviations

Term Explanation
AC Alternating Current
ACW Anti-clockwise
CAH Cosine–Adjacent–Hypotenuse
CAST Cosine, All, Sine, and Tangent
CCW Counter Clockwise
CW Clockwise
d.p. Decimal Place(s)
DC Direct Current
HCF Highest Common Factor
LCM Lowest Common Multiple
LHS Left-Hand Side
LIATE Logarithmic–Inverse Trigonometric–Algebraic–Trigonometric–Exponential (function)
RHS Right-Hand Side
s.f. Significant Figure(s)
SI Système International d′ unités (International System of Units)
SOH Sine–Opposite–Hypotenuse
TOA Tangent–Opposite–Adjacent
wrt With Respect To

xvii
Greek Alphabet

Letter
Name
Upper Case Lower Case
A 𝛼 Alpha
B 𝛽 Beta
𝚪 𝛾 Gamma
𝚫 𝛿 Delta
E 𝜖 or 𝜖 Epsilon
Z 𝜁 Zeta
H 𝜂 Eta
𝚯 𝜃 or 𝜗 Theta
I 𝜄 Iota
K 𝜅 Kappa
𝚲 𝜆 Lambda
M 𝜇 Mu
N 𝜈 Nu
𝚵 𝜉 Xi
O o Omicron
𝚷 𝜋 Pi
P 𝜌 or 𝜚 Rho
𝚺 𝜎 or 𝜍 Sigma
T 𝜏 Tau
Y 𝜐 Upsilon
𝚽 𝜙 or 𝜑 Phi
X 𝜒 Chi
𝚿 𝜓 Psi
𝛀 𝜔 Omega

xviii
Mathematical Operators
and Symbols
Sign Name Sign Name
= equal to ℚ set of rational numbers
≠ not equal to R real part
+ addition (or plus) ℑ imaginary part
− subtraction % percentage
± plus or minus ° degree
○
∓ minus or plus F degrees Fahrenheit
○
× multiplication (or times) C degrees Celsius
÷ division |k| modulus of k (or absolute value of k).
∕ division slash Also determinant of k
∞ infinity ∗ asterisk operator (or multiply by)
≡ identical to ● bullet operator or dot operator
≡/ not identical to (or multiply by)
√ radical sign (or square root) ⋯ horizontal ellipsis
∛ cube root ⋮ vertical ellipsis
∜ fourth root ∴ therefore
n
√x nth root of x ∵ because
! factorial ∑ summation (or sigma)
∝ proportional to ∶∶ proportion
∼ similar to/approximately ∶ ratio (or such that)
≈ almost equal to log logarithm to base 10
≃ asymptotically equal to ln natural logarithm (or logarithm to
≃/ not asymptotically equal to base e)
≈/ not almost equal to → tend to
< less than ∅ or {} empty set
≮ not less than ∈ element of (or belongs to)
> greater than ∉ not an element of
≯ not greater than ∋ contains as member
≤ less than or equal to ∋/ does not contain as member
≦̸ neither less than nor equal to ≧̸ neither greater than nor equal to
≥ greater than or equal to ≨ less than but not equal to
ℕ natural number ≩ greater than but not equal to
ℤ set of integers ≪ much less than/far less than
ℝ set of real numbers ⋘ very much less than/far far less than

xix
xx Mathematical Operators and Symbols

Sign Name Sign Name

≫ much greater than/far greater than ⊾ right angle with arc
⋙ very much greater than/far far greater ⊿ right triangle
than ⟂ perpendicular to (or orthogonal to)
∆ increment/change ∥ parallel to
𝛿 delta ∦ not parallel to
lim f (x) limiting value of f (x) as x → ∞ ⋕ equal and parallel to
x→∞
f ′ (x) f dash of x (or f prime of x) f (x) f of x (or f function x)
f ‴ (x) f triple dash of x f ″ (x) f double dash of x
f −1 (x) inverse f of x (or inverse f function x) f n (x) nth derivative of f (x) with respect to x
δy
delta y over delta x y′ y dash (or y prime)
δx
dy 𝜕y
derivative of y with respect to x partial derivative of y with respect to x
dx 𝜕x
dn y d2 y
nth derivative of y with respect to x dee 2 y dee x squared
dxn dx2
𝛿y
∫ integral delta y over delta x
𝛿x
∫ ydx the indefinite integral of y with respect x ∫ f (x) dx the indefinite integral of f (x) with
∬ double integral respect x
a
z∗ complex conjugate of z ∫b ydx the definite integral of y with respect x
a vector a between the limits a and b
a vector a, a bar ∭ triple integral
∠ angle a vector a
∡ measured angle OA, OA⃗ vector OA
∟ right angle â a hat
Physical Quantities
TABLE 1
Fundamental (or Base) Quantities

Quantity Name Unit Name Unit Symbol

Length (l) metre m
Mass (m) kilogram kg
Time (t) second s
Electric Current (I) ampere A
Temperature (𝜽) kelvin K
Amount (n) mole mol
Luminosity (L) candela cd

TABLE 2
Some Common Derived Quantities

Quantity Name Unit Name Unit Symbol

Area (A) metre squared m2
Volume (V) metre cubed m3
Density (𝝆) kilogram per metre cubed kgm−3
Linear velocity (u or v) metre per second ms−1
Linear acceleration (a) metre per second squared ms−2
Force (F) newton N
Pressure (p) newton per metre squared or Pascal Nm−2 or Pa
Frequency (f) hertz Hz
Time period (T) second s
Energy (E) joule J
Work (W) joule J
Power (P) watt W
Voltage (V) volt V
Electric charge (Q or q) coulomb C
Resistance (R) ohm Ω
Conductance (G) siemens or per ohm or mho S or Ω−1
Reactance (X) ohm Ω
Impedance (Z) ohm Ω
Admittance (Y) siemens or per ohm or mho S or Ω−1
Capacitance (C) farad F
Inductance (L) henry H

xxi
Prefixes Denoting Powers of Ten

Prefix Symbol Exponential Form Equivalent Value

15
peta- P 10 1 000 000 000 000 000 one quadrillion
12
tera- T 10 1 000 000 000 000 one trillion
9
giga- G 10 1 000 000 000 one billion
6
mega- M 10 1 000 000 one million
3
kilo- k 10 1 000 one thousand
2
hecto- h 10 100 one hundred
1
deca- da 10 10 one ten
−1
deci- d 10 0.1 one-tenth
−2
centi- c 10 0.01 one-hundredth
−3
milli- m 10 0.001 one-thousandth
−6
micro- μ 10 0.000 001 one-millionth
−9
nano- n 10 0.000 000 001 one-billionth
−12
pico- p 10 0.000 000 000 001 one-trillionth
−15
femto- f 10 0.000 000 000 000 001 one-quadrillionth

Note

● From power −3 down and +3 up, the powers are all in multiple of three.
● Positive powers have capital letter symbols except for deca, hecto, and kilo, while negative
powers have small letter symbols.
● ‘kilo’ is the only small letter symbol in the positive multiples of three.

xxii
 1 Trigonometric Functions I
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● State trigonometric ratios

● Calculate the sine, cosine, and tangent of any given angle
● Discuss quadrants and their applications
● Determine trigonometric ratios of special angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°,
and 90°)
● Evaluate inverse trigonometric ratios
● Use the exact sine, cosine, and tangent values of special angles
● Draw the graphs of sine, cosine, and tangent functions

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Trigonometry is an essential branch of mathematics that deals with specific functions and their
behaviours in relation to angles. Any process that involves a fixed repeated motion can be repre-
sented or modelled by what is termed as a sinusoidal waveform. This waveform has the general form
A sin(x + 𝜃), whether it is a pendulum bob, a weight on a spring, or a swing. In fact, any forward and
backward or up and down movement that is maintained at a constant speed between two fixed points
can be included in this topic. We will start in this chapter by looking at the trigonometric ratios of
sine, cosine, and tangent functions, and carry on our discussion on trigonometry in the subsequent
four chapters.

1.2 TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

By trigonometric ratios, we mean the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle. They are usually short-
ened as sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, and tan 𝜃, respectively, where 𝜃 represents the amount of turn or the angle. Note
that we can use any other letter or symbol instead of 𝜃.
We will use a right-angled triangle as the basis of our definition. Let us consider triangle ABC shown
in Figure 1.1.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-1 1
2 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

hypotenuse adjacent
opposite
hypotenuse

adjacent opposite
(a) (b)

FIGURE 1.1 Naming the three sides of a right-angled triangle relative to: (a) angle 𝜃, and (b) angle 𝝋.

The three sides are |BC|, |AC|, and |AB| corresponding to sides a, b, and c, respectively. For our case,
we need to label the sides as:

● Hypotenuse

This is the longest side of the triangle or the side opposite to the 90-degree angle. Note that the
biggest angle in a right-angled triangle is 90° and the side opposite to it must be the longest. In this
case, it is |BC| or a. We should be familiar with this name from our study of Pythagoras’ theorem.

● Opposite

Unlike hypotenuse, the opposite side is not static but depends on the referenced angle. Either |AB|
or |AC| can be the opposite. As we are given angle 𝜃 here in Figure 1.1(a), corresponding to ∠B or
B̂, the opposite is therefore |AC| or b.

● Adjacent

Linguistically, it means ‘next to’, ‘nearer to’, or ‘close to’. But to what? Well, it is the side next to
the given angle. Since the given angle here is 𝜃, the adjacent side is therefore |AB| or c.
In summary, in a right-angled triangle, the hypotenuse is the longest side and both the opposite and
adjacent sides can flip between the remaining two sides, subject to the referenced angle. To illustrate
this, the reference angle in Figure 1.1(b) is 𝜑 (corresponding to ∠C or Ĉ), therefore the opposite and
adjacent are now |AB| and |AC|, respectively.
Now that we know the conventional names for the three sides of a right-angled triangle, what is the
definition of the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle? They are ratios of a pair of sides. Using Figure
1.1(a), they are given as:

|AC| |AB| |AC|

sin 𝜽 = cos 𝜽 = tan 𝜽 = (1.1)
|BC| |BC| |AB|

The reference to the vertices of a triangle and the sides (or their lengths) can change but the names
of each side in relation to a given angle will not. Hence, our definitions of the three trigonometric
Trigonometric Functions I 3

ratios will be based on these names:

Opposite O Adjacent A Opposite O
sin 𝜽 = = cos 𝜽 = = tan 𝜽 = = (1.2)
Hypotenuse H Hypotenuse H Adjacent A

To remember the ratios, we have a very popular mnemonic SOH–CAH–TOA (pronounced as

‘sow-car-tour’), which implies:

● SOH: Sine–Opposite–Hypotenuse
● CAH: Cosine–Adjacent–Hypotenuse
● TOA: Tangent–Opposite–Adjacent

Note that tangent is a ratio of sine to cosine. In other words:

sin 𝜽
tan 𝜽 = (1.3)
cos 𝜽
The above identity will be proved shortly in the worked examples. Note that the Adjacent, Opposite,
and Hypotenuse sides are shortened to Adj., Opp., and Hyp., respectively. Another point to note is
that since the hypotenuse is the longest side, the sine and cosine of any angle will always be less than
one.
Now it is time to try some examples.

Example 1

Using ∆ABC and ∆XYZ shown in Figure 1.2, determine the exact value of the following.

a) sin 𝜃 b) sin 𝜑 c) cos 𝜃 d) cos 𝜑 e) tan 𝜃 f) tan 𝜑

FIGURE 1.2 Example 1.

4 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

a) sin 𝜃
Solution
Opp 4
sin 𝜃 = =
Hyp 5
∴ sin 𝜽 = 0.8

b) sin 𝜑
Solution
Opp 5
sin 𝜑 = =
Hyp 13
5
∴ sin 𝝋 =
13

c) cos 𝜃
Solution
Adj 3
cos 𝜃 = =
Hyp 5
∴ cos 𝜽 = 0.6

d) cos 𝜑
Solution
Adj 12
cos 𝜑 = =
Hyp 13
12
∴ cos 𝝋 =
13

e) tan 𝜃
Solution
Opp 4
tan 𝜃 = =
Adj 3
4
∴ tan 𝜽 =
3

f) tan 𝜑
Solution
Opp 5
tan 𝜑 = =
Adj 12
5
∴ tan 𝝋 =
12
Trigonometric Functions I 5

FIGURE 1.3 Example 2.

Let us try another example.

Example 2

sin 𝜃
Using the triangle ABC in Figure 1.3, prove that tan 𝜃 = .
cos 𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Opp b
sin 𝜃 = =
Hyp a
Adj c
cos 𝜃 = =
Hyp a
Opp b
tan 𝜃 = =
Adj c

We have two ways to show (or prove) this identity:

Option 1 Using the RHS Option 2 Using the LHS

b
sin 𝜃 ( ) b
= a
c tan 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃 ( ) c
a

b c b a ba ab
= ÷ = × = =
a a c a ca ca

b a b a b 1
= × = = × = × sin 𝜃
a c c c a cos 𝜃

sin 𝜽 b sin 𝜽
∴ = = tan 𝜽 ∴ tan 𝜽 =
cos 𝜽 c cos 𝜽
6 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Final example to try.

Example 3

2
Given that sin 𝜑 = , determine the exact value of the following:
3

a) cos 𝜑 b) tan 𝜑

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

We need to sketch the triangle first as shown in Figure 1.4. Now given that

Opp 2
sin 𝜑 = =
Hyp 3
Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we have
32 = 22 + x2
x2 = 32 − 22 = 5
∴ x = √5

a) cos 𝜑
Solution
Adj √5
cos 𝜑 = =
Hyp 3
1
∴ cos 𝝋 = √5
3

b) tan 𝜑
Solution
Opp 2
tan 𝜑 = =
Adj √5
2
∴ tan 𝝋 = √5
5

FIGURE 1.4 Solution to Example 3.

Trigonometric Functions I 7

1.3 RATIOS OF SPECIAL ANGLES

By special angles, it usually implies the naturally occurring angles such as 30°, 45°, and 60°. Angles
0° and 90° are commonly included in this group. Their exact trigonometric ratios (or values) can
easily be determined and used in solving problems. Let’s look at them one after another.
● Angle 45°
For this case, we have chosen an isosceles triangle shown in Figure 1.5. The length of the equal sides
is chosen to be 1 unit. Using Pythagoras’ theorem, the hypotenuse is √12 + 12 = √2. Because this
is a right-angled isosceles triangle, the three angles are 90°, 45°, and 45°.
Referring to Figure 1.5, we have:

Opp 1 √2 Adj 1 √2 Opp 1

sin 45° = = = cos 45° = = = tan 45° = = =1
Hyp √2 2 Hyp √2 2 Adj 1

Note that the choice of 1 unit for the two sides is arbitrary and only for simplicity, although the results
will not be affected if a different value is chosen.
● Angles 30° and 60°
For this case, we will use an equilateral triangle ABC (Figure 1.6), with each side having 2 units.
Draw a perpendicular bisector AA′ from vertex A to side BC. A perpendicular bisector is a line that
meets another line at a right angle (i.e., perpendicular) and divides it equally. The two minor triangles
are right-angled and symmetrical.

Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we have |AA′| = √22 − 12 = √3. We can use either of the two small
triangles AA′B or AA′C to define these special angles, but we will choose ∆AA′C for this case.
With reference to Figure 1.6, we can define 30° as:

Opp 1 Adj √3 Opp 1 √3

sin 30° = = cos 30° = = tan 30° = = =
Hyp 2 Hyp 2 Adj √3 3

Similarly, we define 60° as:

Opp √3 Adj 1 Opp √3

sin 60° = = cos 60° = = tan 60° = = = √3
Hyp 2 Hyp 2 Adj 1

● Angles 0° and 90°

We need to show this differently from others. In the right-angled triangle (Figure 1.7), 𝛼 and 𝛽 are
complimentary because 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 90°. Any increase in one angle results in a corresponding decrease
in the other. If 𝛼 approaches 0°, then 𝛽 tends to 90°.
8 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 1.5 Determining angle 45°.

FIGURE 1.6 Determining angles 30° and 60°.

FIGURE 1.7 Determining angles 0° and 90°.

At 𝛼 = 90°, we have 𝛽 = 0°, x = 1, and y = 0, thus

Opp 0 Adj 1 Opp 0

sin 𝛽 = sin 0° = = =0 cos 𝛽 = cos 0° = = =1 tan 𝛽 = tan 0° = = =0
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 1

At 𝛼 = 0°, we have 𝛽 = 90°, x = 0, and y = 1, thus

Opp 1 Adj 0 Opp 1

sin 𝛽 = sin 90° = = =1 cos 𝛽 = cos 90° = = =0 tan 𝛽 = tan 0° = = =∞
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 0

The special angles are summarised in Table 1.1.

Trigonometric Functions I 9

TABLE 1.1
Special Angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°)

0 30° 45° 60° 90°

1 √2 √3
sin 𝜽 0 1
2 2 2

√3 √2 1
cos 𝜽 1 0
2 2 2

√3
tan 𝜽 0 1 √3 ∞
3

Great stuff! Let’s try one example or two.

Example 4

Using trigonometric ratios, prove the following identities.

a) sin 𝜃 = cos (90° − 𝜃) b) cos 𝜑 = sin (90° − 𝜑)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

a) sin 𝜃 = cos (90° − 𝜃)

Solution
To prove this, we will consider ∆ABC where ∠B = 𝜃. Since this is a right-angled triangle, angles B
and C are complimentary (i.e., B̂ + Ĉ = 90° or Ĉ = 90° − 𝜃) as shown in the diagram (Figure 1.8).
Now we have:
Opp |AC| Adj |AC|
sin 𝜃 = = cos (90° − 𝜃) = =
Hyp |BC| Hyp |BC|

FIGURE 1.8 Solution to Example 4(a).

10 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 1.9 Solution to Example 4(b).

As the RHS of both are equal, therefore:

sin 𝜽 = cos (90° − 𝜽)

Note
This is known as the ratio of complimentary angle. For example:

2 𝜋
● sin 15° = cos 75° ● sin 𝜋 = cos
5 10

b) cos 𝜑 = sin (90° − 𝜑)

Solution
Similarly
Now we have (Figure 1.9):

Adj |AB| Opp |AB|

cos 𝜑 = = sin (90° − 𝜑) = =
Hyp |BC| Hyp |BC|

As the RHS of both are equal, therefore:

cos 𝝋 = sin (90° − 𝝋)

1.4 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC RATIOS

We have defined the trigonometric ratio of sine, cosine, and tangent of angle. Now we need to work
backward, i.e., finding the angle whose trigonometric ratio is given or known. This is called inverse
trigonometry or inverse trigonometric ratios.
For example, given an angle 𝜃 such that its sine is known to be 0.5, we will write this as:

sin 𝜃 = 0.5

The inverse of sine is written as:

−1
𝜃 = sin (0.5)

which is read as ‘𝜽 is equal to inverse sine of 0.5’, or ‘𝜽 is equal to the sine inverse of 0.5’, or ‘𝜽
is equal to arc sine 0.5’.
Notice the power of negative one (−1) after sine (or sin). This is only a notation of the inversion and
does not indicate power. Nevertheless, the process can be shown, though technically incorrect, as
laid out below.
Trigonometric Functions I 11

sin 𝜽 = 0.5 Divide both sides by sine

0.5 1
𝜽= Note that can be written as x−1
sin x

−1
𝜽 = sin 0.5 Note that the power is just to illustrate inversion

−1
Back to our focus, what does sin (0.5) represent? It simply means an angle whose sine is 0.5. Sim-
ilarly, cos−1 (0.6), is read as ‘cos inverse of 0.6’, or ‘arc cosine 0.6’, is an angle whose cosine has
a value of 0.6. If 𝛼 is a natural number, then tan−1 𝛼 (read as ‘tan inverse of 𝜶’ or ‘arc tan 𝜶’) is an
angle whose tangent has a value of 𝛼.
In a table of trigonometric functions, now obsolete, we can easily check inverse functions. There are
−1
now special keys for arcsin, arccos, and arctan (or sin , cos−1 , and tan−1 , respectively) on most sci-
entific calculators. In MATLAB and Excel, the commands used for inverse trigonometric functions
are asin, acos, and atan.
Now it is time to try some examples.

Example 5

Using your calculator (or any suitable calculating device), determine the following angles in degrees.
Present your answers correct to 2 s.f.

−1 1 1
a) sin 0.5 b) cos−1 c) tan−1
√2 √3
−1
d) sin (−0.345) e) cos−1 (−0.156) f) tan−1 (−2.5)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

In this case, we will use angle 𝜽 to denote the required angle.

−1
a) sin 0.5
Solution
−1
𝜃 = sin 0.5
∴ 𝜽 = 30° (2 s.f.)
12 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
b) cos−1
√2
Solution
1
𝜃 = cos−1
√2
∴ 𝜽 = 45°(2 s.f.)

1
c) tan−1
√3
Solution
1
𝜃 = tan−1
√3
∴ 𝜽 = 30° (2 s.f.)

−1
d) sin (−0.345)
Solution
−1
𝜃 = sin (−0.345) = −20.1818°
∴ 𝜽 = −20° (2 s.f.)

e) cos−1 (−0.156)
Solution

𝜃 = cos−1 (−0.156) = 98.9748°

∴ 𝜽 = 99° (2 s.f.)

f) tan−1 (−2.5)
Solution

𝜃 = tan−1 (−2.5) = −68.1986°

∴ 𝜽 = −68° (2 s.f.)

Let us try another set of examples.

Example 6

Using your calculator (or any suitable calculating device), determine the following angles in radians.
Present your answers correct to 2 d.p. where necessary.

−1 1
a) sin b) cos−1 0.2501 c) tan−1 √3
√2
−1
d) sin (−0.8792) e) cos−1 (−0.1089) f) tan−1 (−18)
Trigonometric Functions I 13

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

In this case, we will use angle 𝜽. Also, remember to change your calculator from degree to
radian.

−1 1
a) sin
√2
Solution
−1 1
𝜃 = sin
√2
1
∴𝜽= 𝝅
4

b) cos−1 0.2501
Solution
c
𝜃 = cos−1 0.2501 = 1.3180
∴ 𝜽 = 1.32c (2 d.p.)

c) tan−1 √3
Solution

𝜃 = tan−1 √3
1
∴𝜽= 𝝅
3
−1
d) sin (−0.8792)
Solution
−1 c
𝜃 = sin (−0.8792) = −1.0742
∴ 𝜽 = −1.07c (2 d.p.)

e) cos−1 (−0.1089)
Solution
c
𝜃 = cos−1 (−0.1089) = 1.6799
∴ 𝜽 = 1.68c (2 d.p.)

f) tan−1 (−18)
Solution
c
𝜃 = tan−1 (−18) = −1.5153
∴ 𝜽 = −1.52c (2 d.p.)
14 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another set of examples to try.

Example 7

Without using a calculator, determine the value of the following. Present your answers in exact form.

1 √2
a) sin (arccos ) b) tan (arcsin )
2 2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

1
a) sin (arccos )
2
Solution
This is a double function. We will attempt the inner function and then move to the outer. Thus
1
𝜃 = arccos = 60°
2
Hence,

1 √3
sin (arccos ) = sin 60° =
2 2
1 √3
∴ sin (arccos ) =
2 2

√2
b) tan (arcsin )
2
Solution
Again, this is a double function. We will attempt the inner function and then move to the outer. Thus

√2
𝜃 = arcsin = 45°
2
Hence,

√2
tan (arcsin ) = tan 45° = 1
2
√2
∴ tan (arcsin )=1
2
Trigonometric Functions I 15

FIGURE 1.10 Example 8.

One final example to try.

Example 8

Find the missing angles and side in ∆ABC (Figure 1.10).

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Opp 8
sin 𝛼 = =
Hyp 17
−1 8
𝛼 = sin ( ) = 28.0725°
17
∴ 𝜶 = 28.1°

We know that the total angle in a triangle is 180°. Hence

𝛼 + 𝛽 = 90°
𝛽 = 90° − 28.1°
∴ 𝜷 = 61.9°

We can equally determine 𝛽 using a trigonometric ratio as:

Adj 8
cos 𝛽 = =
Hyp 17
8
𝛽 = cos−1 ( ) = 61.9275°
17
∴ 𝜷 = 61.9°
16 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now we need to find the missing side x as:

Opp 8
tan 𝛼 = =
Adj x
8
x=
tan 𝛼
8
= = 14.9827 unit
tan 28.1°
∴ x = 15 unit

x can also be found by using

Opp x
tan 𝛽 = =
Adj 8
x = 8 tan 𝛽
= 8 tan 61.9° = 14.9827 unit
∴ x = 15 unit

Or
Opp x
sin 𝛽 = =
Hyp 17
x = 17 sin 𝛽
= 17 sin 61.9° = 14.9962 unit
∴ x = 15 unit

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
This is a right-angled triangle so we can use Pythagoras’ theorem, where

a2 = b2 + c2

In this case, a = 17, b = 8, and c = x.

c2 = a2 − b2
2
c = √a2 − b2 = √17 − 82
c = √225 = 15 unit
∴ x = 15 unit
Trigonometric Functions I 17

Now since we have all the three sides, we can find the missing angles as:
Opp 8
sin 𝛼 = =
Hyp 17
−1 8
𝛼 = sin ( ) = 28.0725°
17
∴ 𝜶 = 28.1°
Adj 8
cos 𝛽 = =
Hyp 17
8
𝛽 = cos−1 ( ) = 61.9275°
17
∴ 𝜷 = 61.9°

1.5 QUADRANTS
Our discussion of trigonometric ratios in the previous section only covers angles in the range
0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90°. To be able to fully define our trigonometric ratios, we need to cover the full range
of one revolution, which is 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°. This can be achieved by the introduction of quadrants.
Consider an x–y Cartesian plane shown in Figure 1.11(a). We can also view this as a circle or an
orange slice, divided into four equal parts, with each part known as a quadrant.
Conventionally, we start our measurement from the positive x-axis (or the top right portion) and move
counter-clockwise, as shown by the direction of the arrow in Figure 1.11(a). Each quadrant has a size

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.11 Four quadrants and their respective angle intervals illustrated (when the angle is measured from
the positive x-axis: (a) in an anti-clockwise direction, and (b) in a clockwise direction).
18 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 1.2
Clockwise Angles and Their Anti-Clockwise Equivalents Illustrated for the Four Quadrants

Quadrant Anti-Clockwise Clockwise Measurement Range

Measurement Range
First 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90° −270° < 𝜃 ≤ −360°

Second 90 < 𝜃 ≤ 180° −180° < 𝜃 ≤ −270°

Third 180° < 𝜃 ≤ 270° −90° < 𝜃 ≤ −180°

Fourth 270° < 𝜃 ≤ 360° 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ −90°

of 90 degrees. Thus, the first quadrant refers to angle 𝜃 such that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90°. The second, third, and
fourth quadrants are 90° < 𝜃 ≤ 180°, 180° < 𝜃 ≤ 270°, and 270° < 𝜃 ≤ 360°, respectively.
What happens if the angles are measured in a clockwise direction? Since this is contrary to conven-
tion, the quadrant numbering remains the same (i.e., the first is the top right section, the second is
the top left section, and so on), however, the angle will be negative, as shown in Figure 1.11(b). This
is very similar to what happens to a vector quantity.
Notice from Figure 1.11 and from our intuitive understanding of positions around a circle that we
can find the equivalent of an angle measured in both clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. With
the aid of Table 1.2, we can say that 𝜃 = −360° in the clockwise direction is the same as 𝜃 = 0° in
the anti-clockwise measurement. Also, 𝜃 = −270° is the same as 𝜃 = 90°, and similarly, 𝜃 = −90°
is the the same as when 𝜃 = 270°.
In general, if 𝜃 is the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the positive x-axis, its equivalent
in an anti-clockwise direction is:

𝜽 + 360° (1.4)

Similarly, if angle 𝜃 is measured in an anti-clockwise direction from the positive x-axis, its equivalent
in a clockwise direction is:

𝜽 − 360° (1.5)

Sine and tangent of negative angles result in negative values of their respective function, but cosine
of negative angles remains unchanged. We therefore have that

sin (−𝜽) = − sin 𝜽 (1.6)

cos (−𝜽) = cos 𝜽 (1.7)

tan (−𝜽) = − tan 𝜽 (1.8)

Trigonometric Functions I 19

Let’s try some examples.

Example 9

Determine the quadrant of an angle 𝜃 if:

a) 𝜃 = 39° b) 𝜃 = 148° c) 𝜃 = 313°

d) 𝜃 = −300° e) 𝜃 = −215° f) 𝜃 = −76°

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

a) 𝜃 = 39°
Solution

𝜽 is in the first quadrant

∵ 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 90°

b) 𝜃 = 148°
Solution

𝜽 is in the second quadrant

∵ 90° < 𝜽 ≤ 180°

c) 𝜃 = 313°
Solution

𝜽 is in the fourth quadrant

∵ 270° < 𝜽 ≤ 360°

d) 𝜃 = −300°
Solution
If 𝜃 = −300° it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −300° + 360° = 60°

∴ 𝜽 is in the first quadrant

∵ 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 90°
20 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Alternatively, if 𝜃 is negative, then we can use the clockwise measurement range (Table 1.2),
therefore:

𝜽 is in the first quadrant

∵ − 270° < 𝜽 ≤ −360°

e) 𝜃 = −215°
Solution
If 𝜃 = −215°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −215° + 360° = 145°

∴ 𝜽 is in the second quadrant

∵ 90° < 𝜽 ≤ 180°

f) 𝜃 = −76°
Solution
If 𝜃 = −76°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −76° + 360° = 284°

∴ 𝜽 is in the fourth quadrant

∵ 270° < 𝜽 ≤ 360°

Now let us look at the trigonometric ratios in the four quadrants one after the other.
First Quadrant 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 90°
We will be looking at the trigonometric ratios for angles between 0 and 90 degrees. In Figure 1.12,
the unit arm OA, which is always positive, swings to have a projection of OB on the y-axis and OC
on the x-axis. Notice that |OC| is equal to |BA| just like |OB| = |CA|.
Using ∆OAC and noting the signs of x-axis and y-axis in this quadrant, which represent the projection
of our OA, we can state that:

Opp |AC| Adj |OC| Opp |AC|

sin 𝜃 = = cos 𝜃 = = tan 𝜃 = =
Hyp |OA| Hyp |OA| Adj |OC|

In summary, sine, cosine, and tangent are all positive in the first quadrant.
Before we proceed to other quadrants, it is essential to make it clear that the adjacent is always the
x-axis and sin 𝜃 (as hypotenuse is a unit arm OA) and the opposite is always the y-axis and cos 𝜃 (as
hypotenuse is a unit arm OA). The hypotenuse remains the same as a positive 1 unit OA.
Trigonometric Functions I 21

FIGURE 1.12 Determining trigonometric ratios using phasor diagram (first quadrant).

FIGURE 1.13 Determining trigonometric ratios using phasor diagram (second quadrant).

Second Quadrant 90 < 𝜃 ≤ 180°

The second quadrant covers angles between 90 and 180 degrees. Again, we use the arm OA as a
swing, which is positive (Figure 1.13). Using ∆OAC, we can state that:

Opp |AC| Adj −|OC| |OC| Opp |AC| |AC|

sin 𝜃 = = cos 𝜃 = = =− tan 𝜃 = = =−
Hyp |OA| Hyp |OA| |OA| Adj −|OC| |OC|

In summary, sine is positive, but cosine and tangent are negative in the second quadrant.
Third Quadrant 180° < 𝜃 ≤ 270°
The third quadrant covers angles between 180 and 270 degrees (Figure 1.14). Using ∆OAC, we can
state that:

Opp −|AC| |AC| Adj −|OC| |OC| Opp −|AC| |AC|

sin 𝜃 = = =− cos 𝜃 = = =− tan 𝜃 = = =
Hyp |OA| |OA| Hyp |OA| |OA| Adj −|OC| |OC|

In summary, tangent is positive, but sine and cosine are negative in the third quadrant.
22 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 1.14 Determining trigonometric ratios using phasor diagram (third quadrant).

FIGURE 1.15 Determining trigonometric ratios using phasor diagram (fourth quadrant).

Fourth Quadrant 270° < 𝜃 ≤ 360°

The fourth quadrant covers angles between 270 and 360 degrees. Using ∆OAC, we can state that
(Figure 1.15):

Opp −|AC| |AC| Adj |OC| |OC| Opp −|AC| |AC|

sin 𝜃 = = =− cos 𝜃 = = = tan 𝜃 = = =−
Hyp |OA| |OA| Hyp |OA| |OA| Adj |OC| |OC|

In summary, cosine is positive, but sine and tangent are negative in the fourth quadrant.
That’s easy, right? Let’s quickly put together all the above ‘summaries’ in a table for easy access.
We can see from Table 1.3 that each of the trigonometric ratios is positive in two separate quadrants
and negative in the remaining two quadrants. Figure 1.16 attempts to illustrate this.
Let’s quickly provide some notes about Figure 1.16.

● A stands for all, which means that all three trigonometric ratios are positive here. Obviously,
this confirms our earlier definition of the ratios using a triangle for angles up to and including
90°.
● S stands for Sine, which means that ONLY sine is positive in the second quadrant.
● T stands for Tangent, which means that ONLY tangent is positive in the third quadrant.
● C stands for Cosine, which means that ONLY cosine is positive in the fourth quadrant.
Trigonometric Functions I 23

TABLE 1.3
Signs (Positive and Negative) of the Three Trigonometric Ratios in the Four Quadrants
Illustrated

1st Quadrant 2nd Quadrant 3rd Quadrant 4th Quadrant

sin 𝜽 Positive Positive Negative Negative

cos 𝜽 Positive Negative Negative Positive

tan 𝜽 Positive Negative Positive Negative

(a) (b)
FIGURE 1.16 Signs (positive and negative) of the three trigonometric ratios in the four quadrants illustrated.

Choose any mnemonic to remember this, but one of the commonly used ones is ACTS, going clock-
wise from the first quadrant or CAST going anticlockwise from the fourth quadrant. We can also
consider ASTAC, obtained from All–Sine–TAngent–Cosine going anti-clockwise or All Silver Toy
Cars (ASTC).
In general, we are always given angles in the first quadrant but how do we find other angles within
one revolution (i.e., 360) that is equal to the given one in the first quadrant? Table 1.4 provides the
equations to be used for each of the three trigonometric functions, given that the angle in the first
quadrant is known to be 𝜃.
We have derived the trigonometric ratios of angles 0 and 90° earlier with a right-angled triangle. We
will repeat it here but include angles 180°, 270°, and 360° in our derivation.
Consider Figure 1.17 where arm OA of 1 unit swings in such a way that its angle with respect to
the positive x-axis is 𝜃. We are interested in special positions where point A is at B (𝜃 = 90°), C
(𝜃 = 180°), D (𝜃 = 270°), and E (𝜃 = 0 = 360°). We will also consider that |OB| = − |OD| and
|OC| = − |OE|.
24 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 1.4
Equations for Determining Equivalent Angles in the Four Quadrants

Quadrant Equation Illustration

First NA NA

Second 180° − 𝜃 ● sin (180° − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃

● cos (180° − 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃
● tan (180° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

Third 180° + 𝜃 ● sin (180° + 𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

● cos (180° + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃
● tan (180° + 𝜃) = tan 𝜃

Fourth 360° − 𝜃 ● sin (360° − 𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

● cos (360° − 𝜃) = cos 𝜃
● tan (360° − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

FIGURE 1.17 Determining trigonometric ratios using phasor diagram (for angles 0°, 90°, 180°, and 360°).

(1) 𝜽 = 0
At 𝜃 = 0 is the same as at 𝜃 = 360°, which is when the projection arm OA is entirely on the positive x-
axis and there is no vertical component (or zero vertical y-axis component). Hence, the trigonometric
ratios are:

Opp 0 Adj 1 Opp 0

sin 0° = = =0 cos 0° = = =1 tan 0° = = =0
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 1
Trigonometric Functions I 25

(2) 𝜽 = 90°
When arm OA swings to point B, the angle swept will be 90°. At this point, the projection arm OA
is entirely on the positive y-axis and there is no horizontal component (or zero x-axis component).
Hence, the trigonometric ratios for this case are:

Opp 1 Adj 0 Opp 1

sin 90° = = =1 cos 90° = = =0 tan 90° = = =∞
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 0

(3) 𝜽 = 180°
When arm OA swings to point C, the angle swept will be 𝜃 = 180°. At this point, the projection arm
OA is entirely on the negative x-axis and there is no vertical component (or zero y-axis component).
Hence, the trigonometric ratios for this case are:

Opp 0 Adj −1 Opp 0

sin 180° = = =0 cos 180° = = = −1 tan 180° = = =0
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 1

Alternatively, using the second-quadrant identities where 𝜃 = 180°, we have

sin 180° = sin (180° − 180°) = sin 0 = 0

cos 180° = − cos (180° − 180°) = − cos 0 = −1
tan 180° = − tan (180° − 180°) = − tan 0 = 0

(4) 𝜽 = 270°
When arm OA swings to point D, the angle swept will be 𝜃 = 270°. At this point, the projection arm
OA is entirely on the negative y-axis and there is no horizontal component (or zero x-axis component).
Hence, the trigonometric ratios for this case are:

Opp −1 Adj 0 Opp −1

sin 270° = = = −1 cos 270° = = =0 tan 270° = = ∞
= −∞
Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj 0

Alternatively, using the third quadrant identities where 𝜃 = 270°, we have

sin 270° = − sin (180° + 90°) = − sin 90° = −1

cos 270° = − cos (180° + 90°°) = − cos 90° = 0
tan 270° = tan (180° + 90°) = tan 90° = ∞

(5) 𝜽 = 360°
Same as at 𝜃 = 0.
Alternatively, using the fourth quadrant identities where 𝜃 = 360°, we have

sin 360° = sin (360° − 360°) = − sin 0 = 0

cos 360° = cos (360° − 360°) = cos 0 = 1
tan 360° = − tan (360° − 360°) = − tan 0 = 0
26 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 1.5
Special Angles (Angles between 90° and 360°)

0 90° 180° 270° 360°

sin 𝜽 0 1 0 −1 0

cos 𝜽 1 0 −1 0 1

tan 𝜽 0 ∞ 0 −∞/∞ 0

This (second set of) special angles is summarised in Table 1.5.

Now it is time to look at a few examples.

Example 10

Without using a calculator, determine the exact values of the following:

a) sin 120° b) sin 210° c) sin 315° d) sin (−120°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) sin 120°
Solution
𝜃 = 120° is in the second quadrant, so sine will be positive. Therefore:

sin 120° = sin (180° − 120°)

= sin 60°
√3
∴ sin 120° =
2

b) sin 210°
Solution
𝜃 = 210° is in the third quadrant, so sine will be negative. Therefore:

sin 210° = − sin (180° + 30°)

= − sin 30°
1
∴ sin 210° = −
2
Trigonometric Functions I 27

c) sin 315°
Solution
𝜃 = 315° is in the fourth quadrant, so sine will be negative. Therefore:

sin 315° = − sin (360° − 315°)

= − sin 45°
√2
∴ sin 315° = −
2

d) sin (−120°)
Solution
If 𝜃 = −120°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −120° + 360° = 240°

𝜃 = 240° is in the third quadrant, so it will be negative. Therefore:

sin (−120°) = sin 240°

= − sin (180° + 60°)
= − sin 60°
√3
∴ sin (−120°) = −
2

More examples to try.

Example 11

Without using a calculator, determine the exact values of the following:

a) cos 150° b) cos 240° c) cos 330° d) cos (−135°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

a) cos 150°
Solution
𝜃 = 150° is in the second quadrant, so cosine will be negative. Therefore:

cos 150° = − cos (180° − 150°)

= − cos 30°
√3
∴ cos 150° = −
2
28 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) cos 240°
Solution
𝜃 = 240° is in the third quadrant, so cosine will be negative. Therefore:

cos 240° = − cos (180° + 60°)

= − cos 60°
1
∴ cos 240° = −
2

c) cos 330°
Solution
𝜃 = 330° is in the fourth quadrant, so cosine will be positive. Therefore:

cos 330° = cos (360° − 330°)

= cos 30°
√3
∴ cos 330° =
2

d) cos (−135°)
Solution
If 𝜃 = −135°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −135° + 360° = 225°

𝜃 = 225° is in the third quadrant, so it will be negative. Therefore:

cos −135° = cos 225°

= − cos (180° + 45°)
= − cos 45°
√2
∴ cos (−135°) = −
2

Another set of examples to try.

Example 12

Without using a calculator, determine the exact values of the following:

a) tan 120° b) tan 225° c) tan 330° d) tan (−90°)

Trigonometric Functions I 29

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

a) tan 120°
Solution
𝜃 = 120° is in the second quadrant, so tan will be negative. Therefore:

tan 120° = − tan (180° − 120°)

= − tan 60°
∴ tan 120° = −√3

b) tan 225°
Solution
𝜃 = 225° is in the third quadrant, so tan will be positive. Therefore:

tan 225° = tan (180° + 45°)

= tan 45°
∴ tan 225° = 1

c) tan 330°
Solution
𝜃 = 330° is in the fourth quadrant, so tan will be negative. Therefore:

tan 330° = − tan (360° − 330°)

= − tan 30°
√3
∴ tan 330° = −
3

d) tan (−90°)
Solution
If 𝜃 = −90°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = −90° + 360° = 270°

𝜃 = 270° is in the third quadrant, so tan will be positive. Therefore:

tan −90° = tan 270°

= tan (180° + 90°)
= tan 90°
∴ tan (−90°) = ∞

Before we finish this section, it is essential to know whether there is a way to solve the trigonometric
ratios of angles greater than 360°. Yes, we can do this! The clue to this is when we said that 𝜃 = 0 is
the same as 𝜃 = 360°.
30 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We can similarly say this for any other angle above 𝜃 = 360°. In a clearer tone, angle 1° is the same
as 361°, because (taking 0 as our reference point) rotating by 1° and 361° from the origin will take
you to the same point. You can try and confirm the sine, cosine, and tangent of the following pairs:

30° and 390°, 45° and 405°, AND 213° and 573°

What did you get? Check these too:

30° and −330°, 45° and −315°, AND 213° and −147°.

The above exercise shows that when multiples of 360° are added to or subtracted from an
angle 𝜃, the trigonometric ratios of the angle remain unchanged. We can write this in standard
format as:

sin 𝜽 = sin (𝜽 + 360°n) = sin (𝜽 − 360°n) (1.9)

cos 𝜽 = cos (𝜽 + 360°n) = cos (𝜽 − 360°n) (1.10)

tan 𝜽 = tan (𝜽 + 360°n) = tan (𝜽 − 360°n) (1.11)

where n is any positive integer.

Let’s bid the section a farewell with some examples.

Example 13

Determine the equivalents of the following trigonometric functions in the range 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°.

a) sin 470° b) sin 915° c) sin (−265°) d) sin (−945°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

a) sin 470°
Solution
Since 𝜃 > 360°, we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 1 in this case (Figure 1.18). Therefore:

sin 470° = sin (470° − 360°)

= sin 110°
Trigonometric Functions I 31

FIGURE 1.18 Solution to Example 13(a).

This is the first value in the second quadrant, the other positive value will be in the first quadrant
and is

sin 110° = sin (180° − 110°)

= sin 70°
∴ sin 470° = sin 110° = sin 70°

Note
We’ve included a graph for this example for illustration only, though this is not required.

b) sin 915°
Solution
𝜃 > 360°, so we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 2 in this case. Therefore:

sin 915° = sin (915° − 360° × 2)

= sin (915° − 720°)
= sin 195°

This is the first value in the third quadrant, the other positive value will be in the fourth quadrant
and is

sin 195° = sin (360° − 15°)

= sin 345°
∴ sin 915° = sin 195° = sin 345°

c) sin (−265°)
Solution
𝜃 < 360°, so we need to add 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:

sin (−265°) = sin (−265° + 360°)

= sin 95°
32 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This is the first value in the second quadrant, the other positive value will be in the first quadrant
and is
sin 95° = sin (180° − 95°)
= sin 85°
∴ sin (−265°) = sin 95° = sin 85°

d) sin (−945°)
Solution
Since 𝜃 < 360°, we need to add 360°n, where n = 3 in this case. Therefore:
sin (−945°) = sin (−945° + 360° × 3)
= sin (−945° + 1080°)
= sin 135°
This is the first value in the second quadrant, the other positive value will be in the first quadrant
and is
sin 135° = sin (180° − 135°)
= sin 45°
∴ sin (−945°) = sin 135° = sin 45°

Another set of examples to try.

Example 14

Determine the equivalents of the following trigonometric functions in the range 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°.

a) cos 395° b) cos 900° c) cos (−1360°) d) cos (−270°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) cos 395°
Solution
𝜃 > 360°, so we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:
cos 395° = cos (395° − 360°)
= cos 35°
This is the first value in the first quadrant, the other positive value will be in the fourth quadrant and is
cos 35° = cos (360° − 35°)
= cos 325°
∴ cos 395° = cos 35° = cos 325°
Trigonometric Functions I 33

b) cos 900°
Solution
𝜃 > 360°, so we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 2 in this case. Therefore:

cos 900° = cos (900° − 360° × 2)

= cos 180°

This is the first value in the second quadrant, the other positive value will be in the third quadrant
and is

cos 180° = cos (180° + 0°)

= cos 180°
∴ cos 900° = cos 180° = cos 180°

Note
This is tricky because there is only one equivalent for the cosine function, or we can say that there
exists a repeated equivalent. The latter would imply that 180° is a second quadrant as well as a third
quadrant value.

c) cos (−1360°)
Solution
𝜃 < 360°, so we need to add 360°n, where n = 4 in this case. Therefore:

cos (−1360°) = cos (−1360° + 360° × 4)

= cos 80°

This is the first value in the first quadrant, the other positive value will be in the fourth quadrant and is

cos 80° = cos (360° − 80°)

= cos 280°
∴ cos (−1360°) = cos 80° = cos 280°

d) cos (−270°)
Solution
𝜃 < 360°, so we need to add 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:

cos (−270°) = cos (−270° + 360°)

= cos 90°

This is the first value in the first quadrant, the other positive value will be in the fourth quadrant and is

cos 90° = cos (360° − 90°)

= sin 270°
∴ cos (−270°) = cos 90° = cos 270°
34 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

One final set of examples to try.

Example 15

Determine the equivalents of the following trigonometric functions in the range 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°.

a) tan 978° b) tan 515° c) tan (−300°) d) tan (−45°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

a) tan 978°
Solution
𝜃 > 360° so, we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 2 in this case. Therefore:

tan 978° = tan (978° − 360° × 2)

= tan 258°

This is the first value in the third quadrant, the other will be in the first quadrant and is

tan 258° = tan (180° + 78°)

= tan 78°
∴ tan 978° = tan 258° = tan 78°

b) tan 515°
Solution
𝜃 > 360°, so we need to subtract 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:

tan 515° = tan (515° − 360°)

= tan 155°

This is the first value in the second quadrant, the other positive value will be in the fourth quadrant
and is

tan 155° = tan (360° − 25°)

= tan 335°
∴ tan 515° = tan 155° = tan 335°

Note
For this example and the one above, we could have simply added or subtracted 180° from the first
value. This is a property of tangent function, which will be discussed later in this chapter.
Trigonometric Functions I 35

c) tan (−300°)
Solution
𝜃 < 360°, so we need to add 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:

tan (−300°) = tan (−300° + 360°)

= tan 60°

This is the first value in the first quadrant, the other positive value will be in the third quadrant and is

tan 60° = tan (180° + 60°)

= tan 240°
∴ tan (−300°) = tan 60° = tan 240°

d) tan (−45°)
Solution
𝜃 < 360°, so we need to add 360°n, where n = 1 in this case. Therefore:

tan (−45°) = tan (−45° + 360°)

= tan 315°

This is the first value in the fourth quadrant, the other positive value will be in the second quadrant
and is

tan 315° = tan (180° − 45°)

= tan 135°
∴ tan (−45°) = tan 315° = tan 135°

1.6 GRAPHS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We have now looked, albeit numerically, at the ‘outputs’ of the three trigonometric functions (sine,
cosine, and tangent) as angle 𝜃 varies. In this section and the ones to follow, our focus is to visually
examine these functions as a plot of the function against the angle. For this, our independent variable
(x-axis) is the angle 𝜃 and the dependent variable (y-axis) is sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, or tan 𝜃. Like any graph-
ical representation or method, we will see how the graphs of these functions can be used to solve
problems relating to trigonometric functions.

1.6.1 SINE FUNCTION

Figure 1.19 is a plot of y = sin 𝜃 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°. This can be achieved by creating a
table as shown in Table 1.6 or by using a graphical calculator or any suitable software. In any case,
the output is the same.
We have now modified the interval −720° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 720° and re-plotted the function to cover four
revolutions or cycles (Figure 1.20).
36 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine Function
1.5
sin
B 90, 1
1.0

Amplitude
0.5

0.0 
0 90 180 270 360
0, 0
-0.5

-1.0
B 270, -1

-1.5

FIGURE 1.19 Sine function in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° illustrated.

TABLE 1.6
Sine Function in the Interval 0° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° Illustrated

𝜽 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
sin 𝜽 0 0.5 0.866 1 0.866 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.866 −1 −0.866 −0.5 0

Sine Function
1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-900 -720 -540 -360 -180 0 180 360 540 720 900

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 1.20 Sine function in the interval −720° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 720° illustrated.

Trigonometric Functions I 37

From the above plots, we can summarise the behaviour of a sine function as:

Note 1 The graph forms a wave-like pattern, and it is said to oscillate.

Note 2 The maximum value of sin 𝜃 is 1 and occurs at 90 degrees. It repeats itself every 360° to the
left or right of the graph (i.e., 90° ± 360°n). These points are called the peaks or crests of
the sine function.
Note 3 The minimum value of sin 𝜃 is −1 and occurs at 270 degrees. It repeats every 360° to the left
or right of the graph (i.e., 270° ± 360°n). These points are called the troughs.
Note 4 It has (0, 0) coordinates, which coincide with the origin and where the graph crosses the
x-axis. It repeats every 180° to the left or to the right of the graph (i.e., ±180°n). These are
the points where there are no vibrations of the medium particles.
Note 5 The shape of the function in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° repeats indefinitely in both directions
of the x-axis. We therefore say that the sine function is periodic with a periodicity of 360°.
One complete cycle is called a period.
Note 6 Since sin (−x) = − sin x, the sine function has a rotational symmetry about the origin (0, 0)
such that it looks the same anytime it is rotated 180 degrees about the origin. It is therefore
an odd function.
Note 7 Sine has another symmetry about 𝜃 = 90°.
Note 8 The value of a vertical line drawn from the x-axis to the maximum point (A) or minimum
point (B) is called the Amplitude of the function, and it is denoted with a letter A. It is also
the same as half the distance between the crest and trough.

1.6.2 COSINE FUNCTION

In Figure 1.21, the cosine function y = cos 𝜃 has been plotted in the same way as the sine function.
First in the interval 0° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° (Figure 1.21) and then extended to −720° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 720° (Figure
1.22).
We will notice that the two functions are identical in shape. Apart from the starting point, one may
not be able to distinguish between them. Can you try to identify which one is sine and which one is
cosine in the plot in Figure 1.23?
Did you say that f (x) is the sine function and g (x) is the cosine function? This is a good attempt, but
the answer is the other way around, i.e. g (x) is sine and f (x) is cosine.

TABLE 1.7
Cosine Function in the Interval 0° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° Illustrated

𝜽 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
cos 𝜽 1 0.866 0.5 0 −0.5 −0.866 −1 −0.866 −0.5 0 0.5 0.866 1
38 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Cosine Function
1.5
cos
0, 1 360, 1
1.0

0.5
270, 0
0.0 90, 0 
0 90 180 270 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 1.21 Cosine function in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° illustrated.

Cosine Function
1.5
cos

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-900 -720 -540 -360 -180 0 180 360 540 720 900

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 1.22 Cosine function in the interval −720° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 720° illustrated.

Trigonometric Functions I 39

Sine and Cosine Functions

g(x) f(x)

FIGURE 1.23 Sine and cosine functions indistinguishably drawn.

All notes about the sine function are equally applicable to the cosine function, but there are additional
points summarised as follows:

Note 1 The maximum value of cos 𝜃 is 1 and occurs at 0 degrees. It repeats itself every 360° to the
left or right of the graph, i.e., ±360°n. For example, it is 1 at ±360°, ± 720°, etc.
Note 2 The minimum value of cos 𝜃 is −1 and occurs at 180 degrees. It repeats every 360° to the
left or right of the graph, i.e., 270° ± 360°n.
Note 3 It has (0, 1) coordinates, which coincide with where the graph crosses the y-axis.
Note 4 Since cos (−x) = cos x, the cosine function is symmetrical about the y-axis or 𝜃 = 0. It is
therefore an even function.
Note 5 There is a phase difference of 90 degrees between the sine and cosine functions, with cosine
leading the sine (Figure 1.24). Alternatively, we can say that sine lags the cosine function.
Note 6 The 90° phase difference between the two functions is equivalent to a horizontal shift. We
can therefore derive one from the other.
40 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine-Cosine Function
sin cosx
sin
1.5
Phase difference
1

0.5

0 
0 180 360 540 720 900 1080 1260 1440 1620

-0.5

-1

-1.5

FIGURE 1.24 Phase difference illustrated.

1.6.3 TANGENT FUNCTION

Figure 1.25 is a plot of the function y = tan 𝜃 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° (Table 1.8). The interval
is extended to −360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° (Figure 1.26 ).
It is obvious that the tangent function is remarkably different from the other two functions (Figure
1.26). Let us summarise the key features of this function between 0 and 360 degrees as:

Note 1 The curve is not continuous but has three distinct parts within 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° or two distinct
parts within 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°.
Note 2 The graph rises rapidly as the angle approaches 90° and 270°, but it never touches the vertical
lines. These lines are called vertical asymptotes and are shown with dotted lines in Figure
1.25. We can simply say that this occurs at an odd multiple of 90°.
Note 3 There are discontinuities at 90° and 270° as the tangent function is undefined at these points.
In other words, the value at these angles is infinite. A calculator will return an error message
when you try tan 90° or tan 270°.
Note 4 It has (0, 0) coordinates, which coincide with the origin and where the graph crosses the
x-axis. It repeats at every 180° to the left or right of the graph, i.e., ±180°n.
Note 5 Unlike sine and cosine functions, the tangent function does not have minimum and max-
imum values. Or more technically, the maximum and minimum values are ∞ and −∞,
respectively.
Note 6 Tangent is also periodic, but it repeats itself every 180°. Thus, its periodicity is 180°.
Trigonometric Functions I 41

Tan Function
5.0
tan Vertical Asymptote
4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 
0 90 180 270 360
-1.0 0, 0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

-5.0

FIGURE 1.25 Tangent function in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° illustrated.

TABLE 1.8
Tangent Function in the Interval 0° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° Illustrated

𝜽 0° 30° 60° 90° 120° 150° 180° 210° 240° 270° 300° 330° 360°
tan 𝜽 0 0.5774 1.7321 ∞ −1.7321 −0.5774 0 0.5774 1.7321 ∞ −1.7321 −0.5774 0

Tan Function
2.0
tan

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-360 -260 -160 -60 40 140 240 340
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

FIGURE 1.26 Tangent function in the interval −360° ≤ 𝜽 ≤ 360° illustrated.

42 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This seems to be a long list to remember, but you do not have to learn it by rote; constant practice is
key to learning these summaries. To break, let’s try some examples.

Example 16

Using the graphs of trigonometric functions, determine all angles in the specified interval for the
following:

a) sin 𝜃 = 0.5 in the interval 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

b) cos 𝜃 = −0.5 in the interval −360° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°
c) tan 𝜃 = 1 in the interval −180° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360°

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

Hint

Apply the following:

● Sketch or draw a graph of the function y = sin 𝜽, y = cos 𝜽, or y = tan 𝜽.

● Draw a horizontal line l1 at the given value of the function and draw a vertical line l2
where l1 meets the plot of the function.
● Read the values off the x-axis. This is the angle you are looking for.

a) sin 𝜃 = 0.5 (Figure 1.27)

Solution

∴ sin 𝜽 = 0.5 → 𝛉 = 30°, 150°

b) cos 𝜃 = −0.5 (Figure 1.28)

Solution

∴ cos 𝜽 = −0.5 → 𝛉 = −240°, − 120°, 120°, 240°

Trigonometric Functions I 43

Sine Function
1.5

sin 30, 0.5

1.0 150, 0.5

0.5

0.0 
0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 1.27 Solution to Example 16(a).

Cosine Function
1.5
cos

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-360 -180 0 180 360

-0.5

240, -0.5
-1.0
-240, -0.5
-120, -0.5 120, -0.5

-1.5

FIGURE 1.28 Solution to Example 16(b).

44 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Tan Function
3.0
tan

2.0

-135, 1 45, 1 225, 1

1.0

0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

FIGURE 1.29 Solution to Example 16(c).

c) tan 𝜃 = 1 (Figure 1.29)

Solution

∴ tan 𝜽 = 1 → 𝛉 = −135°, 45°, 225°

xxxxx

1.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) By trigonometric ratios, we mean the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle. They are
usually shortened as sin 𝜃, cos 𝜃, and tan 𝜃, respectively, where 𝜃 represents the angle.
2) The trigonometric ratios are:

Opposite O Adjacent A Opposite O

sin 𝜽 = = cos 𝜽 = = tan 𝜽 = =
Hypotenuse H Hypotenuse H Adjacent A

3) To remember the ratios, we use SOH–CAH–TOA (as one word without the hyphens,
pronounced as ‘sow-car-tour’), which implies:
● SOH: Sine–Opposite–Hypotenuse
● CAH: Cosine–Adjacent–Hypotenuse
● TOA: Tangent–Opposite–Adjacent
Trigonometric Functions I 45

4) Tangent is a ratio of sine to cosine and is given by:

sin 𝜽
tan 𝜽 =
cos 𝜽

5) By special angles, it usually implies the naturally occurring angles such as 30°, 45°,
and 60°. Angles 0° and 90° are commonly included in this group.
6) In general, if 𝜃 is the angle measured in a clockwise direction from the positive x-axis,
its equivalent in an anti-clockwise direction is:

𝜽 + 360°

7) Similarly, if angle 𝜃 measured in an anti-clockwise direction from the positive x-axis,

its equivalent in a clockwise direction is:

𝜽 − 360°

8) Sine and tangent of negative angles result in negative values of their respective func-
tions, but cosine of negative angles remains unchanged.

sin (−𝜽) = − sin 𝜽 OR cos (−𝜽) = cos 𝜽 OR tan (−𝜽) = − tan 𝜽

9) Quadrants
● Sine, cosine, and tangent are all positive in the first quadrant.
● Sine is positive, but cosine and tangent are negative in the second quadrant, and
we use 180° − 𝜽.
● Tangent is positive, but sine and cosine are negative in the third quadrant, and we
use 180° + 𝜽.
● Cosine is positive, but sine and tangent are negative in the fourth quadrant, and
we use 360° − 𝜽.
10) When multiples of 360° are added to or subtracted from an angle 𝜃, the trigonometric
ratios of the angle remain unchanged. We can write this in standard format as:

sin 𝜽 = sin (𝜽 + 360°n) = sin (𝜽 − 360°n)

cos 𝜽 = cos (𝜽 + 360°n) = cos (𝜽 − 360°n)

tan 𝜽 = tan (𝜽 + 360°n) = tan (𝜽 − 360°n)

where n is any positive integer.

11) Sine and cosine functions
● The graph forms a wave-like pattern, and it is said to oscillate.
● The maximum value of sin 𝜃 is 1 and occurs at 90 degrees, and the maximum
value of cos 𝜃 is 1 and occurs at 0 degree. These points are called the peaks or
crests of the sine/cosine function.
46 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● The minimum value of sin 𝜃 is −1 and occurs at 270 degree, and the mini-
mum value of cos 𝜃 is −1 and occurs at 180 degrees. These points are called
the troughs of the sine/cosine function.
● Sine and cosine functions are periodic with a periodicity of 360°.
● Sine has (0, 0) coordinates, which coincide with the origin and where the graph
crosses the x-axis. Cosine has (0, 1) coordinates, which is where the graph
crosses the y-axis.
● Since sin (−x) = − sin x, the sine function exhibits rotational symmetry about
the origin ((0, 0)) such that it appears identical when rotated 180 degrees around
the origin.
● Since cos (−x) = cos x, the cosine function is symmetrical about the y-axis.
● The value of a vertical line drawn from the x-axis to the maximum point, or
minimum point is called the Amplitude of the function and it is denoted with a
letter A.
● There is a phase difference of 90 degrees between sine and cosine functions, with
cosine leading the sine. Alternatively, we can say that sine lags the cosine func-
tion.
12) Tangent function
● The curve is not continuous but has three distinct parts within 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° or
two distinct parts within 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°.
● The graph rises rapidly as the angle approaches 90° and 270° , but it never touches
the vertical lines. These lines are called vertical asymptotes.
● There are discontinuities at 90° and 270° as the tangent function is undefined at
these points.
● Tangent has (0, 0) coordinates, which coincide with the origin and where the
graph crosses the x-axis. It repeats at every 180° to the left or right of the graph,
i.e., ±180°n.
● Unlike sine and cosine function, tangent function does not have minimum and
maximum values. Or more technically, the maximum and minimum values are
∞ and −∞ respectively.
● Tangent is also periodic, but it repeats itself every 180°. Thus, its periodicity is
180°.

****

1.8 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 2 Trigonometric Functions II
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Discuss the graphs of inverse trigonometric functions

● Discuss the graphs of reciprocal functions
● Evaluate the transformations of sine, cosine, and tangent functions

2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will, in continuation of our discussion on trigonometric functions, look at both the recip-
rocals and the inverse of the three trigonometric functions that were covered in the previous chapter.
It will also discuss the transformation of these functions.

2.2 RECIPROCAL OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

The reciprocal of sine, cosine, and tangent are called cosecant, secant, and cotangent, respectively;
they are shortened to cosec, sec, and cot. Notice that the third letter of each name shows the reciprocal
we are referring to. cosec is further abbreviated to csc as a three-letter convention.
In general, a reciprocal of a number, variable, or function is one over it. Hence, the ratios of the
reciprocals of trigonometric functions are given as:

1 Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj

csc 𝜽 = = sec 𝜽 = = cot 𝜽 = = (2.1)
sin 𝜽 Opp cos 𝜽 Adj tan 𝜽 Opp

It is often easier to find the main trigonometric ratio and flip the answer to obtain its reciprocal. For
example, to find cot x, find tan x and take the reciprocal of the answer.
What follows is a description of the behaviour of each of the three reciprocals.

2.2.1 SEC FUNCTION

Figure 2.1 is a plot of sec x and cos x on the same chart in the range −2𝜋 < x < 2𝜋.
Most of the features of the cosine function hold for sec with a few observations as noted in Table 2.1.
In fact, secant is to cosecant as cosine is to sine.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-2 47
48 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

cos-sec
2.5
sec x
cosx, secx

2.0

1.5

1.0
sin x
0.5

0.0 x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

cos(x) sec (x)

FIGURE 2.1 Sec function in the interval −2𝝅 < x < 2𝝅 illustrated.

TABLE 2.1
Characteristics of Sec Function Explained

sec x
Note 1 As sec x is a reciprocal of cos x, it implies that it is undefined when cos x = 0. Hence,
1
sec x has vertical asymptotes at these points, i.e., x = 𝝅 ± n𝝅, where n is any positive
2
integer.
1
Note 2 As angle x approaches 𝝅 from the left, cos x is positive but approaches zero whilst sec x
2
is positive but approaches infinity (or the vertical asymptote). On the other hand, if angle
1
x approaches 𝝅 from the right, cos x is negative but approaches zero whilst sec x is also
2
negative but approaches negative infinity.

Note 3 sec x is maximum when cos x is minimum and vice versa.

Note 4 The maximum and minimum values for sec x are −1 and 1, respectively; an exact
reciprocal of cos x.

Note 5 Like cos x, sec x has a periodicity of 2𝝅 and the y-axis acts as its line of symmetry.
Trigonometric Functions II 49

sin-cosec
sinx, cosecx 4.0

3.0
cosec x
2.0

1.0 sin x
0.0 x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

sin(x) cosec (x)

FIGURE 2.2 Cosec function in the interval −2𝝅 < x < 2𝝅 illustrated.

2.2.2 COSEC FUNCTION

Figure 2.2 is a plot of cosec x and sin x on the same chart in the range −2𝜋 < x < 2𝜋.
Most of the features of the sine function hold for cosec with a few observations as noted in Table 2.2.

2.2.3 COT FUNCTION

Figure 2.3 is a plot of cot x and tan x on the same chart in the range −2𝜋 < x < 2𝜋.
Most of the features of the tangent function hold for cot with a few observations as noted in
Table 2.3.
Now let’s look at examples.

Example 1

Without using a calculator, determine the exact value of the following:

4𝜋 3𝜋
a) sec 330° b) cosec 240° c) cot 135° d) cot (−135°) e) sec (− ) f) cosec (− )
3 2
50 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 2.2
Characteristics of Cosec Function Explained

cosec x
Note 1 As cosec x is a reciprocal of sin x, it implies that it is undefined when sin x = 0. Hence,
cosec x has vertical asymptotes at these points, i.e., x = ±n𝝅, where n is any positive
integer.

Note 2 cosec x is maximum when sin x is minimum and vice versa.

Note 3 The maximum and minimum values for cosec x are −1 and 1, respectively; an exact
reciprocal of sin x.

Note 4 cosec x has a periodicity of 2𝝅 just like sin x.

1 1
Note 5 Since sin x = cos (x − 𝝅), it follows that cosec x = sec (x − 𝝅). This means that the
2 2
1
graph of cosec x can be produced by translating sec x 𝝅 in the positive direction of the
2
x-axis.

tan-cot
5.0
tanx, cotx

cot x
4.0

3.0 tan x
2.0

1.0

0.0 x
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

-5.0

FIGURE 2.3 Cot function in the interval −2𝝅 < x < 2𝝅 illustrated.
Trigonometric Functions II 51

TABLE 2.3
Characteristics of Cot Function Explained

cot x
Note 1 As cot x is a reciprocal of tan x, it means that it is undefined when tan x = 0, which is
the same as when sin x = 0. Hence, cot x has vertical asymptotes at these points, i.e., at
x = ±n𝝅, where n is any positive integer.

Note 2 cot x = 0 when tan x is undefined, which implies that it crosses the x-axis at these points,
1
i.e., x = 𝝅 ± n𝝅 where n is any positive integer. The reverse is the case, i.e., cot x is
2
undefined, tan x crosses the x-axis.

Note 3 When tan x is positive and small, cot x will be positive but large and vice versa. The
same trend is observed for the negative y-axis region.

Note 4 cot x has a periodicity of 𝝅 just like tan x.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

a) sec 330°
Solution
1
sec 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
𝜃 = 330° is in the fourth quadrant, so it will be positive for cosine. Therefore, we have
1 1
sec 330° = =
cos 330° cos (360° − 330°)
1 1 2
= = =
cos 30° √3 √3
( )
2
2
∴ sec 330° =
√3

Note
2 2√3 2√ 3
We can rationalise to obtain , so sec 330° = .
√3 3 3
52 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) cosec 240°
Solution
1
cosec 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃
𝜃 = 240° is in the third quadrant, so it will be negative for sine. Therefore, we have
1 1
cosec 240° = =−
sin 240° sin (180° + 60°)
1 1 2
=− =− =−
sin 60° √3 √3
( )
2

2 2√3
∴ cosec 240° = − or −
√3 3

c) cot 135°
Solution
1
cot 𝜃 =
tan 𝜃
𝜃 = 135° is in the second quadrant, so it will be negative for tangent. Therefore, we have
1 1
cot 135° = =−
tan 135° tan (180° − 135°)
1 1
=− = − = −1
tan 45° 1
∴ cot 135° = −1

d) cot (−135°)
Solution
1
cot 𝜃 =
tan 𝜃
If 𝜃 = −135°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

𝜃 = 360° − 135° = 225°

𝜃 = 225° is in the third quadrant, so it will be positive for tangent. Therefore, we have
1
cot (−135°) = cot 225° =
tan 225°
1
=
tan (180° + 45°)
1 1
= = =1
tan 45° 1
∴ cot (−135°) = 1
Trigonometric Functions II 53

4𝜋
e) sec (− )
3
Solution
1
sec 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃
4𝜋
If 𝜃 = − , it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:
3

4𝜋 2𝜋
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
3 3
2𝜋
𝜃= is in the second quadrant, so it will be negative for cosine. Therefore, we have
3

4𝜋 2𝜋 1
sec (− ) = sec =
3 3 cos
2𝜋
3
1
=−
2𝜋
cos (𝜋 − )
3
1 1
=− =− = −2
𝜋 1
cos ( )
3 2
4𝝅
∴ sec (− ) = −2
3

3𝜋
f) cosec (− )
2
Solution
1
cosec 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃
3𝜋
If 𝜃 = − , it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:
2

3𝜋 𝜋
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − =
2 2
𝜋
𝜃= is in the first quadrant, so it will be positive for sine. Therefore, we have
2

3𝜋 𝜋 1
cosec (− ) = cosec =
2 2 sin
𝜋
2
1
= =1
1
3𝝅
∴ cosec (− )=1
2
54 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another example to try.

Example 2

Using trigonometric ratios, prove that tan 𝜃 = cot (90° − 𝜃).

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

To prove this, we will consider ∆ABC where ∠B = 𝜃 (Figure 2.4). Since this is a right-angled tri-
angle, angles B and C are complimentary (i.e., ∠B + ∠C = 90° or ∠C = 90° − 𝜃) as shown in
Figure 2.4.
We have:
Opp |AC| Adj |AC|
tan 𝜃 = = cot (90° − 𝜃) = =
Adj |AB| Opp |AB|

As the RHS of both are equal, therefore:

tan 𝜽 = cot (90° − 𝜽)

Note
This is known as the ratio of complimentary angles. By the same method, we can prove that
cot 𝜃 = tan (90° − 𝜃). What this means in practice is that, for example,
3 𝜋 3 𝜋
tan 70° = cot 20° tan 𝜋 = cot cot 71.5° = tan 18.5° cot 𝜋 = tan
7 14 8 8

FIGURE 2.4 Solution to Example 2.

Trigonometric Functions II 55

Another set of examples to try.

Example 3

11
Given that cos 𝛼 = , such that angle 𝛼 is acute, determine the exact value of the following:
14

a) sec 𝛼 b) cosec 𝛼 c) cot 𝛼

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

We need to sketch the triangle first as shown in Figure 2.5.

Given that
Adj 11
cos 𝛼 = =
Hyp 14
Using Pythagoras’ theorem, we have
2 2
14 = 11 + x2
2 2
x2 = 14 − 11 = 75
∴ x = 5√3

a) sec α
Solution
Hyp 14
sec 𝛼 = =
Adj 11
14
∴ sec 𝜶 =
11

FIGURE 2.5 Solution to Example 3.

56 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

1 1 14
sec 𝛼 = = =
cos 𝛼 11 11
( )
14
14
∴ sec 𝜶 =
11

b) cosec 𝛼
Solution
Hyp 14
cosec 𝛼 = =
Opp 5√3
14
∴ cosec 𝜶 = √3
15

c) cot 𝛼
Solution
Adj 11
cot 𝛼 ==
Opp 5√3
11
∴ cot 𝜶 = √3
15

2.3 INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In Chapter 1, we discussed the inverse trigonometric ratios. This will be explained here again but
with a focus on their graphs. In general, trigonometric functions are many-to-one functions; this is to
say that more than one value of independent variable x will give the same value of dependent variable
(sin x, cos x, or tan x). For example, sin 0 = sin 𝜋 = sin 2𝜋 = 0, cos 0 = cos 𝜋 = cos (−𝜋) = −1,
and tan 0 = tan 𝜋 = tan (−𝜋) = 0.
Therefore, to plot the inverse functions, we need to restrict the domain such that the trigonometric
ratio behaves as though it is a one-to-one function. This will be clearer once we start looking at each
function. One common feature of all the trigonometric inverses is that they act as mirrors of their
respective functions along the line y = x. This is therefore indicated on each of the graphs.

2.3.1 ARCSIN FUNCTION

−1
Figure 2.6 is a plot of arcsin (or sin x) in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1, which corresponds to a range of
values from minimum to maximum values of sin x. We are limited to this range because an absolute
value of x must be less than or equal to 1 (i.e., |x| ≤ 1). For comparison, we also plot sin x and x = y
𝜋 𝜋
on the same chart using the interval − ≤x≤ .
2 2

The main feature of the graph in Figure 2.6 is summarised in Table 2.4.
Trigonometric Functions II 57

Sin - Arcsin
2.0
y=x
sinx, arcsinx
sin–1 x
1.5

1.0

0.5 sin x
0.0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.5 x, sinx

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

sin x arcsinx x=y

FIGURE 2.6 Arcsin function in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 illustrated.

TABLE 2.4
𝛑 𝛑
Arcsin Function in the Interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and Sine Function in the Interval − ≤ x ≤
2 2
Compared

−1
sin x sin x
Note 1 The domain is limited to Note 1 The domain is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
𝛑 𝛑
− ≤x≤ .
2 2

𝝅 −1 𝝅
Note 2 The range is −1 ≤ sin x ≤ 1. Note 2 The range is − ≤ sin x ≤ .
2 2

Note 3 The graph passes through the origin Note 3 The graph passes through the ori-
(0, 0) only for the range taken. gin (0, 0).

Note 4 The maximum and minimum Note 4 The coordinates of the endpoints
𝝅 𝝅
points remain as 1 and –1, respec- are (−1, − ) and (1, ). This
2 2
tively. This is irrespective of the
will remain unchanged even if
portion taken as interval, which
there is a transformation in sin x
fulfils the condition of a one-to-one
as the domain must be limited to
function.
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
58 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Cos - Arccos
cosx, arccosx 3.5

3.0

2.5

cos–1 x 2.0
y=x
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-0.5 x, cosx
-1.0
cos x
-1.5

FIGURE 2.7 Arccos function in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 illustrated.

2.3.2 ARCCOS FUNCTION

Figure 2.7 is a plot of arccos (or cos−1 x) in the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, which corresponds to a range of
values from minimum to maximum values of cos x. We are limited to this range for the same reason
given for sin x above. For comparison, we also plot cos x and x = y on the same chart using the
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.
The main feature of the graph in Figure 2.7 is summarised in Table 2.5.

2.3.3 ARCTAN FUNCTION

Figure 2.8 is a plot of arctan (or tan−1 x). Inverse tangent is valid for any value of x such that
−∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞, but we’ve limited the interval to a range so that we have a one-to-one mapping.
𝜋 𝜋
For comparison, we also plot tan x and x = y on the same chart using the − ≤x≤ .
2 2

The main feature of the graph in Figure 2.8 is summarised in Table 2.6.
Trigonometric Functions II 59

TABLE 2.5
Arccos Function in the Interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and Cosine Function in the Interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝛑
Compared

cos x cos−1 x
Note 1 The domain is limited to 0 ≤ x ≤ 𝛑. Note 1 The domain is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Note 2 The range is −1 ≤ cos x ≤ 1. Note 2 The range is 0 ≤ cos−1 x ≤ 𝝅.

Note 3 The graph passes through the Note 3 The graph passes through the
𝝅
x-axis at ( , 0) and the y-axis at x-axis at (1, 0) and the y-axis at
2 𝝅
(0, 1). If we take other ranges, e.g., (0, ).
2
𝝅 ≤ x ≤ 2𝛑, it will have different
intercepts.

Note 4 The maximum and minimum Note 4 The coordinates of the endpoints
points remain as 1 and –1, respec- are (−1, − 𝝅) and (1, 𝝅). This
tively. This is irrespective of the will remain unchanged even if
portion taken as interval, which there is a transformation in cos x
fulfils the condition of a one-to-one as the domain must be limited to
function. −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.

Tan - Arctan
10.0
tanx, arctanx

tan x
8.0
y=x
6.0

4.0 tan–1 x
2.0

0.0
-10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10
-2.0
 , tanx
-4.0

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

tan x artanx x=y Linear (x=y)

FIGURE 2.8 Arctan function in the interval −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ illustrated.

60 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 2.6
𝛑 𝛑
Arctan Function in the Interval −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ and Tangent Function in the Interval − ≤ x ≤
2 2
Compared

tan x tan−1 x
Note 1 The domain is limited to Note 1 The domain is −∞ ∞ < x < ∞ . Note
𝝅 𝝅 that the domain does not include the
− <x< .
2 2 ±∞ as tan x is undefined at ±𝜋. We
𝝅
have vertical asymptotes at y = −
2
𝝅
and y = .
2

𝝅 𝝅
Note 2 The range is −∞ < tan x < ∞. Note 2 The range is − < tan−1 x < .
2 2
Note that the range does not include This is the interval of the answer you
the ±∞ as tan x is undefined at ±𝝅. will get when you compute the arctan
We have vertical asymptotes at x = function on a calculator for example
𝝅 𝝅
and y = .
2 2

Note 3 The graph passes through the origin Note 3 The graph passes through the origin
(0, 0) only for the range taken. (0, 0).

Let us attempt an example.

Example 4

Determine f −1 (x) given that f (x) = tan (3x) − 5.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

f (x) = tan (3x) − 5

Let y = f (x), thus

y = tan (3x) − 5
y + 5 = tan (3x)
−1
tan (y + 5) = 3x
1
x = tan−1 (y + 5)
3
Trigonometric Functions II 61

Now substitute x for f −1 (x) and y for x.

1
∴ f −1 (x) = tan−1 (x + 5)
3

Another example for us to try.

Example 5

Sketch the graph of y = 2arcsinx in the interval −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and state the range.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Solution
The graph of y = 2arcsin (x) is the same as y = arcsin (x) except the former is stretched vertically
by a factor of 2. Hence, the range is also double and is

−𝝅 ≤ 2 arcsin (x) ≤ 𝝅

Arcsin
4.0
arcsinx

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 x
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

FIGURE 2.9 Solution to Example 5.

62 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2.4 TRANSFORMATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Transformation is the change in shape of a graph function, and this can occur in several ways. Here,
we will be looking at two main categories of changes to trigonometric functions, namely translation
and stretch.

2.4.1 TRANSLATION
This is the movement (without a change in shape) of the sine, cosine, and tangent graphs along the
x–y plane and we have two main types.
Type 1 Horizontal translation
This is when the graph is moved along the x-axis right or left. Given a sine function f (x) = sin x, a
translation of this function is given by g (x) = sin (x ± c) where c is a positive number (i.e., c > 0),
denoting the angle of shift.
g1 (x) = sin (x + c) is a graph that has been moved to the left of f (x) and is said to be leading sin x
by an angle of c. Similarly, g2 (x) = sin (x − c) is a graph that has been moved to the right f (x) and
is said to be lagging sin x by an angle of c.
Note that the angle at which maximum and minimum occur will be shifted accordingly. In general,
given that sin x is transformed into sin (x ± c), it follows that:

a) maximum point in sin x occurs at 90°, 450°, 810°, etc., which corresponds to 90° ∓ c, 450°
∓ c, 810° ∓ c, etc., in sin (x ± c).
b) minimum point in sin x occurs at 270°, 630°, 990°, etc., which implies to 270° ∓ c, 630°
∓ c, 990° ∓ c, etc., in sin (x ± c).

Consider Figure 2.10 where sin x is plotted along with two other sine functions, namely: g1 (x) =
sin (x + 60°) and g2 (x) = sin (x − 60°). The shift angle c is 60°.
sin (x + 60°) is said to be leading sin x by 60° and you will notice that it is shifted left by this amount
of angle (from point B to A). Similarly, sin (x − 60°) is said to be lagging sin x by 60° and you will
notice that it is shifted to the right by this amount of angle (point B to C). Also, note that there is a
phase difference of 120° between sin (x + 60°) and sin (x − 60°) with the latter lagging the former
by this phase angle.
In Figure 2.11, we have shown a plot of the sine function with a phase shift of 10°. In total, there are
nine different functions with reference to sin x.
Although we have used the sine function to illustrate a horizontal translation, but all the explanations
given equally apply to cosine and tangent functions.
Type 2 Vertical translation
This is when the graph is moved along the y-axis up or down. Given a cosine function f (x) = cos x,
a translation of this function is given by g (x) = cos x ± b where b is a positive number (i.e., b > 0),
denoting the length of shift.
g1 (x) = cos x+b is a graph that has been moved up above f (x) by b unit. Similarly, g2 (x) = cos x−b
is a graph that has been moved down below f (x) by b unit.
Trigonometric Functions II 63

Translaon (Sine Funcon)

sin x sin(x+c) sin(x-c)
1.5
sinx

A B C
1.0

0.5

0.0 x
-90 0 90 180 270 360 450 540

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.10 Horizontal translation of sine function with a phase angle of 60° illustrated.

Translation (Sine Function)

1.5
sinx

1.0

0.5

0.0 x

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.11 Horizontal translation of sine function with a phase angle of 10° illustrated.

Consider Figure 2.12 where cos x is plotted along with two other cosine functions, namely g1 (x) =
cos x + 1 and g2 (x) = cos x − 1. The translation length b is 1 unit. Notice that cos x + 1 has been
moved up by 1 unit (from point B to A) and cos x − 1 has been moved down by the same amount
(from point B to C). No change to the points of maximum and minimum, but the y-coordinate would
have been shifted by ±b. Consequently, the amplitude remains unchanged. The x-coordinate of the
maximum and minimum points also remain the same, but the y-coordinate is shifted by ±b.
64 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Translation (Cosine Function)

cos x cosx+b cosx-b
cosx

2.5

2.0 A

1.5

1.0 B
0.5

0.0 x
0C 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

FIGURE 2.12 Vertical translation of cosine function at 1 unit illustrated.

It’s a good time to try some examples.

Example 6

Using sin φ, cos φ, or tan φ as reference functions, determine the phase angle of the following
functions and state whether it is leading or lagging.

a) sin (φ − 𝜋) b) cos (φ + 120°) c) cos 𝜑 d) tan (𝜑 − 15°) e) tan (𝜑 + 1.2𝜋)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

We need to write the function in the form sin (x ± c), where c is the phase angle. If

● the sign between x and c is positive, it is a lead.

● the sign between x and c is negative it is a lag.
Trigonometric Functions II 65

a) sin (𝜑 − 𝜋)
Solution

∴ Phase angle is 𝛑, it’s lagging sin 𝝋

b) cos (𝜑 + 120°)
Solution

∴ Phase angle is 120°, it’s leading cos 𝝋

c) cos 𝜑
Solution

∴ Phase angle is 0, it’s in phase with cos 𝝋 (neither lagging or leading)

d) tan (𝜑 − 15°)
Solution

∴ Phase angle is 15°, it’s lagging tan 𝝋

e) tan (𝜑 + 1.2𝜋)
Solution

∴ Phase angle is 1.2𝛑, it’s leading tan 𝝋

Another set of examples to try.

Example 7

Determine the coordinates of the maximum and minimum points of the following functions in the
interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 360° or 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋. Sketch the graph in each case.

𝜋
a) y1 = 3 + sin (x + 30°) b) y2 = cos (x − ) − 5
3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

● We need to vary the range based on the phase angle.

● The y-coordinate is A ± b, where A is the amplitude and b is the vertical shift. In this
example, A = 1. Given that y = A sin (x + 𝜃) + b or y = A cos (x + 𝜃) + b.
66 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine Function
4.5

sinx
4.0
3.5
3.0
60, 4
2.5
2.0
1.5
240, 2
1.0
0.5
0.0 x
-90 0 90 180 270 360

FIGURE 2.13 Solution to Example 7(a).

a) y1 = 3 + sin (x + 30°)
Solution
The interval is now 0 ≤ x + 30° ≤ 360° or −30° ≤ x ≤ 330°.
The sine function is maximum at 90°, therefore the x-coordinate is:

x + 30° = 90°
x = 60°

The y-coordinate is:

A+b=1+3=4

The sine function is minimum at 270°, therefore the x-coordinate is:

x + 30° = 270°
x = 240°

The y-coordinate is:

A + b = −1 + 3 = 2
∴ (60°, 4) , (240°, 2)

𝜋
b) cos (x − ) − 5
3
Solution
𝜋 𝜋 7
The interval is now 0 ≤ x − ≤ 2𝜋 or ≤ x ≤ 𝜋.
3 3 3
Trigonometric Functions II 67

The cosine function is maximum at 0 and 2𝜋, therefore the x-coordinate is:

𝜋 𝜋
x− =0 AND x− = 2𝜋
3 3
𝜋 7
x= x= 𝜋
3 3

The y-coordinate is:

A + b = 1 − 5 = −4

The cosine function is minimum at 𝜋, therefore the x-coordinate is:

𝜋
x− =𝜋
3
4
x= 𝜋
3
The y-coordinate is

A + b = −1 − 5 = −6
1 7 4
∴ ( 𝝅, − 4) , ( 𝝅, − 4) , ( 𝝅, −6)
3 3 3
𝜋
The graph of cos (x − ) − 5 is shown in Figure 2.14.
3

2.4.2 STRETCH
This is when a trigonometric function is ‘transformed’ along either the x-axis or y-axis. This transfor-
mation can result in magnification and demagnification of the shape. By extension, it also produces

Cosine Function
0.0 x
cosx

0 90 180 270 360 450

-1.0

-2.0

-3.0 60, -4 420, -4

-4.0

-5.0

-6.0
240, -6
-7.0

FIGURE 2.14 Solution to Example 7(b).

68 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

a reflection of the shape. Again, we will consider two types here, namely vertical and horizontal
stretch.
Type 1 Vertical stretch
This is when the graph is either stretched or squashed in the y-axis direction. The general form for
this type is shown below for the three trigonometric functions.

y = n sin x y = n cos x y = n tan x (2.2)

where n represents the amount of vertical stretch. If:

● n < 0 (i.e., n is negative), then the shape is reflected (or mirrored) in the x-axis.
● 0 < n < 1, the shape is reduced or squashed in the y-axis.
● n > 1, the shape is enlarged or stretched out in the y-axis.

The above three situations are shown in Figure 2.15, where n = 1 (default), n = −1 (reflection or
mirror), n = 0.5 (squash or reduction), and n = 2 (stretch or enlargement).
Type 2 Horizontal stretch
This is when the graph is stretched (or squashed) in the x-axis direction. The general form for this is:

y = sin nx y = cos nx y = tan nx (2.3)

1
The above implies that the graph has been horizontally stretched by a factor of . Have you noticed
n
the difference? The bigger the value of n, the more the shape is squashed and vice versa. If:

Stretch (Sine Funcon)

nsin x, n=1 nsin x, n<0 nsin x, 0<n<1 nsin x, n>1
sinx

2.5
2.0 2sin x
1.5 sin x
1.0
0.5
0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360 450 540 630 720 810
-0.5
-1.0
-1.5 –sin x
-2.0
0.5sin x
-2.5

FIGURE 2.15 Vertical stretch of sine function with n = 1, n = −1, n = 0.5, and n = 2 illustrated.
Trigonometric Functions II 69

● n < 0 (i.e., n is negative), then the shape is reflected (or mirrored) in the x-axis. As the cosine
function is symmetrical about the origin, the shape remains unchanged for ±n. For example,
the shape for cos 3x is the same as cos (−3x), where n = 3 and n = −3, respectively.
● 0 < n < 1, the shape is enlarged or stretched outwardly in the x-axis direction. This represents
a low-frequency oscillating system.
● n > 1, the shape is reduced or squashed inwardly in the x-axis direction. This represents a
high-frequency oscillating system.

The above three situations are shown in Figure 2.16, where n = 1 (default), n = −2 (reflection or
mirror), n = 0.5 (stretch outwards or enlarged), and n = 3 (squashed inwardly or reduced).
Notice that there is no sign of reflection in cos (−2x) though n is negative, contrary to expectation.
This is because cos (−2x) = cos 2x. We have the same effect using sine here but use n = −1 instead,
to clearly show the mirror effect.
Before we leave this topic, let us write the general expressions for the three trigonometric functions
as:

y = a sin (bx ± c) y = a cos (bx ± c) y = a tan (bx ± c) (2.4)

Stretch (Cosine Function)

cos nx, n=1 cos nx, n<0 cos nx, 0<n<1 cos nx, n>1

1.5
cosx

cos x cox 0.5x cos –2x cos 3x

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.16 Horizontal stretch of cosine function with n = 1, n = −2, n = 0.5, and n = 3 illustrated.
70 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Stretch (Sine Funcon)

sinx sin nx, n=1 sin nx, n<0 sin nx, 0<n<1 sin nx, n>1

1.5
sin x sin 0.5x sin –x sin 3x
1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.17 Horizontal stretch of sine function with n = 1, n = −1, n = 0.5, and n = 3 illustrated.

where

● a is the amplitude of the function,

● b is a measure of periodicity, where 360°/b for sine and cosine, and 180°/b for tangent, and
● c is the phase angle (leading for positive and lagging for negative).

Now it is time to look at some examples to conclude this chapter.

Example 8

Sketch the graph of 2 cosec (3𝜃) and explain the transformation that takes place.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Hint

In this case, we will use y = a cosec(bx + c) as the standard format.

Graphs of cosec 𝜃 and 2 cosec (3𝜃) are shown in Figure 2.18.

Trigonometric Functions II 71

Cosec Function
Cosec Function
cosec x acosec (bx+c)
8.0
cosec

8.0

cosec
6.0
6.0
4.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
0.0 
0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
-2.0
-2.0
-4.0
-4.0
-6.0
-6.0
-8.0
-8.0

FIGURE 2.18 Solution to Example 8.

The graph of 2 cosec (3𝜃) is like cosec 𝜃 with the following transformations:

●a=2
● This means that 2 cosec (3𝜃) is stretched vertically by a factor of 2.
● It also implies that its minimum and maximum points are doubled to 2 and −2,
respectively.
●b=3
1
● This implies that 2 cosec (3𝜃) is stretched horizontally by a factor of .
3
360°
● It also changes its periodicity to 120° (i.e., ) or repeats itself at every 120° and the
3
1
shape pattern has tripled. Asymptotes now occur at = ± n𝜋.
3

●c=0
● This implies that 2 cosec (3𝜃) has not been translated horizontally (left or right).

Example 9

1
Describe the transformations that take place in y = 3 sec (2x + 𝜋) − 1 and give the coordinates of
3
the minimum points in the interval 0 ≤ x ≤ 2𝜋.
72 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Hint

In this case, we will use y = a sec(bx + c) + d as the standard format.

Transformations
1
The transformations in y = 3 sec (2x + 𝜋) − 1 are as follows:
3

●a=3
● This means that y is stretched vertically by a factor of 3.
● It also implies that its minimum and maximum points are multiplied by a factor of 3 and
thus become 3 and −3, respectively.
●b=2
1
● This implies that y is stretched horizontally by a factor of .
2
● It also changes its periodicity to 180° or repeats itself at every 180° (and the shape pattern
has doubled in the graph provided).
1
●c= 𝝅
3
● This implies that y is leading by this amount or it has been translated to the left of the
horizontal x-axis by this amount.
● d = −1
● This means that the graph is shifted down by 1 unit.

Coordinates of minimum points

● sec x is minimum at (0, 1) and (2𝜋, 1).

● a = 3 means (0, 3) and (2𝜋, 3).
● b = 2 means (0, 3), (𝜋, 3), and (2𝜋, 3) as the periodicity is now 𝜋. Equally, there is now a
1 1 1
shift of 𝜋 to the left. The new coordinates of minimum points are (0 − 𝜋, 3), (𝜋 − 𝜋, 3),
6 6 6
1
and (2𝜋 − 𝜋, 3).
6
1
● (− 𝜋, 3) is not in the stated range or intervals. We are therefore left with two coordinates
6
5 11
( 𝜋, 3) and ( 𝜋, 3) .
6 6
● −1 indicates that the minimum point is one unit less than 3.
1
● Hence, the coordinates of y = 3 sec (2x + 𝜋) − 1 are
3

5 11
( 𝝅, 2) , ( 𝝅, 2)
6 6
Trigonometric Functions II 73

Sec Function
Sec Function
sec x asec (bx+c)+d
15.0
Sec

Sec
20.0

15.0
10.0
10.0
5.0 5.0

0.0 0.0 
 0 90 180 270 360
0 90 180 270 360 -5.0
-5.0
-10.0

-10.0 -15.0

-20.0
-15.0
-25.0

FIGURE 2.19 Solution to Example 9.

1
Graphs of sec x and 3 sec (2x + 𝜋) − 1 are shown in Figure 2.19.
3

Example 10

On the same axes, sketch the graph of y = sin x and y = −3 sin 2x in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
Comment on the shape of y = 3 sin (−2x).

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

● Sketch or draw the graph of y = sin x in the stated range (Figure 2.20).
● Now the second function is y = −3 sin 2x. − 3 means that we need to reflect the graph in the
x-axis (because of the minus) and stretch it vertically by a factor of 3. The result of these two
actions is shown in Figure 2.21.
1
● The 2 in −3 sin 2x implies that the function is stretched by a factor of or the periodicity
2
360°
is 180° (= ) . Hence, we need to fit two of the shape of sin x within the same range
2
(Figure 2.22).
● 3 sin (−2x) will give the same result as −3 sin 2x as shown above. This is because the reflection
made by the negative −3 is provided by −2. Alternatively, we can say that since sin (−x) =
− sin x, then −3 sin 2x = 3 sin (−2x).
● In addition, we can equally say that 3 sin 2x is the same as −3 sin (−2x). This is because the
double reflection in the latter function simply means no reflection.
74 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine Function
1.5

sinx
1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.20 Solution to Example 10 – Part I.

Sine Function
4.0
sinx

3.0 sin x
2.0
1.0
0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
–3sin x
-4.0

sin x asin bx

FIGURE 2.21 Solution to Example 10 – Part II.

Example 11

3
On the same axes, sketch the graph of y = cos x and y = 2 cos ( x) in the range −180° ≤ x ≤ 180°.
2
3
Use your graphs to solve cos x = 1 and 2 cos ( x) = 1.
2
Trigonometric Functions II 75

Sine Function
4.0

sinx
3.0 sin x
2.0
1.0
0.0 x
0 90 180 270 360
-1.0
-2.0
-3.0
–3sin 2x
-4.0

sin x asin bx

FIGURE 2.22 Solution to Example 10 – Part III.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

● Sketch or draw the graph of y = cos x in the stated range (Figure 2.23).
3
● The second function is y = 2 cos ( x) . 2 means that we need to stretch it vertically by a factor
2
2
of 2 and horizontally by a factor of .
3
● Draw a horizontal line at y = 1 to cross the two functions. Draw a vertical line at each of the
intersecting points and read off the values (Figure 2.24).

For cos x = 1, there is only one solution:

(0°, 1)

3
For 2 cos ( x) = 1, there are four solutions:
2

(−160°, 1) , (−80°, 1) , (80°, 1) , (160°, 1)

76 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Cosine Function

cosx
1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
-180 -90 0 90 180
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 2.23 Solution to Example 11 – Part I.

Cosine Function
2.5
cosx

2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0 x
-180 -90 -0.5 0 90 180
-1.0
-1.5
3
cos x -2.0 2cos x
2
-2.5

cos x acos bx

FIGURE 2.24 Solution to Example 11 – Part II.

One final example to try.

Example 12

On the same axes, sketch the graph of tan x and 1.5 tan (2x + 30°) in the range −180° ≤ x ≤ 180°.
Trigonometric Functions II 77

Cosine Function

cosx
cos x acos bx

2.5
-160, 1 2.0
-80, 1 160, 1
1.5 0, 1.0000 80, 1
1.0
0.5
0.0 x
-180 -90 -0.5 0 90 180
-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5

FIGURE 2.25 Solution to Example 11 – Part III.

Tan Function
10.0
tanx

8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0 x
-180 -90 -2.0 0 90 180

-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
-10.0

FIGURE 2.26 Solution to Example 12 – Part I.

78 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Tan Function
10.0
tanx tan x 8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0 x
-180 -90 0 90 180
-2.0
-4.0
-6.0
-8.0
1.5tan(2x + 30˚)
-10.0

tan x atan(bx)

FIGURE 2.27 Solution to Example 12 – Part II.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

● Sketch or draw the graph of y = tan x in the stated range (Figure 2.26).
● The second function is y = 1.5 tan (2x + 30°). This means that we need to stretch it vertically
1
by a factor of 1.5 and horizontally by a factor of . We then need to shift the graph by 30°
2
backwardly along the x-axis (Figure 2.27).

2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Trigonometric functions are many-to-one functions; this is to say that more than one
value of independent variable x will give the same value of dependent variable (sin x,
cos x, or tan x).
2) To plot the inverse functions, we need to restrict the domain such that the trigonometric
ratio behaves as though it is a one-to-one function.
−1
3) arcsin (or sin x) in the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
Trigonometric Functions II 79

● The domain is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
𝜋 −1 𝜋
● The range is − ≤ sin x ≤ .
2 2
● The graph passes through the origin (0, 0).
𝜋 𝜋
● The coordinates of the endpoints are (−1, − ) and (1, ). This will remain
2 2
unchanged even if there is a transformation in sin x as the domain must be limited
to −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
4) arccos (or cos−1 x) in the interval 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
● The domain is −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
● The range is 0 ≤ cos−1 x ≤ 𝜋.
𝜋
● The graph passes through the x-axis at (1, 0) and y-axis at (0, ).
2
● The coordinates of the endpoints are (−1, − 𝜋) and (1, 𝜋). This will remain
unchanged even if there is a transformation in cos x as the domain must be lim-
ited to −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
5) arctan (or tan−1 x) in the interval −∞ < x < ∞
● The domain is −∞ < x < ∞. Note that the domain does not include the ±∞ as
𝜋 𝜋
tan x is undefined at ±𝜋. We have vertical asymptotes at y = − and y = .
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
● The range is − < tan−1 x < . This is the interval of the answer you will get
2 2
when you compute arctan function on a calculator for example
● The graph passes through the origin (0, 0).
6) In general, a reciprocal of a number, variable, or function is one over it. Hence, we
define the reciprocals of trigonometric functions as:

1 Hyp 1 Hyp 1 Adj

csc 𝜽 = = sec 𝜽 = = cot 𝜽 = =
sin 𝜽 Opp cos 𝜽 Adj tan 𝜽 Opp

7) Transformation is the change in shape of a graph function, and this can be translation,
stretch, or reflection.

****

2.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 3 Trigonometric Identities I
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Use common trigonometric identities

● Use trigonometric identities to prove trigonometric relations
● Use addition formulas involving sine, cosine, and tangent functions
● Use double, triple, and half-angle formulas involving sine, cosine,
and tangent functions

3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the current chapter, we will look at how identities play a major role in trigonometric functions
and the relationships that exist between the six commonly used functions, namely sine (sin), cosine
(cos), tangent (tan), cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant (cosec or csc).

3.2 FUNDAMENTALS
In this section, our discussion will centre around what is loosely known as the ‘fundamentals’ of
trigonometric identities, their relevance, and wide usage in trigonometry. The first two are:
sin 𝜃 2
tan 𝜃 = AND sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1
cos 𝜃
2 2 2
Note that sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃) and cos2 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃) , which is a notation used to represent the positive
−2 1
powers of trigonometric functions. Thus, we do not say sin 𝜃 and 2 are the same for example,
sin 𝜃
−2 1
i.e. sin 𝜃 ≠ 2 . Note that sine without mentioning the angle is meaningless just as the radical √
sin 𝜃
without a number or variable cannot be operated.
2
There are two more common identities that are directly obtained from sin 𝜃 +cos2 𝜃 = 1. How? Let’s
illustrate this very quickly.

2
● Dividing sin 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1 by cos2 𝜽
2
sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 1
2
+ 2
=
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
∴ tan2 𝜽 + 1 = sec2 𝜽
1
∵ sec 𝜃 =
cos 𝜃

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-3 80
Trigonometric Identities I 81

Note that the sign ∵ implies ‘because’.

2 2
● Dividing sin 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1 by sin 𝜽

2
sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃 1
2
+ 2
= 2
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2
∴ 1 + cot 𝜽 = cosec2 𝜽
1
∵ cosec 𝜃 =
sin 𝜃
We can put the four ‘fundamental’ identities together as:

sin 𝜽 2
tan 𝜽 = sin 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1 tan2 𝜽 + 1 = sec2 𝜽 cot2 𝜽 + 1 = cosec2 𝜽 (3.1)
cos 𝜽

That’s all for now. Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Using appropriate identities, prove the following:

2
sin 𝜑
a) = 1 − cos 𝜑 b) cot 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 = 0
1+cos 𝜑
2
2 1−sin 𝛼
c) 1 − sin x cos x cot x = sin x d) = (sec 𝛼 − tan 𝛼) (sec 𝛼 + tan 𝛼)
cos2 𝛼

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

The proof is to show that the LHS expression is equal to the RHS expression. To demonstrate
this, we need to take one side and simplify until we obtain the other side.

2
sin 𝜑
a) = 1 − cos 𝜑
1+cos 𝜑
Solution
2
sin 𝜑
= 1 − cos 𝜑
1 + cos 𝜑
82 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We will start with the LHS as:

2
sin 𝜑 1 − cos2 𝜑
=
1 + cos 𝜑 1 + cos 𝜑
(1 + cos 𝜑) (1 − cos 𝜑)
=
1 + cos 𝜑
2
sin 𝝋
∴ = 1 − cos 𝝋
1 + cos 𝝋

b) cot 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 = 0

Solution

cot 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 = 0

We will start with the LHS as:

cos 𝜃 1
cot 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 cosec 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
= − =0
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
∴ cot 𝜽 − cos 𝜽 cosec 𝜽 = 0

2
c) 1 − sin x cos x cot x = sin x
Solution
Taking the LHS expression, we have
cos x
1 − sin x cos x cot x = 1 − sin x cos x ( )
sin x
= 1 − cos2 x
2
∴ 1 − sin x cos x cot x = sin x

2
1−sin 𝛼
d) = (sec 𝛼 − tan 𝛼) (sec 𝛼 + tan 𝛼)
cos2 𝛼

Solution
2
1 − sin 𝛼
= (sec 𝛼 − tan 𝛼) (sec 𝛼 + tan 𝛼)
cos2 𝛼
We will start with the LHS as:
2 2
1 − sin 𝛼 1 sin 𝛼
= −
cos2 𝛼 cos2 𝛼 cos2 𝛼
= sec2 𝛼 − tan2 𝛼
= (sec 𝛼 − tan 𝛼) (sec 𝛼 + tan 𝛼)
2
1 − sin 𝜶
∴ = (sec 𝜶 − tan 𝜶) (sec 𝜶 + tan 𝜶)
cos2 𝜶
Trigonometric Identities I 83

Another example to try.

Example 2

Simplify cosec2 𝛽 − 2 cot 𝛽 − 4 such that the final answer is in a factored form containing only the
cotangent function.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

cosec2 𝛽 − 2 cot 𝛽 − 4 = (cot2 𝛽 + 1) − 2 cot 𝛽 − 4

= cot2 𝛽 − 2 cot 𝛽 − 3
= (cot 𝛽 − 3) (cot 𝛽 + 1)
2
∴ cosec 𝜷 − 2 cot 𝜷 − 4 = (cot 𝜷 − 3) (cot 𝜷 + 1)

Another example to try.

Example 3

Show that
2 2
2sin x − cos2 x − = (3 sin x + 1) (sin x − 1)
cosec x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

2 2
2sin x − cos2 x − = (3 sin x + 1) (sin x − 1)
cosec x
We will start with the LHS as:
2 2 2 2
2sin x − cos2 x − = 2sin x − (1 − sin x) − 2 (sin x)
cosec x
2 2
= 2sin x − 1 + sin x − 2 sin x
2
= 3sin x − 2 sin x − 1
= (3 sin x + 1) (sin x − 1)
2 2
∴ 2sin x − cos2 x − = (3 sin x + 1) (sin x − 1)
cosec x
84 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another set of examples.

Example 4

17 5
Angles x and y are acute such that sec x = and tan y = . Using appropriate identities, determine
8 12
the exact value of the following:

a) sin x b) tan x c) cot y d) cosec y e) cos y

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

● In this case, we are not required to sketch as we did in the previous chapter, instead, we
are limited to using identities.
● Obviously, there will be more than one way to deal with each case. We will try to show
an alternative approach where it is possible.
● As x and y are acute angles, only the positive root is taken and valid.
● Remember to express the answer as a fraction, as the exact value is required.

a) sin x
Solution
We know that
2
sin x + cos2 x = 1

This implies that

2
sin x = 1 − cos2 x

But
1 1 8
cos x = = =
sec x 17 17
( )
8

Therefore,
2
2 8
sin x = 1 − ()
17
225
sin x = √
289
15
∴ sin x =
17
Trigonometric Identities I 85

b) tan x
Solution
sin x
tan x = = sin x sec x
cos x
15 17 15
=( )( ) =
17 8 8
15
∴ tan x =
8

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

tan2 x = sec2 x − 1
2
17 225
=( ) −1=
8 64
225
tan x = √
64
15
∴ tan x =
8

c) cot y
Solution
1
cot y =
tan y
1 12
= =
5 5
12

12
∴ cot y =
5

d) cosec y
Solution

cot2 y + 1 = cosec2 y
1
cosec2 y = +1
tan2 y
1 169
= 2
+1=
5 25
( )
12

169
cosec y = √
25
13
∴ cosec y =
5
86 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

e) cos y
Solution
2
sin y + cos2 y = 1

This implies that

2
cos2 y = 1 − sin y

But
1
sin y =
cosec y
Therefore,
1
cos2 y = 1 −
cosec2 y
2
1 5
cos2 y = 1 − =1−( )
13
2 13
( )
5

144
cos y = √
169
12
∴ cos y =
13

3.3 THE ADDITION FORMULAS

Given any two angles A and B, the trigonometric ratios of their addition (sum) or subtraction (differ-
ence) are achieved using addition formulas, which are summarised in Table 3.1 for sine, cosine, and
tangent.

TABLE 3.1
Addition Formulas for the Three Trigonometric Ratios

Addition Subtraction
Sine sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A

Cosine cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B tan A − tan B

Tangent tan (A + B) = tan (A − B) =
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B

(3.2)
Trigonometric Identities I 87

The following should be noted about the above formulas.

Note 1 It is collectively called Addition Formulas, though it consists of addition (or sum) and
subtraction (or difference).
Note 2 Angles A and B represent any acute or obtuse angle.
Note 3 The formulas can be derived. In fact, once the sine and cosine of addition of A and B
are derived, it is much easier to find the other trigonometric functions, i.e., tan (A + B),
sin (A − B), cos (A − B), and tan (A − B).
Note 4 The formulas for subtraction can be easily obtained if B is replaced with −B in the
corresponding addition formula and then simplified. We will prove this in the worked
examples.
Note 5 Since the tangent of an angle is the ratio of sine to cosine of the same angle, it is easy to
find the addition formula for tangent from the corresponding addition formulas of sine and
cosine.
Note 6 We’ve shown only one variant of the tangent formula. There are others that are also valid
and will be demonstrated in the worked examples.
Now it is time to look at some examples.

Example 5

tan A+tan B
Use addition formulas to prove that tan (A + B) = .
1−tan A tan B

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

We will need the following:

● sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

● cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
Substitute the addition formulas as:
sin A cos B + sin B cos A
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos A cos B
sin A cos B sin B cos A
( )+( )
cos A cos B cos A cos B
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
( )−( )
cos A cos B cos A cos B
88 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now simplify
sin A sin B
( )+( )
cos A cos B
=
sin A sin B
(1) − [( )( )]
cos A cos B
(tan A) + (tan B)
=
(1) − [(tan A) (tan B)]
tan A + tan B
=
1 − tan A tan B
tan A + tan B
∴ tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B

Another example to try.

Example 6

Use addition formulas to prove the following identities.

a) sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A

b) cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A−tan B
c) tan (A − B) =
1+tan A tan B

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

Apply the following:

● Start with the addition formula, replace B with −B and simplify.

● Apply the fact that sin (−B) = − sin B, cos (−B) = cos B, and tan (−B) = − tan B.

a) sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A

Solution

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

Now replace B with −B and simplify, we have

sin (A + (−B)) = sin A cos (−B) + sin (−B) cos A

= sin A cos B − sin B cos A
∴ sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A
Trigonometric Identities I 89

b) cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

Solution

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Now replace B with −B and simplify, we have

cos (A + (−B)) = cos A cos (−B) − sin A sin (−B)

= cos A cos B − sin A (− sin B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
∴ cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A−tan B
c) tan (A − B) =
1+tan A tan B
Solution
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
Now replace B with −B and simplify, we have

tan A + tan (−B)

tan (A + (−B)) =
1 − tan A tan (−B)
tan A − tan B
=
1 − tan A (− tan B)
tan A − tan B
∴ tan (A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B

Another set of examples to try.

Example 7

Prove the following identities.

1+cot A tan B tan A cot B+1

a) tan (A + B) = b) tan (A + B) =
cot A−tan B cot B−tan A

cot A+cot B
c) tan (A + B) =
cot A cot B−1

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

1+cot A tan B
a) tan (A + B) =
cot A−tan B
Solution
sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
90 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Substitute the addition formulas for both sine and cosine

sin A cos B + sin B cos A
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide both the numerator and denominator by sin A cos B
sin A cos B sin B cos A
{ }+{ }
sin A cos B sin A cos B
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
{ }−{ }
sin A cos B sin A cos B

Now simplify
sin B cos A
1+( )
sin A cos B
=
cos A sin B
( )−( )
sin A cos B
cos A sin B
1+( )( )
sin A cos B
=
cos A sin B
( )−( )
sin A cos B
1 + cot A tan B
=
cot A − tan B
1 + cot A tan B
∴ tan (A + B) =
cot A − tan B

tan A cot B+1

b) tan (A + B) =
cot B−tan A
Solution
sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
Substitute the addition formulas for both sine and cosine
sin A cos B + sin B cos A
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos A sin B
sin A cos B sin B cos A
{ }+{ }
cos A sin B cos A sin B
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
{ }−{ }
cos A sin B cos A sin B
Trigonometric Identities I 91

Now simplify
sin A cos B
( )+1
cos A sin B
=
cos B sin A
( )−( )
sin B cos A
sin A cos B
( )( )+1
cos A sin B
=
cos B sin A
( )−( )
sin B cos A
tan A cot B + 1
=
cot B − tan A
tan A cot B + 1
∴ tan (A + B) =
cot B − tan A

cot A+cot B
c) tan (A + B) =
cot A cot B−1
Solution
sin (A + B)
tan (A + B) =
cos (A + B)
Substitute the addition formulas for both sine and cosine
sin A cos B + sin B cos A
=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
Divide both the numerator and denominator by sin A sin B
sin A cos B sin B cos A
{ }+{ }
sin A sin B sin A sin B
=
cos A cos B sin A sin B
{ }−{ }
sin A sin B sin A sin B

Now simplify
cos B cos A
( )+( )
sin B sin A
=
cos A cos B
[( )( )] − (1)
sin A sin B
(cot B) + (cot A)
=
[(cot A) (cot B)] − (1)
cot A + cot B
∴ tan (A + B) =
cot A cot B − 1
92 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

More examples to try.

Example 8

Use addition formulas to show the following trigonometric identities.

a) sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃 b) cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃 c) tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Hint

Note that:

● sin 𝝅 = sin 0 = 0
● cos 𝝅 = cos 0 = −1

a) sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃
Solution

sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜃

Let’s take the LHS and say A = 𝜋 and B = 𝜃. Substitute and simplify as:

sin (𝜋 − 𝜃) = sin 𝜋 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜋

= sin 0 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 𝜋
= − sin 𝜃 × (−1) = sin 𝜃
∴ sin (𝝅 − 𝜽) = sin 𝜽

This agrees with the second quadrant formula for sine.

b) cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃
Solution

cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) = − cos 𝜃

Let’s take the LHS and say A = 𝜋 and B = 𝜃. Substitute and simplify as:

cos (𝜋 + 𝜃) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

= cos 𝜋 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜋 sin 𝜃
= (−1) cos 𝜃 − (0) sin 𝜃
= (−1) × cos 𝜃 = − cos 𝜃
∴ cos (𝝅 + 𝜽) = − cos 𝜽

This agrees with the third quadrant formula for cosine.

Trigonometric Identities I 93

c) tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

Solution

tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) = − tan 𝜃

Let’s take the LHS and say A = 2𝜋 and B = 𝜃. Substitute and simplify as:
tan A − tan B
tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) =
1 + tan A tan B
tan 2𝜋 − tan 𝜃
=
1 + tan 2𝜋 tan 𝜃
(0) − tan 𝜃
=
1 + (0) tan 𝜃
0 − tan 𝜃 − tan 𝜃
= =
1+0 1
= − tan 𝜃

Because tan 2𝜋 = tan 0 = 0

∴ tan (2𝝅 − 𝜽) = − tan 𝜽

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

sin (2𝜋 − 𝜃)
tan (2𝜋 − 𝜃) =
cos (2𝜋 − 𝜃)

Let’s take the LHS and say A = 2𝜋 and B = 𝜃. Substitute and simplify as:

sin A cos B − sin B cos A

=
cos A cos B − sin A sin B
sin 2𝜋 cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 cos 2𝜋
=
cos 2𝜋 cos 𝜃 − sin 2𝜋 sin 𝜃
(0) cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 (1)
=
(1) cos 𝜃 − (0) sin 𝜃
0 − sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
= =
cos 𝜃 + 0 cos 𝜃
= − tan 𝜃
∴ tan (2𝝅 − 𝜽) = − tan 𝜽

Let’s conclude this part with this set of examples.

Example 9

Using appropriate addition formulas, determine the exact value of the following:

a) sin 135° b) tan 15° c) cos 75° d) sin 225° e) tan 105°
94 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Hint

Apply the following:

● Decide on how to combine the special angles (30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°) to make up the
given angle using addition or subtraction.
● Replace the chosen angles with A and B and apply the relevant identities.
● Apply the exact values of the special angles. You may need to refer to Table 1.1 in
Chapter 1.

a) sin 135°
Solution

sin 135° = sin (A + B)

= sin (90° + 45°)

Let’s make A = 90° and B = 45°. Now substitute and simplify as:

sin (90° + 45°) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

= sin 90° cos 45° + sin 45° cos 90°
√2 √2
= (1) ( )+( ) (0)
2 2
√2 √2
= +0=
2 2
√2
∴ sin 135° = sin (90° + 45°) =
2

b) tan 15°
Solution

tan 15° = tan (A − B)

= tan (60° − 45°)

Let’s make A = 60° and B = 45°. Now substitute and simplify as:
tan A − tan B
tan (60° − 45°) =
1 + tan A tan B
tan 60° − tan 45°
=
1 + tan 60° tan 45°
√3 − 1
=
1 + (√3) (1)
√3 − 1
=
1 + √3
Trigonometric Identities I 95

Rationalising the denominator, we have

√3 − 1 1 − √3 (√3 − 1) (1 − √3)
= × =
1 + √3 1 − √3 (1 + √3) (1 − √3)

√3 − 3 − 1 + √3 2√3 − 4 2 (√3 − 2)
= = = = − (√3 − 2)
1−3 −2 −2

∴ tan 15° = tan (60° − 45°) = 2 − √3

c) cos 75°
Solution

cos 75° = cos (A + B)

= cos (45° + 30°)

Let’s make A = 45° and B = 30°. Now substitute and simplify as:

cos (45° + 30°) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

= cos 45° cos 30° − sin 45° sin 30°
√2 √3 √2 1
=( )( )−( )( )
2 2 2 2
√6 √2 √6 − √2
= − =
4 4 4
1
∴ cos 75° = cos (45° + 30°) = (√6 − √2)
4

d) sin 225°
Solution

sin 225° = sin (A + B)

= sin (180° + 45°)

Let’s make A = 180° and B = 45°. Now substitute and simplify as:

sin (180° + 45°) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

= sin 180° cos 45° + sin 45° cos 180°
√2 √2
= (0) ( )+( ) (−1)
2 2
√2
=0−
2
√2
∴ sin 225° = sin (180° + 45°) = −
2
96 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

e) tan 105°
Solution

tan 105° = tan (A + B)

= tan (60° + 45°)

Let’s make A = 60° and and B = 45°. Now substitute and simplify as:
tan A + tan B
tan (60° + 45°) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan 60° + tan 45°
=
1 − tan 60° tan 45°
√3 + 1
=
1 − (√3) (1)
√3 + 1
=
1 − √3
Rationalising the denominator, we have

√3 + 1 1 + √3 (√3 + 1) (1 + √3)
= × =
1 − √3 1 + √3 (1 − √3) (1 + √3)

√3 + 3 + 1 + √3 2√3 + 4 2 (√3 + 2)
= = = = − (√3 + 2)
1−3 −2 −2
∴ tan 105° = tan (60° + 45°) = −2 − √3

3.4 MULTIPLE ANGLES

1
In this section, we are concerned with the identities n (and ) multiples of a given angle, such that
n
n is a positive integer. Each member of this family is similar, as they are obtained through the addi-
tion formulas. For brevity, we will only show three different values of n, namely double (n = 2),
1
triple (n = 3), and half (n = ). The formulas resulting from these three different values of n are,
2
respectively, called double-angle formulas, triple-angle formulas, and half-angle formulas.

3.4.1 THE DOUBLE-ANGLE FORMULAS

This is when n = 2, and thus it is called double-angle formulas. The identities are summarised in
Table 3.2, but their derivation will be covered in the worked examples.
From the information above, it is evident that double-angle formulas represent a specific type of
addition formulas where A = B. Notice that the cosine has three variants for a double-angle formula.
The first is obtained directly from the addition formulas and the last two are derived from the first
2
one using sin A + cos2 A = 1.
Trigonometric Identities I 97

TABLE 3.2
Double-Angle Formulas for the Three Trigonometric Ratios

Function Identities
Sine sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

2 2 2
Cosine cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A cos 2A = 2 cos A − 1 cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin A

2 tan A
Tangent tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

(3.3)

Let’s go for some examples to illustrate the above identities.

Example 10

Using addition formulas, prove the following double-angle identities.

a) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2
b) cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A, cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1, and cos 2A = 1 − 2sin A
2 tan A
c) tan 2A =
1−tan2 A

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

Hint

Apply the following:

● Start with addition formulas, replace B with A, and simplify.

2
● We may need to apply sin A + cos2 A = 1.

a) sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

Solution
sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A
Now replace B with A, we have
sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + sin A cos A
= 2 sin A cos A
∴ sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A
98 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2 2
b) cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2sin A
Solution

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Now replace B with A, we have:

cos (A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A

2
= cos2 A − sin A
2
∴ cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
From sin A + cos2 A = 1, we have sin A = 1 − cos2 A. Substitute this into the above double-angle
formula as:
2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A
= cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)
= cos2 A + cos2 A − 1
∴ cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1
2
Similarly, cos2 A = 1 − sin A. We can now substitute this into either of the two identities above.
Using the first identity, we have:
2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
= (1 − sin A) − sin A
2 2
= 1 − sin A − sin A
2
∴ cos 2A = 1 − 2sin A

Or using the second (derived) identity, we have:

cos 2A = 2 cos2 A − 1
2
= 2 (1 − sin A) − 1
2
= 2 − 2 sin A − 1
2
∴ cos 2A = 1 − 2sin A

2 tan A
c) tan 2A =
1−tan2 A
Solution
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
Now replace B with A, we have:
tan A + tan A
tan (A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
tan A + tan A
=
1 − tan A tan A
2 tan A
∴ tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A
Trigonometric Identities I 99

Another example to try.

Example 11

Using the double-angle formulas, determine the exact value of the following trigonometric expres-
sions.
5 25
a) sin 75° cos 75° b) cos2 𝜋 − sin 𝜋
3 3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

Hint

Apply the following:

● Pay attention to the question format and select the appropriate double-angle identities.
● We will need our knowledge of special angles, since we are looking for exact values.

a) sin 75° cos 75°

Solution
For this, the appropriate identity is

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

Divide both sides by 2, we have

1
sin 2A = sin A cos A
2
In comparison, we have
1
sin 75° cos 75° = sin 2 (75°)
2
1 1
= sin 150° = sin (180° − 150°)
2 2
1 1 1 1
= sin 30° = ( ) =
2 2 2 4
1
∴ sin 75° cos 75° =
4

5 25
b) cos2 𝜋 − sin 𝜋
3 3
Solution
For this, the appropriate identity is
2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A
100 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

In comparison, we have
5
A= 𝜋
3
10
2A = 𝜋
3
Therefore
5 25 5
cos2 𝜋 − sin 𝜋 = cos 2A = cos 2 ( 𝜋)
3 3 3
10
= cos 𝜋
3
10
𝜋 is more than one revolution, so we need to take n revolution, where n = 1 for this case. Thus
3

10 4
= cos ( 𝜋 − 2𝜋) = cos 𝜋
3 3
4
𝜋 is in the third quadrant, so we have
3

4 1
cos 𝜋 = − cos (𝜋 + 𝜋)
3 3
1 1
= − cos 𝜋 = −
3 2
25 25 1
∴ cos 𝝅 − sin 𝝅 = −
3 3 2

One final example to try.

Example 12

4
Prove that cos4 x − sin x ≡ cos 2x.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

Let’s start with the LHS, we have

4 2 2 2
cos4 x − sin x = (cos2 x) − (sin x)
This is a case of a difference of two squares. Thus,
2 2 2 2 2
(cos2 x) − (sin x) = (cos2 x − sin x) (cos2 x + sin x)
2 2
= (cos2 x − sin x) (1) = cos2 x − sin x
= cos 2x
4
∴ cos4 x − sin x ≡ cos 2x
Trigonometric Identities I 101

3.4.2 THE TRIPLE-ANGLE FORMULAS

This is when n = 3. The identities are summarised in Table 3.3, but they will be derived in the
worked examples. Note that the identities shown represent a type for each, which ensures that they
are homogeneous in the function being defined. For example, the triple identity for sine consists of
the sine function only and the same for the other two functions.
It is time to look at some examples.

Example 13

Using addition formulas, prove the following triple-angle identities.

a) sin 3A b) cos 3A c) tan 3A

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

Hint

Apply the following:

● Start with addition formula and simplify.

● Apply the double-angle formulas and simplify.
2
● We will need to apply sin A + cos2 A = 1.
● There are other possibilities depending on how we carry out the substitution process.

a) sin 3A
Solution

sin (A + 2A) = sin 2A cos A + sin A cos 2A

Using double angle formula, we have:

2
= (2 sin A cos A) cos A + sin A (1 − 2 sin A)
3
= 2 sin A cos2 A + sin A − 2sin A
2 2
From sin A + cos2 A = 1, we have cos2 A = 1 − sin A. Substitute this into the above as:
2 3
= 2 sin A (1 − sin A) + sin A − 2sin A
3 3
= 2 sin A − 2 sin A + sin A − 2sin A
3
∴ sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A
102 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 3.3
Triple-Angle Formulas for the Three Trigonometric Ratios

Function Identities
3
Sine sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A

Cosine cos 3A = 4cos3 A − 3 cos A

2 tan A − tan3 A
Tangent tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A

(3.4)

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
If we instead substitute cos 2A = 2cos2 A − 1, we have

sin (A + 2A) = sin 2A cos A + sin A cos 2A

Using double angle formula, we have:

= (2 sin A cos A) cos A + sin A (2cos2 A − 1)

= 2 sin A cos2 A + 2 sin Acos2 A − sin A
2 2
From sin A + cos2 A = 1, we have cos2 A = 1 − sin A. Substitute this into the above as:
2 2
= 2 sin A (1 − sin A) + 2 sin A (1 − sin A) − sin A
3 3
= 2 sin A − 2 sin A + 2 sin A − 2 sin A − sin A
3
∴ sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A

b) cos 3A
Solution
cos (A + 2A) = cos 2A cos A − sin 2A sin A

Using double angle formula, we have:

= (cos 2A) cos A − (sin 2A) sin A
= (2cos2 A − 1) cos A − (2 sin A cos A) sin A
2
= 2cos3 A − cos A − 2 sin A cos A
2 2
From sin A + cos2 A = 1, we have sin A = 1 − cos2 A. Substitute this into the above as:

= 2cos3 A − cos A − 2 (1 − cos2 A) cos A

= 2cos3 A − cos A − 2 cos A + 2cos3 A
= 2cos3 A + 2cos3 A − cos A − 2 cos A
∴ cos 3A = 4cos3 A − 3 cos A
Trigonometric Identities I 103

c) tan 3A
Solution
tan 2A + tan A
tan (3A) = tan (2A + A) =
1 − tan 2A tan A
Using double angle formula, we have:
2 tan A
[ ] + tan A
1−tan2 A
=
2 tan A
1−[ ] tan A
1−tan2 A
2 tan A 2 tan A
[ + tan A] { + tan A}
1−tan2 A 1−tan2 A
= =
2 tan2 A 1−tan2 A 2 tan2 A
1−[ 2
] { 2
− }
1−tan A 1−tan A 1−tan2 A
2 tan A tan A(1−tan2 A)
{ + }
1−tan2 A 1−tan2 A
=
1−tan2 A 2 tan2 A
{ 2
− }
1−tan A 1−tan2 A

2 tan A + tan A (1 − tan2 A) 1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A

= ÷
1 − tan2 A 1 − tan2 A
2 tan A + tan A (1 − tan2 A) 1 − tan2 A
= ×
1 − tan2 A 1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A
2 tan A + tan A (1 − tan2 A) 2 tan A + tan A − tan3 A
= =
1 − tan2 A − 2 tan2 A 1 − 3 tan2 A
3 tan A − tan3 A
∴ tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A

3.4.3 THE HALF-ANGLE FORMULAS

1
This is when n = . The identities are summarised in Table 3.4, and their derivation will be covered
2
in the worked examples.
You may have noticed that the above are very similar to their double-angle equivalents. Yes, this is
1
true; we’ve only changed A to A.
2
104 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 3.4
Half-Angle Formulas for the Three Trigonometric Ratios

Function Identities
1 1
Sine sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2

1 2 1 21 2 1
Cosine cos A = cos2 A − sin A cos A = 2 cos A − 1 cos A = 1 − 2 sin A
2 2 2 2

1
2 tan A
2
Tangent tan A =
1
1 − tan2 A
2

(3.5)

Now it is time to look at some examples.

Example 14

Using addition formulas, prove the following half-angle identities.

1 1
a) sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2
1 21 1 21
b) cos A = cos2 A − sin A, cos A = 2 cos2 A − 1, and cos A = 1 − 2sin A
2 2 2 2
1
2 tan A
c) tan A = 2
2 1
1−tan A
2
Trigonometric Identities I 105

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

Hint

Apply the following:

● Start with addition formulas, replace B with A, and simplify.

1 1
● Replace 2A with A, because sin 2A = sin (A + A) implies sin A = sin ( A + A).
2 2
2 1 1
● We may need to apply another identity (sin A + cos2 A = 1), which is a variant of
2 2
2
sin A + cos2 A = 1.

1 1
a) sin A = 2 sin A cos A A
2 2
Solution

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

Now replace B with A, we have

sin 2A = sin (A + A) = sin A cos A + sin A cos A

= 2 sin A cos A

Thus
1 1 1 1
sin A = sin ( A + A) = 2 sin A cos A
2 2 2 2
1 1
∴ sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2

1 21 1 21
b) cos A = cos2 A − sin A = 2 cos2 A − 1 = 1 − 2sin A
2 2 2 2
Solution

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

Now replace B with A, we have

cos 2A = cos (A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A

2
= cos2 A − sin A

Thus
1 1 1 1 1 1
cos A = cos ( A + A) = cos A cos A − sin A sin A
2 2 2 2 2 2

1 21
∴ cos A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
106 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2 1 1
For the same argument used in double-angle formulas and by applying sin A + cos2 A = 1, we
2 2
can show that the other variants are:
1 2 1
cos A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
1 1
= cos2 A − (1 − cos2 A)
2 2
1 1
= cos2 A + cos2 A − 1
2 2
2 1
∴ cos A = 2 cos A − 1
2
Similarly,
1 2 1
cos A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
2 1 2 1
= (1 − sin A) − sin A
2 2
2 1 2 1
= 1 − sin A − sin A
2 2
21
∴ cos A = 1 − 2sin A
2
Or using the second derived identity, we have
1
cos A = 2 cos2 A − 1
2
2 1
= 2 (1 − sin A) − 1
2
2 1
= 2 − 2 sin A − 1
2
21
∴ cos A = 1 − 2sin A
2

1
2 tan A
c) tan A = 2
1
1−tan2 A
2
Solution
tan A + tan B
tan (A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
Now replace B with A, we have
tan A + tan A
tan (A + A) =
1 − tan A tan A
tan A + tan A
=
1 − tan A tan A
Trigonometric Identities I 107

Thus
1
2 tan A
1 1 2
tan A = tan ( A + A) =
2 2 1
1 − tan2 A
2
1
2 tan A
2
∴ tan A =
1
1 − tan2 A
2

Another set of examples to try.

Example 15

1
Given that t = tan A, show that:
2

2t 1−t2
a) sin A = b) cos A =
1+t2 1+t2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

Hint

Apply the following:

● Start with the half-angle addition formulas.

2 1 1 2
● We need to apply sin A + cos2 A = 1, which is a variant of sin A + cos2 A = 1.
2 2

2t
a) sin A =
1+t2
Solution
1 1
sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2
Divide the RHS by 1
1 1
2 sin A cos A
2 2
=
1
2 1 1
Use sin A + cos2 A to replace 1 on the RHS.
2 2

1 1
2 sin A cos A
2 2
=
2 1 1
sin A + cos2 A
2 2
108 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos2 A.
2

1 1 1 1
2 sin A cos A 2 sin A cos A
( 2
1
2
) 1
2 2
1
cos2 A (cos A)(cos A)
2 2 2
= 2 1 1
= 2 1 1
sin A+cos2 A sin A cos2 A
( 2
1
2
) ( 2
1 + 2
1 )
cos2 A cos2 A cos2 A
2 2 2

Now simplify
1
sin A
1
2( 2
1 ) 2 (tan A)
cos A 2
2
= 2 1
=
sin A 1
( 2
+ 1) (tan2 A) + 1
1 2
cos2 A
2
2t
∴ sin A =
1 + t2

1−t2
b) cos A =
1+t2
Solution
1 21
cos A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2
1 21
cos2 A − sin A
2 2
=
1
1 21
cos2 A − sin A
2 2
=
2 1 1
sin A + cos2 A
2 2

1
Divide both the numerator and denominator by cos2 A
2

1 21 1 21
cos2 A−sin A cos2 A sin A
( 2
1
2
) 2
1 − 2
1
cos2 A cos2 A cos2 A
2 2 2
= 2 1 1
= 2 1 1
sin A+cos2 A sin A cos2 A
( 2
1
2
) ( 2
1 + 2
1 )
cos2 A 2
cos A cos2 A
2 2 2
Trigonometric Identities I 109

Now simplify
21
sin A
1
(1 − 2
1 ) 1 − tan2 A
cos2 A 2
2
= 2 1
=
sin A 1
( 2
+ 1) tan2 A +1
2 1 2
cos A
2

1 − t2
∴ cos A =
1 + t2

Another example to try.

Example 16

4 12
𝛼 and 𝛽 are two acute angles such that tan 𝛼 = and sin 𝛽 = . Using an appropriate identity or
3 13
identities, determine the exact value of the following:

a) sin (𝛼 − 𝛽) b) cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) c) tan 2𝛼 d) sin 3𝛽

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

Hint

● In this case, it will be helpful to find all the relevant trigonometric ratios (sin 𝜶, cos 𝜶,
cos 𝜷, and tan 𝜷) before proceeding to the questions.
● You can use the fact that 𝜶 = 53.13° and 𝜷 = 67.38°, correct to 2 d.p., to quickly check
your answers.
110 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s start by determining the following:

● sin 𝜶 ● cos 𝜶 ● cos 𝛽 ● tan 𝛽

2 2
cos2 𝛼 = 1 − sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 = √1 − sin 𝛽 sin 𝛽
cot2 𝛼 + 1 = cosec2 𝛼 tan 𝛽 =
cos 𝛽
2
12
cos 𝛼 = √1 − sin 𝛼
2
2 1 = 1−( ) 12
cosec 𝛼 = +1 √ 13 ( )
tan2 𝛼 = 13
5 =
2 ( )
4 5 13
1 = 1−( ) ∴ cos 𝜷 =
= 4 2
+1 √ 5 13 12
( )
3
∴ tan 𝜷 =
5
3
25 ∴ cos 𝜶 =
= 5
16

25
cosec 𝛼 =
√ 16
5
=
4

4
∴ sin 𝜶 =
5

We can now use the above results in our calculations below.

a) sin (𝛼 − 𝛽)
Solution

sin (𝛼 − 𝛽) = sin 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛽 cos 𝛼

4 5 12 3
= ( )( ) − ( )( )
5 13 13 5
20 36
= −
65 65
20 − 36 16
= =−
65 65
16
∴ sin (𝜶 − 𝜷) = −
65

b) cos (𝛼 + 𝛽)
Solution

cos (𝛼 + 𝛽) = cos 𝛼 cos 𝛽 − sin 𝛼 sin 𝛽

3 5 4 12
= ( )( ) − ( )( )
5 13 5 13
15 48 15 − 48 33
= − = =−
65 65 65 65
33
∴ cos (𝜶 + 𝜷) = −
65
Trigonometric Identities I 111

c) tan 2𝛼
Solution
2 tan 𝛼
tan 2𝛼 =
1 − tan2 𝛼
4 8 8
2( ) ( ) ( )
3 3 3 8 9
= = = = ( ) × (− )
2 16 7 3 7
1−( )
4 (1 − ) (− )
3 9 9

24
∴ tan 2𝜶 = −
7

d) sin 3𝛽
Solution
3
sin 3𝛽 = 3 sin 𝛽 − 4 sin 𝛽
3
12 12
= 3(
) − 4( )
13 13
36 6912
=( )−( )
13 2197
828
∴ sin 3𝜷 = −
2197

A final set of examples for us to try.

Example 17

Using appropriate identities, determine the exact value of the following:

2 1 1 1
a) sin 𝜋 b) cos2 𝜋 c) tan2 𝜋
8 8 8

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

Hint

Apply the following:

● We will be using the double-angle (or half-angle) formula.

2 1 1 2
● We need to apply sin A + cos2 A = 1 or sin A + cos2 A = 1.
2 2

2 1
a) sin 𝜋
8
Solution
2
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin A
112 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
Let A = 𝜋, thus
8

1 2 1
cos 2 ( 𝜋) = 1 − 2 sin ( 𝜋)
8 8
1 2 1
cos 𝜋 = 1 − 2 sin ( 𝜋)
4 8
1 1
But cos 𝜋 = , thus
4 √2

1 2 1
= 1 − 2 sin ( 𝜋)
√2 8

2 1 1 √2 − 1
2 sin ( 𝜋) = 1 − =
8 √2 √2
2 1 √2 − 1 2 − √2
∴ sin ( 𝝅) = =
8 2√2 4

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

1 1
sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2
1
Let A = 𝜋, thus
4

1 1
sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2
1 1 1 1 1
sin 𝜋 = 2 sin ( 𝜋) cos ( 𝜋)
4 2 4 2 4
1 1
= 2 sin 𝜋 cos 𝜋
8 8

1 1
But sin 𝜋 = , thus
4 √2

1 1 1
√ 2 = 2 sin 8 𝜋 cos 8 𝜋

Square both sides

2
2
1 1 1
(√ ) = (2 sin 𝜋 cos 𝜋)
2 8 8
1 2 1 1
= 4 sin 𝜋 cos2 𝜋
2 8 8
Trigonometric Identities I 113

2 1 1 1 2 1
Note that sin 𝜋 + cos2 𝜋 = 1, which implies that cos2 𝜋 = 1 − sin 𝜋. Therefore:
8 8 8 8

1 2 1 1
= 4 sin 𝜋 cos2 𝜋
2 8 8
1 2 1 2 1
= 4 sin 𝜋 (1 − sin 𝜋)
2 8 8
1 2 1 4 1
= 4 sin 𝜋 − 4 sin 𝜋
2 8 8
4 1 2 1
8 sin 𝜋 − 8 sin 𝜋 + 1 = 0
8 8
2 1
Let sin 𝜋 = x, therefore
8

8x2 − 8x + 1 = 0

Using quadratic formula, we have a = 8, b = −8, and c = 1. Hence

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
2
− (−8) ± √(−8) − 4 (8) (1) 8 ± 4√2
= =
2×8 16
2 ± √2
=
4
Thus

2 1 2 ± √2
sin 𝝅=
8 4

1
b) cos2 𝜋
8
Solution

cos 2A = 2cos2 A − 1

1
Let A = 𝜋, thus
8

1 1
cos 2 ( 𝜋) = 2cos2 ( 𝜋) − 1
8 8
1 1
cos 𝜋 = 2cos2 ( 𝜋) − 1
4 8
114 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1 √2
But cos 𝜋 = , thus
4 2

√2 1
= 2cos2 ( 𝜋) − 1
2 8
1 √2 √2 + 2
2cos2 ( 𝜋) = +1=
8 2 2
1 √2 + 2
cos2 ( 𝜋) =
8 4

1
c) tan2 𝜋
8
Solution
2 tan A
tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A
1
Let A = 𝜋, thus
8

1
2 tan ( 𝜋)
1 8
tan 2 ( 𝜋) =
8 1
1 − tan2 ( 𝜋)
8
1
2 tan ( 𝜋)
1 8
tan 𝜋 =
4 1
1 − tan2 ( 𝜋)
8

1
But tan 𝜋 = 1, thus
4

1
2 tan ( 𝜋)
8
1=
1
1 − tan2 ( 𝜋)
8

or
1 1
1 − tan2 ( 𝜋) = 2 tan ( 𝜋)
8 8
2 1 1
tan ( 𝜋) + 2 tan ( 𝜋) − 1 = 0
8 8
1
Let tan 𝜋 = x, therefore,
8

x2 + 2x − 1 = 0

Using quadratic formula, we have a = 1, b = 2, and c = −1. Hence

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−2 ± √22 − 4 (1) (−1) −2 ± 2√2
= =
2×1 2
= −1 ± √2
Trigonometric Identities I 115

Thus
1 1
tan 𝜋 = −1 + √2 or tan 𝜋 = −1 − √2
8 8
1
Because tan 𝜋 is positive and acute, the only valid answer is
8

1
tan 𝝅 = √2 − 1
8

3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Identities play a major role in trigonometric functions and the relationships that exist
between the six commonly used functions, namely sine (sin), cosine (cos), tangent (tan),
cotangent (cot), secant (sec), and cosecant (cosec or csc).
2) The four ‘fundamental’ identities are:

sin 𝜽 2
tan 𝜽 = sin 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1 tan2 𝜽 + 1 = sec2 𝜽 cot2 𝜽 + 1 = cosec2 𝜽
cos 𝜽
3) Addition formulas for the three trigonometric ratios:
● Sine

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A

sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A

● Cosine

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B

cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

● Tangent

tan A + tan B tan A − tan B

tan (A + B) = AND tan (A − B) =
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B
4) Double-angle formulas for the three trigonometric ratios:
● Sine

sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

● Cosine
2
cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A

2
cos 2A = 2 cos A − 1

2
cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin A
116 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● Tangent

2 tan A
tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

5) Triple-angle formulas for the three trigonometric ratios:

● Sine
3
sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A

● Cosine

cos 3A = 4cos3 A − 3 cos A

● Tangent

2 tan A − tan3 A
tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A

6) Half-angle formulas for the three trigonometric ratios:

● Sine

1 1
sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2

● Cosine

1 2 1
cos A = cos2 A − sin A
2 2

21
cos A = 2 cos A−1
2

2 1
cos A = 1 − 2 sin A
2

● Tangent

1
2 tan A
2
tan A =
1
1 − tan2 A
2

****

3.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 4 Trigonometric Identities II
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Use factor formulas involving sine, cosine, and tangent functions

● Use R addition formulas to solve problems involving trigonometric
functions
● Determine the maximum and minimum values of a sum of two
trigonometric functions

4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will, in continuation of our discussion on trigonometric identities, look at two more
essential identities, namely factor formulas and R addition formulas.

4.2 THE FACTOR FORMULAS

Given any two angles A and B, the trigonometric ratios of the factor formulas, also called the product
formulas, are summarised in Table 4.1.
You will notice here that we added and/or subtracted trigonometric ratios of two different angles A
and B. This is in contrast to when we compute the trigonometric ratios of addition or subtraction of
two angles on the LHS.
1 1
Another variant of the last identity is cos A − cos B = 2 sin (A + B) sin (B − A). This is because
2 2
1 1
sin (B − A) = − sin (A − B). Also note that since sin A + sin B = sin A − sin (−B), it is possible
2 2
to obtain sin A − sin B by replacing B with −B in the RHS formula of sin A + sin B, just like in the
addition formula for the sine function.
The above identities may not seem to be very relevant here but are key to solving some integral
functions in calculus that we shall cover later in this book.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-4 117
118 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 4.1
Factor Formulas (Sum to Product) for Trigonometric Ratios

Identities
1 1
Sine sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
sin A − sin B = 2 sin (A − B) cos (A + B)
2 2

1 1
Cosine cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
cos A − cos B = −2 sin (A + B) sin (A − B)
2 2

(4.1)

Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Using appropriate methods, prove the following factor formulas or identities:

1 1 1 1
a) sin x + sin y = 2 sin (x + y) cos (x − y) b) sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
c) cos x + cos y = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x − y) d) cos x − cos y = −2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2 2 2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

● For this proof, we need to use addition formulas (see Section 3.3) and they are reproduced
below.

sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A − − − (i)

sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A − − − (ii)
Trigonometric Identities II 119

cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B − − − (iii)

cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B − − − (iv)

● We will need to solve pairs of simultaneous linear equations, but will not show full
workings.

1 1
a) sin x + sin y = 2 sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Solution
Add (i) with (ii)

sin (A + B) + sin (A − B) = 2 sin A cos B − − (v)

Let

x=A+B − − − (vi)
y=A−B − − − (vii)

Solving (vi) and (vii) simultaneously, we have

1
A= (x + y) − − − (viii)
2
1
B = (x − y) − − − (ix)
2
Substituting vi, vii, viii, and ix in equation v, we have
1 1
∴ sin x + sin y = 2 sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2

1 1
b) sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2
Solution
(i) minus (ii)

sin (A + B) − sin (A − B) = 2 sin B cos A (x)

Substituting vi, vii, viii, and ix in equation x, we have

1 1
∴ sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2

1 1
c) cos x + cos y = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Solution
(iii) plus (iv)

cos (A + B) + cos (A − B) = 2 cos A cos B − − (xi)

Substituting vi, vii, viii, and ix in equation xi, we have

1 1
∴ cos x + cos y = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
120 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1 1
d) cos x − cos y = −2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2
Solution
(iii) minus (iv)

cos (A + B) − cos (A − B) = −2 sin A sin B − − (xii)

Substituting vi, vii, viii, and ix in equation xii, we have

1 1
∴ cos x − cos y = −2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2

Another set of examples for us to try.

Example 2

Using factor formulas or any suitable method, express the following as a product of two trigonometric
ratios:

a) sin 3t + sin 3t b) sin 3𝛼 − sin 4𝛽 c) cos 7𝜃 + cos 5𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

a) sin 3t + sin 3t
Solution
Step 1: Let’s choose a formula

1 1
sin x + sin y = 2 sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Step 2: Let’s substitute such that x = 3t and y = 3t

1 1
sin 3t + sin 3t = 2 sin (3t + 3t) cos (3t − 3t)
2 2
1 1
= 2 sin (6t) cos (0)
2 2
= 2 sin 3t cos 0
∴ sin 3t + sin 3t = 2 sin 3t
Trigonometric Identities II 121

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
This is a simple algebraic addition. If we let 3x = t, then sin 3x+sin 3x is the same as a+a = 2a.
Hence, sin 3x + sin 3x = 2 sin 3x. This demonstrates the validity of the factor formula.

Note
As a general rule, the factor formulas are not intended for when A = B as we’ve seen in this example.

b) sin 3𝛼 − sin 4𝛽
Solution
Step 1: Let’s choose a formula

1 1
sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2
Step 2: Let’s substitute such that x = 3𝛼 and y = 4𝛽

1 1
sin 3𝛼 − sin 4𝛽 = 2 sin (3𝛼 − 4𝛽) cos (3𝛼 + 4𝛽)
2 2
1 1
∴ sin 3𝜶 − sin 4𝜷 = 2 sin (3𝜶 − 4𝜷) cos (3𝜶 + 4𝜷)
2 2

c) cos 7𝜃 + cos 5𝜃
Solution
Step 1: Let’s choose a formula

1 1
cos x + cos y = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Step 2: Let’s substitute such that x = 7𝜃 and y = 5𝜃

1 1
cos 7𝜃 + cos 5𝜃 = 2 cos (7𝜃 + 5𝜃) cos (7𝜃 − 5𝜃)
2 2
1 1
= 2 cos (12𝜃) cos (2𝜃) = 2 cos 6𝜃 cos 𝜃
2 2
∴ cos 7𝜽 + cos 5𝜽 = 2 cos 6𝜽 cos 𝜽

Another set of examples to try.

Example 3

Without a calculator, use factor formulas to simplify the following:

5 1
a) cos 𝜋 + cos 𝜋 b) sin 40° − sin 50° c) cos 60° + cos 30°
6 6
122 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Hint

● Addition formulas will be appropriate in most cases.

● We also need special angles, but remember that this requires using factor formulas.

5 1
a) cos 𝜋 + cos 𝜋
6 6
Solution
1 1
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
5 1
Let’s substitute such that A = 𝜋 and B = 𝜋. Therefore,
6 6

5 1 1 5 1 1 5 1
cos 𝜋 + cos 𝜋 = 2 cos ( 𝜋 + 𝜋) cos ( 𝜋 − 𝜋)
6 6 2 6 6 2 6 6
1 1 2
= 2 cos (𝜋) cos ( 𝜋)
2 2 3
1 1
= 2 cos 𝜋 cos 𝜋
2 3
1 1 1
Because cos 𝜋 = 0, cos 𝜋 = , we have
2 3 2

1
= 2 (0) ( )
2
5 1
∴ cos 𝝅 + cos 𝝅 = 0
6 6

b) sin 40° − sin 50°

Solution
1 1
sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2
Let’s substitute such that x = 40° and y = 50°. Therefore,
1 1
sin 40° − sin 50° = 2 sin (40° − 50°) cos (40° + 50°)
2 2
1 1
= 2 sin (−10°) cos (90°)
2 2
= 2 sin (−5°) cos 45°
= 2 cos 45° sin (−5°)
Trigonometric Identities II 123

√2
Because cos 45° = and sin (−5°) = − sin 5°, we have
2

√2
= 2( ) (− sin 5°) = −√2 sin 5°
2

∴ sin 40° − sin 50° = −√2 sin 5°

No further simplification is possible.

c) cos 60° + cos 30°

Solution
1 1
cos x + cos y = 2 cos
(x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Let’s substitute such that x = 60° and y = 30°. Therefore,
1 1
cos 60° + cos 30° = 2 cos (60° + 30°) cos (60° − 30°)
2 2
1 1
= 2 cos (90°) cos (30°)
2 2
= 2 cos 45° cos 15°
√2
Because cos 45° = , we have
2

√2
= 2( ) (cos 15°) = √2 cos 15°
2
We can use an addition formula to simplify cos 15° as
cos 15° = cos (60° − 45°)
= cos 60° cos 45° + sin 60° sin 45°
1 √2 √3 √2
= × + ×
2 2 2 2
√2 1 √3
= ( + )
2 2 2
√2 1 + √3
∴ cos 15° = ( )
2 2
Note that we could have used cos 15° = cos (45° − 30°), the result will still be the same. Hence, we
can say that
√2 1 + √3
√2 cos 15° = √2 × ( )
2 2
√2 × √2 1 + √3
= ( )
2 2

2 1 + √3
= ( )
2 2
1 + √3
∴ cos 60° + cos 30° =
2
124 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Without using the factor formulas (and subsequently addition formulas), we could have
simplified this quicker and better as:

1 √3
cos 60° + cos 30° = +
2 2
1 + √3
=
2
This also shows that cos 60° + cos 30° ≠ cos (60° + 30°), otherwise the answer would have
been 0 because cos 90° = 0.
Also, we can expand cos 15° using 45° and 30° as

cos 15° = cos (45° − 30°)

= cos 45° cos 30° + sin 45° sin 30°
√2 √3 √2 1
= × + ×
2 2 2 2
√2 √3 1
= ( + )
2 2 2
√2 1 + √3
∴ cos 15° = ( )
2 2

Another example to try.

Example 4

Using appropriate factor formulas, express the following as a sum of two trigonometric ratios:

a) sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃 b) cos 5𝜑 cos 7𝜑 c) 2 sin 60° sin 20° d) 2 sin 25° cos 35°

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

We need to look critically at the product. If it is a:

● product of two cosines then it is a sum of cosine

● product of two sines then it is a difference of cosine
Trigonometric Identities II 125

● product of a sine and a cosine, where the coefficient of the sine angle is greater than that
of the cosine, then it is a sum of sine
● product of a sine and a cosine, where the coefficient of the sine angle is less than that of
the cosine, then it is a difference of sine

a) sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃
Solution
It is obvious that the factor formula for this is
1 1
sin x + sin y = 2 sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
1 1 1
{sin x + sin y} = sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2 2
Now, we have that
1 1
sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
Comparing both sides, we have
1
(x + y) = 4𝜃
2
x + y = 8𝜃

Also
1
(x − y) = 𝜃
2
x − y = 2𝜃

Solving the above two equations, we have

x = 5𝜽, y = 3𝜽

Hence
1
sin 4𝜽 cos 𝜽 = {sin 5𝜽 + sin 3𝜽}
2

b) cos 5𝜑 cos 7𝜑
Solution
It is obvious that the factor formula for this is
1 1
cos x + cos y = 2 cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
1 1 1
{cos x + cos y} = cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2 2
Now, we have that
1 1
cos 5𝜑 cos 7𝜑 = cos (x + y) cos (x − y)
2 2
126 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Comparing both sides, we have

1
(x + y) = 5𝜑
2
x + y = 10𝜑

Also
1
(x − y) = 7𝜑
2
x − y = 14𝜑

Solving the above two equations, we have

x = 12𝝋, y = −2𝝋

Hence
1 1
cos 5𝝋 cos 7𝝋 = {cos 12𝝋 + cos (−2𝝋)} = {cos 12𝝋 + cos 2𝝋}
2 2

c) 2 sin 60° sin 20°

Solution
It is obvious that the factor formula for this is
1 1
cos x − cos y = −2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2
1 1
− {cos x − cos y} = 2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2
Then we have that
1 1
2 sin 60° sin 20° = 2 sin (x + y) sin (x − y)
2 2
Comparing both sides, we have
1
(x + y) = 60°
2
x + y = 120°

Also
1
(x − y) = 20°
2
x − y = 40°

Solving the above two equations, we have

x = 80°, y = 40°

Hence

2 sin 60° sin 20° = − {cos 80° − cos 40°} = cos 40° − cos 80°
Trigonometric Identities II 127

d) 2 sin 25° cos 35°

Solution
It is obvious that the factor formula for this is
1 1
sin x − sin y = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2
Then we have that
1 1
2 sin 25° cos 35° = 2 sin (x − y) cos (x + y)
2 2
Comparing both sides, we have
1
(x + y) = 35°
2
x + y = 70°

Also
1
(x − y) = 25°
2
x − y = 50°

Solving the above two equations, we have

x = 60°, y = 10°

Hence

2 sin 25° cos 35° = sin 60° − sin 10°

In the above examples, we have used the factor formulas or addition–product formulas we presented
on page 118. However, we have a standard set of formulas that are used to convert product to sum,
and these are given in Table 4.2.
In the formulas in Table 4.2, A > B.

TABLE 4.2
Factor (Product–Addition) Formulas for Trigonometric Ratios

Identities
Sine–cosine 2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)

2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) − sin (A − B)

Cosine
2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B)
Sine 2 sin A sin B = − cos (A − B) − cos (A + B)

(4.2)
128 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now, let’s try Example 4(a) using the above identity. We are given sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃. This is a mix of
sine and cosine functions with an angle in sine greater than that of cosine, so we will need the first
identity.

2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)

which implies that

1 1
sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)
2 2
Looking at sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃, we have A = 4𝜃 and B = 𝜃. Now substitute as:
1 1
sin 4𝜃 cos 𝜃 = sin (4𝜃 + 𝜃) + sin (4𝜃 − 𝜃)
2 2
1 1
= sin (5𝜃) + sin (3𝜃)
2 2
Hence
1
sin 4𝜽 cos 𝜽 = {sin 5𝜽 + sin 3𝜽}
2
This solution seems quicker using the newly presented formula, but we can also use addition–product
formulas for product–addition problems. You can now try more questions using the formulas in
Table 4.2.

4.3 THE R ADDITION FORMULAS

We have covered both sine and cosine functions and their properties in Chapter 1 and understand
𝜋
that they are identical except that they have a phase difference of half a pi rad ( ) or 90° between
2
them. The question now is what happens if two signals with sine and cosine functions are mixed.
Mathematically, this means adding sine and cosine together, i.e.,

y = sin x + cos x

Let’s look at Figure 4.1, which shows a plot of y = sin x, y = cos x, and y = sin x + cos x in the inter-
val 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°. It is not surprising that the sum of sine and cosine functions exhibits a wave-like
transformed pattern.
A close look at the plot (Figure 4.1) will provide us with the following summary about sin x + cos x.

Note 1 It is vertically stretched. Its amplitude, and its maximum and minimum points are different
from those of its components i.e., sin x and cos x.
Note 2 It looks like y = sin x but is shifted horizontally to the left. Similarly, it looks like y = cos x
but shifted horizontally to the right. In AC circuits, these are the same as leading and lagging,
respectively.
Note 3 The shift angle is the same in both, though this is because they have the same amplitude of
1, i.e. the coefficient of sin x and cos x are both 1.
Note 4 If the shift angle or phase difference is 𝛼 and the vertical stretch factor is represented by R,
then we can represent y = sin x + cos x by either y = R sin (x + 𝛼) or y = R cos (x − 𝛼).
Trigonometric Identities II 129

sinx + cosx
sin x cos x sinx + cos x sinx.cosx
sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

1.5
sin x + cos x
sin x cos x
1.0
cos x
sin x
0.5

0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 4.1 The R addition formula illustrated (sin x + cos x).

The above looks interesting, as it helps us to represent a sum of sine and cosine functions as a ‘trans-
formed’ sine or ‘transformed’ cosine function. What if we want to find the difference of sine and
cosine functions? The process is the same. We only need to understand that y = sin x − cos x is
the addition of sin x and negation of cos x, i.e., − cos x. This is shown in Figure 4.2 using the same
interval of 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°.
All that we’ve said about sum also holds for the difference of the two functions except for one aspect,
which is that we can represent y = sin x − cos x by either y = R sin (x − 𝛼) or y = R cos (x + 𝛼).
Notice the sign change between x and 𝛼.
Does the above analysis hold if the coefficient of sine and cosine is not one or the same? Yes it does,
as can be seen in Figure 4.3 for y = 3 sin x + 4 cos x.
Table 4.3 provides a summary of the R addition formulas.
where a, b, and R are positive real numbers and 𝛼 is an acute angle, such that 0 < 𝛼 < 90°.
We can further state that:

a) R = √a2 + b2 is valid for all cases and always positive, i.e., R > 0. Note that this is equal to
the amplitude of the resulting sine or cosine function.
b a
b) 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) or 𝛼 = tan−1 (− ) depending on the original expression, the sign of a and b,
a b
and the R equivalent we have chosen.
c) We need to be careful about the sign, especially when a and b are both negative, which can
cancel each other out.
130 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

sinx - cosx
sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx sin x cos x sinx + cos x

1.5

sin x sin x + (–cos x)

1.0

–cos x
0.5

0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 4.2 The R addition formula illustrated (sin x − cos x).

asinx + bcosx
sin x cos x sinx + cos x
sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

5.5
4.5 3sin x + 4cos x
3.5
3sin x 4cos x
2.5
1.5
0.5
x
-0.5 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-1.5
-2.5
-3.5
-4.5
-5.5

FIGURE 4.3 The R addition formula illustrated (3 sin x + 4 cos x).

Trigonometric Identities II 131

TABLE 4.3
The R Addition Formulas Illustrated

Function Sum Difference

Sine a sin x + b cos x = R sin (x + 𝜶) a sin x − b cos x = R sin (x − 𝜶)

Cosine a sin x + b cos x = R cos (x − 𝜶) a sin x − b cos x = R cos (x + 𝜶)

(4.3)

We will illustrate two cases to show how to find R and 𝛼, but once you know the trick it may be less
relevant, as will be demonstrated shortly in this section.

Case 1 a sin x + b cos x ≡ R sin (x + 𝜶)

Given that

a sin x + b cos x ≡ R sin (x + 𝛼)

Let’s consider the RHS expression and apply the addition formula to it as:

R sin (x + 𝛼) ≡ R sin x cos 𝛼 + R sin 𝛼 cos x

Now we have that

a sin x + b cos x ≡ R sin x cos 𝛼 + R sin 𝛼 cos x

≡ (R cos 𝛼) sin x + (R sin 𝛼) cos x

Comparing the like parts, we have

a sin x = (R cos 𝛼) sin x

∴ a = R cos 𝛼 − − − − (i)

and

b cos x = (R sin 𝛼) cos x

∴ b = R sin 𝛼 − − − − (ii)

(ii) divided by (i), we have

R sin 𝛼 b
=
R cos 𝛼 a
Simplifying this, we have

sin 𝛼 b
=
cos 𝛼 a
b
tan 𝛼 =
a
b
∴ 𝜶 = tan−1 ( )
a
132 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Square (i) and (ii)

a2 = R2 cos2 𝛼 − − − − (iii)
2
b2 = R2 sin 𝛼 − − − − (iv)

(iii) + (iv)
2
a2 + b2 = R2 cos2 𝛼 + R2 sin 𝛼
2
a2 + b2 = R2 (cos2 𝛼 + sin 𝛼)
∴ R2 = a2 + b2
2
∵ cos2 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 = 1

Case 2 a sin x + b cos x ≡ R cos (x − 𝜶)

Given that

a sin x + b cos x ≡ R cos (x − 𝛼)

Let’s consider the RHS expression and apply the addition formula to it as:

R cos (x − 𝛼) ≡ R cos x cos 𝛼 + R sin x sin 𝛼

Now we have that

a sin x + b cos x ≡ R cos x cos 𝛼 + R sin x sin 𝛼

Comparing the like parts, we have

a sin x = R sin x sin 𝛼

∴ a = R sin 𝛼 − − − − (i)

and

b cos x = R cos x cos 𝛼

∴ b = R cos 𝛼 − − − − (ii)

(i) divided by (ii), we have

R sin 𝛼 a
=
R cos 𝛼 b
Simplifying this, we have

sin 𝛼 a
=
cos 𝛼 b
a
tan 𝛼 =
b
a
∴ 𝜶 = tan−1 ( )
b
Trigonometric Identities II 133

Square (i) and (ii)

2
a2 = R2 sin 𝛼 − − − − (iii)
2 2 2
b = R cos 𝛼 − − − − (iv)

(iii) + (iv)
2
a2 + b2 = R2 cos2 𝛼 + R2 sin 𝛼
2
a2 + b2 = R2 (cos2 𝛼 + sin 𝛼)
∴ R2 = a2 + b2
2
∵ cos2 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 = 1

Let’s wrap up our discussion with examples.

Example 5

A is a positive real number and 𝛽 is an acute angle such that −90° < 𝛽 < 90°. Determine the exact
value of A and the angle 𝛽 in the following. Present your answer correct to the nearest degree.
a) 4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A sin (𝜃 + 𝛽)
b) 4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A cos (𝜃 + 𝛽)
c) Using your results above, sketch the graph of 4 sin 𝜃+8 cos 𝜃 in the interval −180° < 𝜃 < 180°
and state the coordinates of its maximum and minimum points.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

Although the approach shown above will be illustrated, but note that the amplitude (A) is easy
to determine. Also, once we’re used to this, there is an even easier way to arrive at an answer
using the addition formulas.

a) 4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A sin (𝜃 + 𝛽)

Solution
Given that

4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A sin (𝜃 + 𝛽)

Let’s consider the RHS expression and apply the addition formula as:

A sin (𝜃 + 𝛽) ≡ A sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽 + A sin 𝛽 cos 𝜃

Now we have that

4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽 + A sin 𝛽 cos 𝜃

134 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Comparing the like parts, we have

4 sin 𝜃 = A sin 𝜃 cos 𝛽

∴ 4 = A cos 𝛽 − − − − (i)

and

8 cos 𝜃 = A sin 𝛽 cos 𝜃

∴ 8 = A sin 𝛽 − − − − (ii)

(ii) divided by (i), we have

A sin 𝛽 8
=
A cos 𝛽 4
Simplifying this, we have

sin 𝛽
=2
cos 𝛽
tan 𝛽 = 2
∴ 𝜷 = tan−1 (2) = 63°

Square (i) and (ii)

42 = A2 cos2 𝛽 − − − − (iii)
2
82 = A2 sin 𝛽 − − − − (iv)

(iii) + (iv)
2
42 + 82 = A2 cos2 𝛽 + A2 sin 𝛽
2
42 + 82 = A2 (cos2 𝛽 + sin 𝛽)
∴ A2 = 42 + 82
A = √42 + 82 = 4√5
2
∵ cos2 𝛽 + sin 𝛽 = 1

Therefore,

A = 4√5, 𝜷 = 63°

b) 4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A cos (𝜃 + 𝛽)

Solution
Given that

4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A cos (𝜃 + 𝛽)

Let’s consider the RHS expression and apply the addition formulas as:

A cos (𝜃 + 𝛽) ≡ A cos 𝜃 cos 𝛽 − A sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃

Trigonometric Identities II 135

Now we have that

4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃 ≡ A cos 𝜃 cos 𝛽 − A sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃

Comparing the like part, we have

4 sin 𝜃 = −A sin 𝛽 sin 𝜃

4 = −A sin 𝛽
∴ − 4 = A sin 𝛽 − − − − (i)

and

8 cos 𝜃 = A cos 𝜃 cos 𝛽

∴ 8 = A cos 𝛽 − − − − (ii)

(i) divided by (ii), we have

A sin 𝛽 4
=−
A cos 𝛽 8
Simplifying this, we have

sin 𝛽
= −0.5
cos 𝛽
tan 𝛽 = −0.5
∴ 𝜷 = tan−1 (−0.5) = −27°

Square (i) and (ii)

2
(−4) = A2 sin2 𝛽 − − − − (iii)
2 2 2
8 = A cos 𝛽 − − − − (iv)

(iii) + (iv)

42 + 82 = A2 cos2 𝛽 + A2 sin2 𝛽
42 + 82 = A2 (cos2 𝛽 + sin2 𝛽)
∴ A2 = 42 + 82
A = √42 + 82 = 4√5
2
∵ cos2 𝛽 + sin 𝛽 = 1

Therefore,

A = 4√5, 𝜷 = −27°
136 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

c) Sketch of 4 sin 𝜃 + 8 cos 𝜃

Solution
We can use either of the two results to transform the respective graph.
Option 1 Using results in (a)
From (a) we have that 4 sin 𝜽 + 8 cos 𝜽 = 4√5 sin (𝜽 + 63°)
It is easier to sketch (Figure 4.4) the RHS from sin 𝜽 by:

● stretching sine function vertically by a factor of 4√5, and

● translating it horizontally (shift to the left) by 63°.

We know that sin 𝜃 has a maximum coordinate of (90°, 1) and a minimum coordinates of
(270°, − 1) in the given interval. Therefore, for 4√5 sin (𝜃 + 63°), we just need to multiply the
y-coordinate by 4√5 and subtract 63° from the x-coordinate. Hence

Max ∶ (27°, 4√5)

Min ∶ (207°, − 4√5)

asinx + bcosx
sin x sinx + cos x
sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

10.0

8.0 4sin x + 8cos x

6.0

4.0

2.0 sin x

0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2.0

-4.0

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

FIGURE 4.4 Solution to Example 5(c) – Part I.

Trigonometric Identities II 137

asinx + bcosx
cos x sinx + cos x
sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

10.0

8.0 4sin x + 8cos x

6.0

4.0 cos x
2.0

0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
-2.0

-4.0

-6.0

-8.0

-10.0

FIGURE 4.5 Solution to Example 5(c) – Part II.

Option 2 Using results in (b)

From (b), we have that 4 sin 𝜽 + 8 cos 𝜽 = 4√5 cos (𝜽 − 27°)

It is easier to sketch (Figure 4.5) the LHS from the cosine function by:
● stretching cosine function vertically by a factor of 4√5, and
● translating it horizontally (shift to the right) by 27°.
We know that cos 𝜃 has maximum coordinates of (0°, 1) and (360°, 1), and of (180°, − 1) in the
given interval. Therefore, for 4√5 cos (𝜃 − 27°), we just need to multiply the y-coordinate by 4√5
and add 27° to the x-coordinate. Hence
Max ∶ (27°, 4√5)

Min ∶ (207°, − 4√5)

You may have noticed that there is a second maximum of (387°, 4√5 ) if we follow what was
mentioned above, but 387° is outside the given range so it is not a valid answer.

The above method seems long and can be boring. We therefore need a quicker way to deal with this,
and the answer is a new but experience-based approach. Given the general expression a sin x+b cos x,
we can use the following tips to solve any trigonometric expression involving the sum and difference
of two functions:
Note 1 You need either a sine equivalent R sin (x ± 𝛼) or a cosine equivalent R cos (x ± 𝛼). If this is
not given or stated, decide which one you want.
138 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

(a) (b)

FIGURE 4.6 The R formulas – author’s method illustrated.

Note 2 For both cases, R is positive and it is obtained using R = √a2 + b2 . It is irrelevant if the
coefficient of sine, cosine, or both is positive or negative.
b a
Note 3 For R sin (x ± 𝛼), 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) and for R cos (x ± 𝛼), 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ). The trick here is
a b
that 𝛼 is the ‘tan inverse of the coefficient of the function you are not aiming for over the
one you want’. You can decide how you would remember this. This resembles the current
divider rule of two resistors in parallel used when analysing electric circuits.
Note 4 For this approach, the phase angle (leading or lagging) 𝛼 is such that −180° < 𝛼 < 180°.
Note 5 Remove the sign in the answer above, i.e., get the modulus of 𝛼 or |𝛼|.
Note 6 Finally, adjust 𝛼 by getting the quadrant phase for the desired expression using Figure 4.6.
Consider sine as though it is on the vertical axis (y) whilst cosine is on the horizontal axis
(x). For example, the first quadrant is (x, y), which is equivalent to (C, S) where C and S
represent cosine and sine, respectively. This is the same when a and b are positive, i.e.,
(a, b).
Let’s summarise the new method in four steps as:
Step 1: Choose (or decide) which of these two you want: R sin (x + 𝛼) or R cos (x + 𝛼).
Step 2: Find R using R = √a2 + b2 . This is a positive value and is the same for both cosine and sine
formulas.
| b | | a |
Step 3: Determine |𝛼|. For R sin (x + 𝛼), |𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )||; and for R cos (x + 𝛼), |𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )||.
a b

Step 4: Adjust 𝛼 based on the quadrant as shown in Table 4.4.

We will illustrate this using sin x + cos x, where |a| = |b| for the four possible scenarios as shown in
Tables 4.5 and 4.6, and Figure 4.7.
Trigonometric Identities II 139

TABLE 4.4
The R Formulas – Author’s Method Illustrated

Quadrant Adjusted 𝜶 (for sine) Adjusted 𝜶 (for cosine)

First 𝛼 −𝛼

Second −𝛼 𝛼 − 180°

Third 𝛼 − 180° 180° − 𝛼

Fourth 180° − 𝛼 𝛼

TABLE 4.5
Analysis for R sin (x ± 𝜶)

Expression Quadrant |𝜶| Adjusted 𝜶 R = √a2 + b2 R sin

(x + 𝜶)
|| −1 1 || √12 + 12 √2 sin
sin x + cos x First |tan ( 1 )| 45°
= 45° = √2 (x + 45°)

|| −1 −1 || 2
√2 sin
sin x − cos x Second |tan ( 1 )| −45° √12 + (−1)
= 45° = √2 (x − 45°)

|| −1 −1 || 2 2
√2 sin
− sin x − Third |tan ( −1 )| = (45° − 180°) √(−1) + (−1)
cos x = 45° = −135° = √2 (x − 135°)

|| −1 1 || 2
√2 sin
− sin x + Fourth |tan ( −1 )| = (180° − 45°) √(−1) + 12
cos x = 45° = 135 = √2 (x + 135°)

Let’s test our new method with some examples.

Example 6

Express the following sum (or difference) of two trigonometric functions in R sin (x + 𝛼) or
R sin (x − 𝛼), where −180° < 𝛼 < 180°. Give R in exact form and 𝛼 in degrees correct to 1 d.p.
where applicable.

a) 3 cos x + 4 sin x b) 2√3 sin x − 2 cos x

c) −3 cos x − √2 sin x d) 7 cos x − 6 sin x
 140

sinx + cosx sinx - cosx

sin x cos x sinx + cos x
sin x cos x sinx + cos x
2.0
2.0

1.0
1.0

sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

0.0 x
0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-1.0
-1.0

-2.0
-2.0
(a) (b)

-sinx -cosx -sinx + cosx

sin x cos x sinx + cos x sin x cos x sinx + cos x

2.0 2.0

1.0 1.0

sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

sinx, cosx, sinx+cosx

0.0 x 0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

-1.0 -1.0

-2.0 -2.0
(c) (d)
Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 4.7 The R formulas: (a) first quadrant (sin x + cos x), (b) second quadrant sin x − cos x, (c) third quadrant − sin x − cos x, and (d) fourth quadrant − sin x + cos x.
Trigonometric Identities II 141

TABLE 4.6
Analysis for R cos (x ± 𝜶)

Expression Quadrant |𝜶| Adjusted 𝜶 R = √a2 + b2 R cos

(x + 𝜶)
|| −1 1 || √12 + 12 √2 sin
sin x + cos x First |tan ( 1 )| −45°
= 45° = √2 (x − 45°)

|| −1 1 || 2
√2 sin
sin x − cos x Second |tan ( −1 )| = (45° − 180°) √12 + (−1)
= 45° = −135° = √2 (x − 135°)

|| −1 −1 || 2 2
√2 sin
− sin x − Third |tan ( −1 )| = (180° − 45°) √(−1) + (−1)
cos x = 45° = 135 = √2 (x + 135°)

|| −1 −1 || 2
√2 sin
− sin x + Fourth |tan ( 1 )| 45° √(−1) + 12
cos x = 45° = √2 (x + 45°)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

a) 3 cos x + 4 sin x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
= √32 + 42 = 5
3
|𝛼| = |||tan−1 ( )||| = 36.9°
4
This is the first quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 36.9°.

∴ 3 cos x + 4 sin x = 5 sin (x + 36.9°)

b) 2√3 sin x − 2 cos x

Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
2
= √(2√3) + (−2) = 4
| −2 ||
|𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )| = 30°
| 2√3 |
142 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This is the second quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = −30°.

∴ 2√3 sin x − 2 cos x = 4 sin (x − 30°)

c) −3 cos x − √2 sin x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
2
= √(−3) + (−√2) = √11
| −3 ||
|𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )| = 64.8°
| −√2 |
This is the third quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 64.8° − 180° = −115.2°.

∴ − 3 cos x − √2 sin x = √11 sin (x − 115.2°)

d) 7 cos x − 6 sin x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
= √72 + (−6) = √85
7
|𝛼| = |||tan−1 ( )||| = 49.4°
−6
This is the fourth quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 180° − 49.4° = 130.6°.

∴ 7 cos x − 6 sin x = √85 sin (x + 130.6°)

Here is another set of examples.

Example 7

Express the following sum (or difference) of two trigonometric functions in R cos (x + 𝛼) or
R cos (x − 𝛼), where −180° < 𝛼 < 180°. Give R in exact form and 𝛼 in degrees correct to 1 d.p.
where applicable.

a) √5 sin x + √3 cos x b) 2 sin x − √5 cos x

c) − sin x − 3 cos x d) 3 cos x − √6 sin x
Trigonometric Identities II 143

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

a) √5 sin x + √3 cos x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2 2
= √(√5) + (√3) = 2√2
| √5 ||
|𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )| = 52.2°
| √3 |

This is the first quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = −52.2°.

∴ √5 sin x + √3 cos x = 2√2 cos (x − 52.2°)

b) 2 sin x − √5 cos x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
= √22 + (−√5) = 3
| 2 ||
|𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( )| = 41.8°
| −√5 |
This is the second quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 41.8° − 180° = −138.2°.

∴ 2 sin x − √5 cos x = 3 cos (x − 138.2°)

c) − sin x − 3 cos x
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2 2
= √(−1) + (−3) = √10
−1
|𝛼| = |||tan−1 ( )||| = 18.4°
−3
This is the third quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 180° − 18.4° = 161.6°.

∴ − sin x − 3 cos x = √10 cos (x + 161.6°)

144 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

d) 3 cos x − √6 sin x
Solution
R = √a2 + b2
2
= √32 + (−√6) = √15
| −√6 ||
|𝛼| = ||tan−1 ( ) = 39.2°
| 3 ||
This is the fourth quadrant, the adjusted 𝛼 = 39.2°.

∴ 3 cos x − √6 sin x = √15 cos (x + 39.2°)

Here is a final set of examples for us to try.

Example 8

State the minimum and maximum values of the following trigonometric expression.

1
a) √13 sin (𝜃 − 𝜋) b) 3√2 cos 𝜃 + 2
3
c) cos 𝜃 − √6 sin 𝜃 d) √5 sin 𝜃 − 2 cos 𝜃 − √3
1
e) 3 − 4 sin 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃 f) 1 − 2√3 cos 𝜃 + √13 cos (𝜃 − 𝜋)
2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Hint

Where appropriate, first find the R value using R = √a2 + b2 .

1
a) √13 sin (𝜃 − 𝜋)
3
Solution
Using the standard expression and comparing it with
A sin(𝜃 + 𝛼)
we therefore have
● Minimum
−√13
● Maximum
√13
Trigonometric Identities II 145

b) 3√2 cos 𝜃 + 2
Solution
Using the standard expression

A cos(𝜃 + 𝛼)

and comparing, we therefore have the minimum and maximum values as −3√2 and 3√2, respec-
tively. But there is a vertical translation of 2, hence
● Minimum

2 − 3√2

● Maximum

2 + 3√2

c) cos 𝜃 − √6 sin 𝜃
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
= √12 + (−√6) = √7

Hence
● Minimum

−√7

● Maximum

√7

d) √5 sin 𝜃 − 2 cos 𝜃 − √3
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2
2
= √(√5) + (−2) = 3

Therefore, we have the minimum and maximum values as −3 and 3, respectively. But there is a
vertical translation of −√3, hence
● Minimum

−3 − √3 = − (3 + √3)

● Maximum

3 − √3
146 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

e) 3 − 4 sin 𝜃 − 5 cos 𝜃
Solution

R = √a2 + b2
2 2
= √(−4) + (−5) = √41

Therefore, we have the minimum and maximum values as −√41 and √41, respectively. But there is
a vertical translation of 3, hence

● Minimum

3 − √41

● Maximum

3 + √41

1
f) 1 − 2√3 cos 𝜃 + √13 cos (𝜃 − 𝜋)
2
Solution
We need to first apply an identity to simplify the expression, which means
1
cos (𝜃 − 𝜋) = sin 𝜃
2
Hence
1
1 − 2√3 cos 𝜃 + √13 cos (𝜃 − 𝜋) = 1 − 2√3 cos 𝜃 + √13 sin 𝜃
2
Now, we have the right format and then have

R = √a2 + b2
2 2
= √(−2√3) + (√13) = 5

Therefore, we have the minimum and maximum values as −5 and 5, respectively. But there is a
vertical translation of 1, hence

● Minimum

1 − 5 = −4

● Maximum

1+5=6
Trigonometric Identities II 147

4.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Factor formulas (addition–product) for trigonometric ratios:

● Sine

1 1
sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
sin A − sin B = 2 sin (A − B) cos (A + B)
2 2

● Cosine

1 1
cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
cos A − cos B = −2 sin (A + B) sin (A − B)
2 2

2) Product–addition formulas for trigonometric ratios:

● Sine–cosine

2 sin A cos B = sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)

2 cos A sin B = sin (A + B) − sin (A − B)

● Cosine

2 cos A cos B = cos (A + B) + cos (A − B)

● Sine

2 sin A sin B = − cos (A − B) − cos (A + B)

In the above formulas A > B.

3) R formulas for trigonometric ratios:
● Sine

a sin x + b cos x = R sin (x + 𝜶) AND a sin x − b cos x = R sin (x − 𝜶)

● Cosine

a sin x + b cos x = R cos (x − 𝜶) AND a sin x − b cos x = R cos (x + 𝜶)

where a, b, and R are positive real numbers and 𝛼 is an acute angle such that
0 < 𝛼 < 90°.
148 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We can further state that:

● R = √a2 + b2 is valid for all cases and always positive.
b a
● 𝛼 = tan−1 (± ) or 𝛼 = tan−1 (± ) depending on the original expression, the
a b
sign of a and b, and the R equivalent we have chosen.
● We need to be careful about the sign especially when a and b are both negative,
which can cancel each other out.

****

4.5 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 5 Solving Trigonometric
Equations

Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Solve trigonometric equations

● Change the given interval based on the transformed functions
● Use trigonometric identities when solving trigonometric equations

5.1 INTRODUCTION
A trigonometric equation (linear and non-linear) is an equation involving trigonometric ratios. As
such, solving this type of equation requires that one is equipped with skills relating to trigonometric
functions and identities, and how to solve equations in general.
Recall that to solve an equation, one needs to find the value of the unknown quantity or variable,
which will satisfy the equality of the expression on both sides of the equal sign (=). For example, to
solve a linear equation 2x − 1 = 0 means to find the value of x that would make the LHS expression
1
(i.e., 2x − 1) equal to the RHS expression (i.e., 0). For this case, x = . This is the only solution and
2
nothing more. If the equation is quadratic, we expect two values (repeated or non-repeated).
The above is exactly what we will be doing here with trigonometric equations. However, there are a
couple of particularities.

Note 1 Due to their periodicity, there are unlimited solutions for any given trigonometric equation.
Therefore, we need to know the range of values (angles) required. A calculator will only
give us one answer, usually in the first quadrant for positive values.
Note 2 Unlike polynomials, we cannot foretell the number of solutions in trigonometric equations.
The bigger the interval the more the solutions, but two solutions are generally expected for
every 360-degree interval.

5.2 METHODS OF SOLVING TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS

It is important to be acquainted with methods of solving trigonometric equations. We will use a sim-
ple trigonometric equation to illustrate each of these methods. Our choice for this exercise is a sine
function. Let’s say, we have to solve the following trigonometric equation:

sin x = −0.5, − 360° ≤ x ≤ 360°

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-5 149
150 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Before proceeding to the methods, let’s quickly comment on the above equation. sin x = −0.5 in the
interval −360° ≤ x ≤ 360° means that we should provide all possible values of x that satisfies sin x
being equal to −0.5 between −360° and 360°. Consequently, the answer(s) must not be more than
360 degrees or less than −360 degrees. Now, let’s go through the three methods one after the other.

5.2.1 SKETCHING A GRAPH

This method is very straightforward, provided that the trigonometric equation has been reduced to
its simplest form, i.e., sin x = a, cos x = a, or tan x = a, where a is an irrational number. We will
later consider cases where a trigonometric equation should be simplified first.
sin x = −0.5 in −360° ≤ x ≤ 360° can be solved graphically by following these steps:

Step 1: In case it is not one of the special angles (i.e., 0°, 30°, 45°, 60°, and 90°), use your calculator
to find the inverse function. In other words,

sin x = −0.5
−1
x = sin (−0.5)
= −30°
This will give you the value to be shown on the graph apart from the maximum/minimum value(s).
You should use symmetry (and other relevant properties) to show other points.

Step 2: Use the key features of the sine function to sketch it. To be specific, use the maxi-
mum/minimum values of relevant special angles to sketch the function as accurately as
possible, as shown in Figure 5.1.
Step 3: Draw a horizontal line, passing through f (x) = −0.5 and cutting through the entire function
(Figure 5.2).
Step 4: Draw a vertical line at each point of intersection of the curve with the horizontal line drawn
in Step 3 (Figure 5.3).
Step 5: Read off the values on the horizontal axis at which the vertical lines drawn in Step 4 meet
the x-axis, which are −150°, −30°, 210°, and 330°. These are the solutions of the given
trigonometric equation.

Note
Instead of drawing the sine function that would cover the given range −360° ≤ x, ≤ 360°, the
following will produce the same results:

a) Draw a complete cycle of 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°.

b) Find the values of the function in this range, usually two values. For the given sine function,
they are where sine is negative, and these are 210° and 330°.
c) Use the periodicity property to find other values. For the sine function use 𝜃 ± 360°n, where
𝜃 is the angle(s) obtained within the 360° range. For the current case, we need to simply sub-
tract 360°, because adding 360° would make us go above the upper limit of the range. Thus,
210°−360° = −150° and 330°−360° = −30° are the other solutions. The complete solutions
are therefore −150°, −30°, 210°, and 330°. These are the same values as previously obtained.
Solving Trigonometric Equations 151

The Sine Func!on

1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0
-360 -270 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.1 Solving trigonometric equations graphically, step 2 illustrated.

The Sine Func!on

1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0
-360 -270 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.2 Solving trigonometric equations graphically, step 3 illustrated.

152 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine Func!on
1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-360 -270 -180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.3 Solving trigonometric equations graphically, step 4 illustrated.

5.2.2 CAST DIAGRAM

CAST stands for Cos, All, Sin, and Tan. A CAST diagram is a diagram that divides x−y plane into
four equal parts, called quadrants. Each of the trigonometric functions is positive in two quadrants and
negative in the other two. They are all positive in the first quadrant. We’ve covered this in Chapter 1.
To use a CAST diagram to solve trigonometric equations, follow these steps:

Step 1: In case it is not one of the special angles, use your calculator to find the inverse function. In
other words

sin x = −0.5
−1
x = sin (−0.5)
= −30°

If this is not positive, then add 360° to bring it within the interval 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°. That’s
330° − 360° = −30°. Alternatively, consider it as a measurement in the clockwise direction. At
any rate, the value must be acute and positive, measured from the positive x-axis.
Solving Trigonometric Equations 153

FIGURE 5.4 Solving trigonometric equations using CAST diagram, step 2 illustrated.

FIGURE 5.5 Solving trigonometric equations using CAST diagram, step 3 illustrated.

FIGURE 5.6 Solving trigonometric equations using CAST diagram, step 4 illustrated.

Step 2: Locate your answer from step 1 above in CAST in clockwise (CW) or counter-clockwise
(CCW) measurement. Figure 5.4 shows it in the CW format.
Step 3: This is a sine function, which is negative in the third and fourth quadrants. Therefore, mir-
ror the angle in the fourth quadrant in step 2 above to the third quadrant as indicated in
Figure 5.5.
Step 4: Conventionally, angles are measured counter-clockwise from the positive x-axis. Hence, the
two angles are 180°+ 30° = 210° and 360° − 30° = 330°. These are indicated in Figure 5.6.
Step 5: Use the periodicity property to find other values as previously explained, by adding or sub-
tracting multiples of 360° (or 2𝜋 if angle is in radians). Thus, 210° − 360° = −150° and
30° − 360° = −330° are the other solutions. The complete solutions are, therefore, −150°,
−30°, 210°, and 330° as before.
154 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5.2.3 QUADRANT FORMULA

Quadrant formulas were introduced and discussed in Chapter 1. As a quick review, they are 180° − 𝜽,
180°+𝜽, and 360°−𝜽 for the second, third, and fourth quadrants, respectively. No formula is required
for the first quadrant. This third method is similar to the CAST method discussed above.
Follow these steps to solve a trigonometric equation using the quadrant formula:

Step 1: If not a special angle, use your calculator to find its inverse function. In other words

sin x = −0.5
−1
x = sin (−0.5)
= −30°

If this is not positive, then add 360° to bring it within the range 0° ≤ x ≤ 360°, which is
−30° + 360° = 330°.

Step 2: Decide which quadrant is the answer in step 1 above and determine its ‘pair’ quadrant. (Note
that each trigonometric function is positive in two quadrants and negative in the other two).
For this case, it is the fourth quadrant.

Since sine is negative in this quadrant, we must find where sine is also negative. This is the third
quadrant.

Step 3: Use 360° − 𝜃 to find 𝜃 and then use the result obtained to find the sine value in the third
quadrant using 180° + 𝜽. Thus, the second solution is 180° + 𝜃 = 180° + 30° = 210°.
Step 4: Use the periodicity property to find other values as previously explained. Thus, 210° −
360° = −150° and 330° − 360° = −30° are the other solutions. The complete solutions are
therefore −150°, −30°, 210°, and 330° as before.

We are now done with the three methods. Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 360°. Present your answer correct
to the nearest degree.

a) 2 cos x = 0.8 b) √3 tan x = −1 c) 3 cos x + 1 = √2

d) 1 − sin x = √3 e) 7 sin x − 5 = √6 f) √3 cosec x + 3 = 1
Solving Trigonometric Equations 155

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

● In the examples to follow, we will try to swap between the methods introduced above.
● The answer obtained from a calculator is usually the first quadrant unless it is negative.

a) 2 cos x = 0.8
Solution
Method: Formula

2 cos x = 0.8
cos x = 0.4
x = cos−1 (0.4) = 66°

Since cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrants, we now need to find the solution in the
fourth quadrant using

360° − x = 360° − 66° = 294°

∴ x = 66°, 294°

b) √3 tan x = −1
Solution
Method: CAST

√3 tan x = −1

1 √3
tan x = − or −
√3 3
√3
x = tan−1 (− ) = −30°
3

A negative angle is measured from the positive x-axis in a clockwise direction. Since tangent is neg-
ative in the second and fourth quadrants, our measurements are taken in these quadrants. This is
illustrated in Figure 5.7.

∴ x = 150°, 330°

c) 3 cos x + 1 = √2
Solution
Method: Graph

3 cos x + 1 = √2
156 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The soluon in the

2nd quadrant , which
is
.

The soluon in the

4th quadrant , which
is
.

FIGURE 5.7 Solution to Example 1(b).

Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have

√2 − 1
cos x =
3
Step 2: Draw the graph of cosine in the stated range (Figure 5.8).
√2−1
Step 3: = 0.1381 (4 d.p.). Mark this point on the vertical axis and draw a horizontal line
3
through it.
Step 4: Draw vertical lines at the point of intersections.

Cosine Funcon
1.5
cosx

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.8 Solution to Example 1(c) – Part I.

Solving Trigonometric Equations 157

The Cosine Func!on

1.5
cosx

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.9 Solution to Example 1(c) – Part II.

Note that

√2 − 1
x = cos−1 ( ) = 82°
3

This will help in indicating the relevant angles shown in Figure 5.9.
Step 5: Read the values on the horizontal axis.

∴ x = 82°, 278°

d) 1 − sin x = √3
Solution
Method: Formula

1 − sin x = √3

Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have

sin x = 1 − √3
−1
x = sin (1 − √3) = −47°

Step 2: Add 360° to bring the above into a positive equivalent within the stated range as −47° +
360° = 313°.
158 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants. We have the solution in the fourth quadrant already,
i.e., 313°. To find the solution in the third quadrant, we use

180° + x = 180° + 47° = 227°

∴ x = 227°, 313°

e) 7 sin x − 5 = √6
Solution
Method: Formula
We have

7 sin x − 5 = √6

Re-arranging this, we have

7 sin x = 5 + √6
5 + √6
sin x =
7
−1 5 + √6 −1
x = sin ( ) = sin (1.0642)
7

But
5 + √6
= 1.064 (4 s.f.)
7
which implies that

5 + √6
>1
7
Hence, the above trigonometric equation has no solutions as the maximum/minimum value for the
sine function is ±1.

f) √3 cosec x + 3 = 1
Solution
Method: Formula
√3 cosec x + 3 = 1
√3 cosec x = −2
2
cosec x = −
√3
We need to change cosec x, so we have
1 2
cosec x = =−
sin x √3
√3
sin x = −
2
−1 √3
x = sin (− ) = −60°
2
Solving Trigonometric Equations 159

If x = −60°, it implies a clockwise measurement, therefore:

x = 360° − 60° = 300°

Since sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants, we now need to find the solution in the third
quadrant using

180° + x = 180° + 60° = 240°

∴ x = 240°, 300°

Note
Any time we have equations with reciprocals of trigonometric functions, we will need to change sec,
cosec, and cot to cos, sin, and tan, respectively, before proceeding to solve for the unknown.

5.3 CHANGING THE INTERVAL OF TRANSFORMED FUNCTIONS

In the preceding section and the examples that followed, we limited ourselves to what could be
termed as a default form of trigonometric equations. In other words, we used y = sin x, y = cos x,
and y = tan x. When trigonometric functions are transformed, the interval of the solutions will change
accordingly. We will now discuss three distinct transformations and how to solve problems involving
each type.

5.3.1 TYPE 1: y = sin ax, y = cos ax, y = tan ax

This is simply a horizontal stretch where a is the stretching factor. Consequently, we have that:

a) the intervals will be a times the original interval, and

b) the number of solutions will be a times the original number of solutions.

As an illustration, to solve y = cos 2x in the range −𝜋 ≤ x ≤ 𝜋 would imply solving the same in
the range −2𝜋 ≤ 2x ≤ 2𝜋. Notice the multiplier 2 in the interval, which has extended the range.
Consequently, the number of solutions will be doubled depending on the angles. Table 5.1 shows
more examples of transformation along the horizontal axis.
We will not discuss the vertical stretch (or stretch along the y-axis) as this does not change the value
of x. It is a good time to roll out some examples.

Example 2

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the range 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋. Present your answer correct to
3 s.f. where necessary.

2 2
a) 5 − 2 cos (−3𝜃) = 6 b) √3 sin ( 𝜃) − 3 cos ( 𝜃) = 0 c) tan 2𝜃 − 1 = √3
3 3
160 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 5.1
Changing the Interval of Transformed Functions (Vertical Stretch) Illustrated

Equation Original Range New Range

1) y = sin 2𝜃 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋 0 ≤ 2𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋

2) y = tan 3𝜃 −180° < 𝜃 < 180° −540° < 3𝜃 < 540°

3 3
3) y = cos ( 𝜃) 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 180° 0 ≤ 𝜃 < 270°
2 2

4) y = tan 0.5𝜃 0<𝜃≤2𝜋 0 < 0.5𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

a) 5 − 2 cos (−3𝜃) = 6
Solution
The original interval is 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋, the new range for this case is 0 < 3𝜃 < 3𝜋. Given that

5 − 2 cos (−3𝜃) = 6

Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have

−2 cos (−3𝜃) = 6 − 5
−2 cos (−3𝜃) = 1
1
cos (−3𝜃) = −
2
Or

cos (−3𝜃) = −0.5

Step 2: Recall that cos (−3𝜃) = cos 3𝜃, thus

cos 3𝜃 = −0.5
𝜋
3𝜃 = cos−1 (−0.5) = −
3
Step 3: To make it easy, it is customary to substitute as:

z = 3𝜃

Hence
𝜋
z=−
3
Solving Trigonometric Equations 161

Step 4: Cosine is symmetry about the origin (i.e., cos 3𝜃 = − cos 3𝜃) so

𝜋
z = cos−1 (−0.5) = cos−1 (0.5) =
3
Step 5: Cosine is negative in the second and third quadrants, thus we have

𝜋 2 𝜋 4
z=𝜋− = 𝜋 and z = 𝜋 + = 𝜋
3 3 3 3
Thus, we can see that the two values within 2𝜋 range are:
2 4
z= 𝜋, 𝜋
3 3
Step 6: Since we need values up to 3𝜋, let’s add 2𝜋 to have

2 8 4 10
z= 𝜋 + 2𝜋 = 𝜋 and z = 𝜋 + 2𝜋 = 𝜋
3 3 3 3
10
The second solution (i.e. 𝜋) is clearly outside our range, hence the complete solutions are
3

2 4 8
z= 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋
3 3 3
Step 7: Recall that z = 3𝜃, thus

2 4 8
3𝜃 = z = 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋
3 3 3
2 4 8
𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋
9 9 9
2 4 8
∴ 𝜽 = 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅
9 9 9

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The solutions are shown in Figure 5.10 by plotting y = cos 3𝜃 in the interval of 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋.
Alternatively, the solutions can be obtained by plotting y = cos z in the interval of 0 < 𝜃 < 3𝜋.
In this case, each solution (Figure 5.11) should be divided by 3 to obtain the values of 𝜃.
In both cases, use the steps outlined in the graphical method to obtain the solutions from the
graphs. We’ve shown three points in each case; these are observed to be approximately equal
to the analytical solutions.
162 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Cosine Funcon
1.5
cos3x

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.10 Solution to Example 2(a) – Part I.

Cosine Funcon
1.5
cosz

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
-60 40 140 240 340 440 540

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.11 Solution to Example 2(a) – Part II.

Solving Trigonometric Equations 163

2 2
b) √3 sin ( 𝜃) − 3 cos ( 𝜃) = 0
3 3
Solution
Given that
2 2
√3 sin ( 𝜃) − 3 cos ( 𝜃) = 0
3 3
Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have
2 2
√3 sin ( 𝜃) = 3 cos ( 𝜃)
3 3

Step 2: Divide both sides by √3, we have

2
sin ( 𝜃)
3 3
=
2
cos ( 𝜃) √3
3

We can simplify the RHS (or rationalise the denominator) to have

2
sin ( 𝜃)
3
= √3
2
cos ( 𝜃)
3

sin 𝜃
Step 3: But tan 𝜃 = , thus we have
cos 𝜃

2
tan ( 𝜃) = √3
3
2 1
𝜃 = tan−1 (√3) = 𝜋
3 3
2 2
Step 4: We can now say that if the original interval is 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋, the new range is 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋.
3 3

2 1
𝜃 = tan−1 (√3) = 𝜋
3 3
Step 5: Tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants. We’ve already obtained the solution in
1
the first quadrant (i.e., 𝜋). As the upper limit of the range is less than 𝜋, there is no need
3
to find the third quadrant value. We can, therefore, conclude that there is only one solution
which is
2 1
𝜃= 𝜋
3 3
OR
3 1 1
𝜃= ( 𝜋) = 𝜋
2 3 2
1
∴𝜽= 𝝅
2
164 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Tangent Func!on
9.0
tan

8.0

7.0

6.0

5.0

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

FIGURE 5.12 Solution to Example 2(b).

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The same solution is obtained by plotting (Figure 5.12).

c) tan 2𝜃 − 1 = √3
Solution
The original interval is 0 < 𝜃 < 𝜋, and the new range for this is 0 < 2𝜃 < 2𝜋. Given that

tan 2𝜃 − 1 = √3

Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have

tan 2𝜃 = 1 + √3
2𝜃 = tan−1 (1 + √3) = 1.2199

Step 2: Tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants. We’ve already obtained the solution in
the first quadrant (i.e., 1.2199 rad). The solution in the third quadrant is

𝜋 + 1.2199 = 4.3615 rad

Thus, we can see that the two values within 2𝜋 range are

2𝜃 = 1.2199, 4.3615
Solving Trigonometric Equations 165

TABLE 5.2
Changing the Interval of Transformed Functions (Horizontal Translation) Illustrated

Equation Original Range New Range

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5
1) y = cos (𝜃 − ) 0<𝜃< 𝜋 − < (𝜃 − ) < 𝜋
6 6 6 6

2) y = sin (𝜃 + 35°) −180° ≤ 𝜃 < 180° −145° ≤ (𝜃 + 35°) < 215°

1 7𝜋
3) y = tan (𝜃 − 0.5𝜋) 0 < 𝜃 ≤ 4𝜋 − 𝜋 < (𝜃 − 0.5𝜋) ≤
2 2

Step 3: These above solutions have already covered all possible solutions in the intended range,
therefore

2𝜃 = 1.2199, 4.3615
𝜃 = 0.60995, 2.18075
∴ 𝜽 = 0.610, 2.18

5.3.2 TYPE 2: y = sin (x ± b) , y = cos (x ± b) , y = tan (x ± b)

This is a horizontal translation on the x-axis, where b is a positive real number and represents the
amount of translation left or right. Consequently, we have that:
a) if the given interval is 𝜃1 ≤ x ≤ 𝜃2 , the new interval will be 𝜃1 ± b ≤ (x ± b) ≤ 𝜃2 ± b, and
b) the number of solutions will, mostly, remain unchanged.
To illustrate, solving y = tan (x − 15°) in the range −90° ≤ x ≤ 90° would imply solving the same
in the range −90° − 15° ≤ (x − 15°) ≤ 90° − 15°, i.e., −105° ≤ x − 15° ≤ 75°. Table 5.2 shows
more examples of horizontal translation on the x-axis.

Solving problems of this type is not any different from type 1 above. Let’s try an example.

Example 3

Solve the trigonometric equation 2 sin (𝜃 − 15°) − √3 = 0 in the range 0 < 𝜃 < 360°.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Solution
The original interval is 0 < 𝜃 < 360°, the new range for this is −15° < (𝜃 − 15°) < 345°.

2 sin (𝜃 − 15°) − √3 = 0
166 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 1: Re-arranging this equation, we have

√3
sin (𝜃 − 15°) =
2
Therefore
−1 √3
𝜃 − 15° = sin ( ) = 60°
2
Step 2: Sine is positive in the first and second quadrants. The second quadrant is obtained using
180° − 60° = 120°
Thus, we can see that the two values within 2𝜋 range are:
𝜃 − 15° = 60°, 120°
Step 3: Let’s find 𝜃 by re-arranging the above as:
𝜃 = 60° + 15° = 75° and 𝜃 = 120° + 15° = 135°
We can say
∴ 𝜽 = 75° , 135°

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The solutions are shown by plotting y = sin (𝜃 − 15°) in the interval of 0 < 𝜃 < 360°. We can
√3
then draw a line (Figure 5.13) through y = .
2

Sine Func!on
1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-60 -10 40 90 140 190 240 290 340

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.13 Solution to Example 3.

Solving Trigonometric Equations 167

TABLE 5.3
Changing the Interval of Transformed Functions (Horizontal Translation and Stretch) Illus-
trated

Equation Original Range New Range

3 3
1) y = sin ( 𝜃 − 20°) −180° ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 360° −128° ≤ ( 𝜃 − 20°) ≤ 196°
5 5

2) y = cos (2𝜃 + 60°) 0° < 𝜃 < 180° 60° < (2𝜃 + 60°) < 420°
1 1 7 1 25
3) y = tan (3𝜃 + 𝜋) 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 < 2𝜋 𝜋 ≤ (3𝜃 + 𝜋) < 𝜋
4 2 4 4 4

5.3.3 TYPE 3: y = sin (ax ± b) , y = cos (ax ± b) , y = tan (ax ± b)

This last type is a combination of type 1 and type 2 (i.e., a horizontal stretch and translation in a sin-
gle trigonometric equation). We can say that if the given interval is 𝜃1 ≤ x ≤ 𝜃2 , the new interval will
be a𝜃1 ± b ≤ (ax ± b) ≤ a𝜃2 ± b. Notice that, first we need to multiply the limits (lower and upper)
by the coefficient of the angle and then add/subtract the phase angle. This order is very essential. To
illustrate, solving y = cos (3x − 40°) in the range 0° < x < 180° would imply solving the same in
the range 0° − 40° < 3x − 40° < (3 × 180°) − 40°, i.e., −40° < 3x − 40° < 500°.
Table 5.3 shows more examples of this type.
It is a good time to try a couple of examples.

Example 4

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the range −180° < x < 180°.

5
a) tan ( x − 110°) = −5 b) √2 sin (3x + 40°) + 1 = 0
4

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

5
a) tan ( x − 110°) = −5
4
Solution
5
The original interval is −180° < x < 180°, the new range for this is −335° < ( x − 110°) < 115°.
4
Given that
5
tan ( x − 110°) = −5
4
168 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5
Step 1: Let z = x − 110°, thus
4

tan z = −5
z = tan−1 (−5) = −78.7°

Step 2: Tangent is negative in the second and fourth quadrants and its value in the second quadrant
is obtained using

180° − 78.7° = 101.3°

The fourth quadrant is not required since the upper limit of our new interval is 115°.
Step 3: Our z values now are

z = −78.7°, 101.3°

Step 4: As we’ve reached the upper limit, we now need to subtract 180° as:

z = −78.7° − 180 = −258.7°

If we subtract 180° again, we will be out of the range. Hence, the values of z in between −335° and
115° are:

z = −258.7°, −78.7°, 101.3°

5
Step 5: Remember that z = x − 110°, thus
4

5
x − 110° = z = −258.7°, −78.7°, 101.3°
4
5 4
x is obtained by adding 110° to each value and dividing each result by (or multiplying by ) as:
4 5

● When z = −258.7° ● When z = −78.7° ● When z = 101.3°

5 5 5
x − 110° = −258.7° x − 110° = −78.7° x − 110° = 101.3°
4 4 4
5 5 5
x = −258.7° x = −78.7° x = 101.3°
4 4 4
+110° +110° +110°
5 5 5
x = −148.7° x = 31.3° x = 211.3°
4 4 4
4 4 4
x = (−148.7°) x = (31.3°) x = (211.3°)
5 5 5
Hence x = −118.96° Hence x = 25.04° Hence x = 169.04°

∴ x = −119°, 25°, 169°

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
5
The solutions are shown by plotting tan ( x − 110°) = −5 in the interval of −180° < x <
4
180°. We then draw a line (Figure 5.14) through y = −5.
Solving Trigonometric Equations 169

Tangent Func!on
15.0
tan

10.0

5.0

0.0 
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200

-5.0

-10.0

-15.0

FIGURE 5.14 Solution to Example 4(a).

b) √2 sin (3x + 40°) + 1 = 0

Solution
The original interval is −180° < x < 180°, the new range for this is −500° < x < 580°. Given that

√2 sin (3x + 40°) + 1 = 0

Step 1: Re-arranging this, we have

√2 sin (3x + 40°) = −1

1
sin (3x + 40°) = −
√2
√2
sin (3x + 40°) = −
2
Step 2: We can let z = 3x + 40°, thus

√2
sin z = −
2
−1 √2
z = sin (− ) = −45°
2
Step 3: We have that

sin (−45°) = sin (360° − 45°) = sin 315°

170 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 4: Sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants and its value in the third quadrant is
obtained using

180° + 45° = 225°

Thus, we can see that the two values within a 360° range are
z = 225°, 315°
Step 5: We need to add/subtract 360° twice from the above as:

z = 225° + 360° z = 225° − 360° z = 315° + 360° z = 315° − 360°

= 585° = −135° = 675° = −45°
Also

z = 225° + 720° z = 225° − 720° z = 315° + 720° z = 315° − 720°

= 945° = −495° = 1035° = −405°
Step 6: Thus, the values of z between −720° and 1080° are:

−495° −405° −135° −45° 225° 315° 585° 675° 945° 1035°
However, the values of z in −500° < x < 580° are six as:

−495° −405° −135° −45° 225° 315°

Step 7: Remember that z = 3x + 40°, thus

3x + 40° = z = −495°, −405°, −135°, −45°, 225°, 315°

x is obtained by subtracting 40° from each value and then dividing each result by 3 as:
● When z = −495°

3x + 40° = −495°
3x = −495° − 40°
3x = −535°
1
x = (−535°)
3
Hence
x = −178.33°
● When z = −405°

3x + 40° = −405°
3x = −405° − 40°
3x = −445°
1
x = (−445°)
3
Hence
x = −148.33°
Solving Trigonometric Equations 171

● When z = −135°

3x + 40° = −135°
3x = −135° − 40°
3x = −175°
1
x = (−175°)
3
Hence

x = −58.33°

● When z = −45°

3x + 40° = −45°
3x = −45° − 40°
3x = −85°
1
x = (−85°)
3
Hence

x = −28.33°

● When z = 225°

3x + 40° = 225°
3x = 225° − 40°
3x = 185°
1
x = (185°)
3
Hence

x = 61.67°

● When z = 315°

3x + 40° = 315°
3x = 315° − 40°
3x = 275°
1
x = (275°)
3
Hence

x = 91.67°

∴ x = −178.3°, −148.3°, −58.3°, −28.3°, 61.7°, 91.7°

172 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The solutions are shown by plotting √2 sin (3x + 40°) + 1 = 0 in the interval of −180° < x <
√2
180°. We then draw a line through y = − .
2
The solutions (Figure 5.15) are shown by plotting √2 sin (z + 40°) + 1 = 0 in the interval of
√2
−500° < x < 580°. We then draw a line through y = − .
2
In this case, x is obtained by subtracting 40° from each value and then dividing each result by
3 (Figure 5.16).

Sine Func!on
1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.15 Solution to Example 4(b) – Part I.

Solving Trigonometric Equations 173

Sine Func!on
1.5
sin

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-580 -480 -380 -280 -180 -80 20 120 220 320 420 520

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.16 Solution to Example 4(b) – Part II.

5.4 TRIGONOMETRIC EQUATIONS INVOLVING IDENTITIES

Our focus here is to highlight the relationship between trigonometric identities (discussed in Chap-
ters 3 and 4) and equations. When a trigonometric equation involves secant, cosecant, and cotangent,
it is sometimes easier to convert them at the beginning of our workings to cosine, sine, and tangent,
respectively. Alternatively, this conversion can be delayed until the point at which we need to find
the inverse function.
For clarity and ease of reference, we have grouped trigonometric equations under six categories.

5.4.1 THE FUNDAMENTALS

In this first group, we will show how the fundamental trigonometric identities can be employed
in solving trigonometric equations. To be clear, by ‘fundamental’ we mean the following listed
identities, which were introduced in Chapter 3.

sin 𝜽 2
tan 𝜽 = sin 𝜽 + cos2 𝜽 = 1 tan2 𝜽 + 1 = sec2 𝜽 cot2 𝜽 + 1 = cosec2 𝜽 (5.1)
cos 𝜽

Note that the third and fourth identities follow from the second identity (by dividing by cos2 𝜃 to
2
obtain the third and by sin 𝜃 to obtain the fourth identity).
174 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

It is a good time to try a few examples.

Example 5

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋. Present your answer correct
to 3 d.p. where necessary.

2
a) 1 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 6sin 𝜃 = 0 b) sec2 𝜃 − 5 = 0 c) cosec2 𝜃 + cot2 𝜃 = 1

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

Sometimes we may need to substitute the trigonometric ratio with a letter (or variable) to make
it easier to solve.
2
a) 1 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 6sin 𝜃 = 0
Solution
We have that
2
1 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 6sin 𝜃 = 0

Step 1: To solve this, we need to have the equation entirely in sine or cosine. For this case, it is a
good option to express it in cosine. We can achieve this by using the identity:

2
sin 𝜃 = 1 − cos2 𝜃

Step 2: Let’s re-write this as:

1 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 6 (1 − cos2 𝜃) = 0
1 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 6 + 6cos2 𝜃 = 0
6cos2 𝜃 − 7 cos 𝜃 − 5 = 0

Step 3: The above looks like a quadratic equation, it is in fact a quadratic (trigonometric) equation.
We can either proceed to solve it in its current form or employ substitution to make it easier.
We will go with the second option. Hence, let

x = cos 𝜃

Thus, upon substitution we have

6x2 − 7x − 5 = 0

Step 4: We are free to use any of the methods for solving a quadratic equation (see Foundation
Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples by the same author), we
will go for factorisation here.
Solving Trigonometric Equations 175

6x2 − 7x − 5 = 0
(3x − 5) (2x + 1) = 0

Thus, we have:

3x − 5 = 0 2x + 1 = 0
5 OR 1
x= x=−
3 2

Step 5: Let’s substitute back now. In other words,

5 1
cos 𝜃 = > 1 OR cos 𝜃 = −
3 2
5
cos 𝜃 = is not a valid solution, as the maximum value of cos 𝜃 is 1. Hence, the only solution is
3

1
cos 𝜃 = −
2
which implies that
1 2
𝜃 = cos−1 (− ) = 𝜋
2 3
Step 6: Cosine is negative in the second and third quadrants, so we have

1 4
𝜃 =𝜋+ 𝜋= 𝜋
3 3
Thus, we can see that the two values within 2𝜋 range are
2 4
𝜋, 𝜋
3 3
Step 7: Cosine is symmetrical about the y-axis, so we can have

2 4
− 𝜋, − 𝜋
3 3
4
But − 𝜋 is outside the stated range. Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range are
3

2 2 4
𝜽 = − 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅
3 3 3

b) sec2 𝜃 − 5 = 0
Solution
Given that

sec2 𝜃 − 5 = 0

Step 1: Let’s use the identity tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec2 𝜃, thus

(tan2 𝜃 + 1) − 5 = 0
tan2 𝜃 − 4 = 0
(tan 𝜃 + 2) (tan 𝜃 − 2) = 0
176 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: Let y = tan 𝜃, we have

y+2=0 y−2=0
OR
y = −2 y=2

In other words,

tan 𝜃 = −2 tan 𝜃 = 2
𝜃 = tan−1 (−2) OR 𝜃 = tan−1 (2)
= −1.107 = 1.107
Step 3: Add/subtract multiples of 𝜋, we have

−1.107 + 𝜋 = 2.035 −1.107 − 𝜋 = −4.249 1.107 + 𝜋 = 4.249 1.107 − 𝜋 = −2.035

Step 4: Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are:

𝜽 = −2.035, −1.107, 1.107, 2.035, 4.249, 5.176

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Step 1: Using difference of two squares, factorise

sec2 𝜃 − 5 = 0
(sec 𝜃 − √5) (sec 𝜃 + √5) = 0

Thus, we have:

sec 𝜃 − √5 = 0 sec 𝜃 + √5 = 0
OR
sec 𝜃 = √5 sec 𝜃 = −√5

1
Step 2: When sec 𝜃 = √5, use sec 𝜃 = . Thus
cos 𝜃

1
= √5
cos 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃 =
√5
1
𝜃 = cos−1 ( ) = 1.107
√5

Step 3: Cosine is positive in the first and fourth quadrants, so its value in the fourth quadrant
is

2𝜋 − 1.107 = 5.176

Step 4: Using the symmetry of cosine about the y-axis, we have the last solution as −1.107.
Solving Trigonometric Equations 177

1
Step 5: When sec 𝜃 = −√5, use sec 𝜃 = . Thus
cos 𝜃

1
= −√5
cos 𝜃
1
cos 𝜃 = −
√5
1
𝜃 = cos−1 ( ) = 1.107
√5

1
𝜃 = cos−1 (− ) = 2.034
√5

Step 6: Cosine is negative in the second and third quadrants, so its value in the third quadrant
is

2𝜋 − 2.034 = 4.249

Step 7: Using the symmetry of cosine about the y-axis, we have the last solution as

−2.034

Step 8: Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are:

∴ 𝜽 = −2.034, −1.107, 1.107, 2.034, 4.249, 5.176

c) cosec2 𝜃 + cot2 𝜃 = 1
Solution
We have

cosec2 𝜃 + cot2 𝜃 = 1

Step 1: Let’s use the identity cot2 𝜃 + 1 = cosec2 𝜃, thus

(cot2 𝜃 + 1) + cot2 𝜃 = 1
cot2 𝜃 + cot2 𝜃 = 0
2cot2 𝜃 = 0
cot 𝜃 = 0

But
1
cot 𝜃 =
tan 𝜃
178 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus, we have
1
=0
tan 𝜃
1
tan 𝜃 = = ∞
0
𝜋
𝜃 = tan−1 (∞) =
2
Step 2: Tangent is positive in the first and third quadrants, so its value in the third quadrant is

𝜋 3𝜋
𝜋+ =
2 2
Step 3: The above are solutions in the range 0 to 2𝜋. To get the value in the range −𝜋 to 0 subtract
𝜋 from the first quadrant value, we have

𝜋 𝜋
−𝜋=−
2 2
Step 4: Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

𝝅 𝝅 3𝝅
∴𝜽=− , ,
2 2 2

5.4.2 ADDITION FORMULAS

In this case, we will solve equations which require the use of addition formulas. These have been
covered previously, but reproduced in Table 5.4 for quick access and reference.
It is a good time to try an example to illustrate this.

Example 6

𝜋
Solve sin (x + ) = 2 cos x in the interval −𝜋 < x < 𝜋. Present your answer in exact form.
6

TABLE 5.4
Addition Formulas

Addition Subtraction
Sine sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + sin B cos A sin (A − B) = sin A cos B − sin B cos A

Cosine cos (A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B cos (A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B

tan A + tan B tan A − tan B

Tangent tan (A + B) = tan (A − B) =
1 − tan A tan B 1 + tan A tan B

(5.2)
Solving Trigonometric Equations 179

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Solution
We have that
𝜋
sin (x + ) = 2 cos x
6
Step 1: Let’s apply the addition formula to the LHS as follows:

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin (x + ) = sin x cos + sin cos x
6 6 6
√3 1
=( ) sin x + ( ) cos x
2 2

Step 2: Let’s substitute the result in the original equation as:

√3 1
( ) sin x + ( ) cos x = 2 cos x
2 2
√3 sin x + cos x = 4 cos x
√3 sin x = 3 cos x
sin x 3
=
cos x √3
tan x = √3
𝜋
x = tan−1 (√3) =
3
Step 3: This solution is in the first quadrant where tangent is positive. Tangent is also positive in
the third quadrant, but this is outside the stated range. To get the value in the negative part,
subtract 𝜋 as:

𝜋 2
−𝜋=− 𝜋
3 3
Step 4: The solutions of the equation in the stated range are therefore:

2 1
x=− 𝝅, x= 𝝅
3 3

5.4.3 MULTIPLE ANGLE

In this section, we’ll explore examples where the formulas for multiple-angle identities play a crucial
role in solving trigonometric equations. They are reproduced in Tables 5.5–5.7 for quick reference.
180 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 5.5
Double-Angle Formulas

Function Identities
Sine sin 2A = 2 sin A cos A

2 2 2
Cosine cos 2A = cos2 A − sin A cos 2A = 2 cos A − 1 cos 2A = 1 − 2 sin A

2 tan A
Tangent tan 2A =
1 − tan2 A

TABLE 5.6
Triple-Angle Formulas

Function Identities
3
Sine sin 3A = 3 sin A − 4 sin A

Cosine cos 3A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A

2 tan A − tan3 A
Tangent tan 3A =
1 − 3 tan2 A

TABLE 5.7
Half-Angle Formulas

Function Identities
1 1
Sine sin A = 2 sin A cos A
2 2

1 2 1 21 2 1
Cosine cos A = cos2 A − sin A cos A = 2 cos A − 1 cos A = 1 − 2 sin A
2 2 2 2

1
2 tan A
2
Tangent tan A =
1
1 − tan2 A
2

(5.3)
Solving Trigonometric Equations 181

It’s a good time to attempt a few examples.

Example 7

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋. Present your answer correct
to 3 d.p. where necessary.

1
a) 3 cosec 2𝜃 − 5 = 0 b) sin ( 𝜃) + cos 𝜃 = 0 c) cot 𝜃 = 3 sin 2𝜃
2
1−cos 2𝜃
d) 2 =2 e) tan 3𝜃 = tan 𝜃 f) 2 cos 2𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
sin 𝜃−cos2 𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

Sometimes we may need to substitute the trigonometric ratio with a letter (or variable) to make
it easier to solve.

a) 3 cosec 2𝜃 − 5 = 0
Solution
Given that 3 cosec 2𝜃 − 5 = 0
Step 1: Let’s simplify

3 cosec 2𝜃 − 5 = 0
3 cosec 2𝜃 = 5
5
cosec 2𝜃 =
3
1 5
=
sin 2𝜃 3
3
sin 2𝜃 =
5
Step 2: Interval
The original interval is −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋, and the new range for this is −2𝜋 < 2𝜃 < 4𝜋. Therefore

−1 3
2𝜃 = sin ( ) = 0.644
5
Step 3: Sine is positive in the first and second quadrants, so its value in the second quadrant is

𝜋 − 0.644 = 2.498

Thus, we can see that the two values between 0 and 2𝜋 are

2𝜃 = 0.644, 2.498
182 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 4: Since we need values up to 4𝜋, let’s add 2𝜋 to have

2𝜃 = 0.644 + 2𝜋 2𝜃 = 2.498 + 2𝜋
AND
= 6.927 = 8.781

Step 5: Subtract 2𝜋 to obtain a solution in the range −2𝜋 to 0

2𝜃 = 0.644 − 2𝜋 2𝜃 = 2.498 − 2𝜋
AND
= −5.639 = −3.785

The complete solutions are:

2𝜃 = −5.639, −3.785, 0.644, 2.498, 6.927, 8.781

Step 6: Divide each answer by 2 to have the values of 𝜃 in the stated range as:

5.639 3.785 0.644 2.498 6.927 8.781

𝜃=− ,− , , , ,
2 2 2 2 2 2
Step 7: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

∴ 𝜽 = −2.820, −1.893, 0.322, 1.249, 3.464, 4.391

1
b) sin ( 𝜃) + cos 𝜃 = 0
2
Solution
Given that
1
sin ( 𝜃) + cos 𝜃 = 0
2
2 1
Step 1: Let’s simplify using the identity cos 𝜃 = 1 − 2sin ( 𝜃) as
2

1
sin ( 𝜃) + cos 𝜃 = 0
2
1 2 1
sin ( 𝜃) + 1 − 2sin ( 𝜃) = 0
2 2
2 1 1
2sin ( 𝜃) − sin ( 𝜃) − 1 = 0
2 2
1
Step 2: Let sin ( 𝜃) = y, we have
2

2y2 − y − 1 = 0
(2y + 1) (y − 1) = 0

Step 3: Solve the quadratic equation

2y + 1 = 0 y−1=0
1
y=− OR y=1
2
1
1
∴ sin ( 𝜃) = −
1 ∴ sin ( 𝜃) = 1
2
2 2
Solving Trigonometric Equations 183

1
Step 4: Remember that we need to reduce the range by half. Our working range is thus − 𝜋 < 𝜃 <
2
𝜋.
1 1
Step 5: When sin ( 𝜃) = −
2 2

𝜃 −1 1 𝜋
= sin (− ) = −
2 2 6
𝜋
− ± 2𝜋 will take us outside the required range, so the above is the only valid answer, thus
6

𝜋
𝜃=−
3
1
Step 6: When sin ( 𝜃) = 1
2

𝜃 −1 𝜋
= sin (1) =
2 2
3
The next maximum value for sine is at 𝜃 > 𝜋, so the above is the only valid answer, thus
2

𝜃=𝜋

Step 7: Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

𝝅
∴𝜽=− , 𝝅
3
A graphical solution is shown in Figure 5.17.

c) cot 𝜃 = 3 sin 2𝜃
Solution
Given that

cot 𝜃 = 3 sin 2𝜃

Step 1: Simplify using relevant identities

cos 𝜃
= 3 (2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)
sin 𝜃
cos 𝜃
= 6 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃
2
cos 𝜃 = 6sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃
2
6sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 − cos 𝜃 = 0
2
cos 𝜃(6sin 𝜃 − 1) = 0

Note
Do not divide both sides by cos 𝜃, otherwise some solutions will be missed out.
184 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

sin0.5 + cos =0
1.5
f( )

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

FIGURE 5.17 Solution to Example 7(b).

Step 2: Therefore, we have

2
6sin 𝜃 − 1 = 0
2
cos 𝜃 = 0 6sin 𝜃 = 1
2 1
𝝅 OR sin 𝜃 =
𝜃 = cos−1 (0) = 6
2
1 √6
sin 𝜃 = ± =±
√6 6
Step 3: When cos 𝜃 = 0

𝝅
𝜃 = cos−1 (0) =
2
3𝝅
The other minimum value of cosine within the 0 to 2𝜋 interval is . Using the symmetry of cosine
2
𝝅 3𝝅
about the y-axis, we have − and − . Unfortunately, the last value is outside the required range.
2 2

√6
Step 4: When sin 𝜃 =
6

−1 √6
𝜃 = sin = 0.421
6
The other value in the second quadrant is

𝜃 = 𝜋 − 0.421 = 2.721
Solving Trigonometric Equations 185

3sin2 - cot =0
2.5
f( )

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360
-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

-2.0

-2.5

FIGURE 5.18 Solution to Example 7(c).

Unfortunately using the periodicity of −2𝜋 will take us out of the required range.
√6
Step 5: When sin 𝜃 = −
6

√6
sin 𝜃 = −
6
−1 √6
𝜃 = sin (− ) = −0.421
6

Step 6: The value of sine is negative in the third and fourth quadrants and are:

𝜃 = 𝜋 + 0.421 𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 0.421
AND
= 3.563 = 5.862

Step 7: Using periodicity of −2𝜋 will have

𝜃 = 3.561 − 2𝜋 𝜃 = 5.862 − 2𝜋
AND
= −2.722 = −0.421

Step 8: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

𝝅 𝝅 3𝝅
∴ 𝜽 = −2.722, − , −0.421, 0.421, , 2.722, 3.563, , 5.862
2 2 2
186 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1−cos 2𝜃
d) 2 =2
sin 𝜃−cos2 𝜃
Solution
Step 1: Let’s simplify

1 − cos 2𝜃
2
=2
sin 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃
2
1 − cos 2𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃 − 2cos2 𝜃

Using an appropriate double-angle formula, we will have

2
1 − (2cos2 𝜃 − 1) = 2sin 𝜃 − 2cos2 𝜃
2
1 + 1 − 2cos2 𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃 − 2cos2 𝜃
2
2sin 𝜃 = 2
sin 𝜃 = ± 1

In this case, we have two situations to deal with as follows.

Step 2: When sin 𝜃 = 1

sin 𝜃 = 1

which implies that

−1 𝝅
𝜃 = sin (1) =
2
This is the only maximum value of sine within the 0 to 2𝜋 interval.
Step 3: When sin 𝜃 = − 1

sin 𝜃 = − 1

which implies that

−1 𝝅
𝜃 = sin (−1) = −
2
3𝝅
The sine function is minimum only at within the 0 to 2𝜋 interval.
2

Step 4: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

𝝅 𝝅 3𝝅
𝜽=− , ,
2 2 2
Solving Trigonometric Equations 187

cos2θ + 2 sin^2θ - 2 cos^2θ - 1 = 0

1.5
f( )

1.0

0.5

0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-0.5

-1.0

-1.5

FIGURE 5.19 Solution to Example 7(d).

ATERNATIVE METHODS
Method 1

1 − cos 2𝜃
2
=2
sin 𝜃 − cos2 𝜃
1 − cos 2𝜃
2
=2
− (cos2 𝜃 − sin 𝜃)
1 − cos 2𝜃
=2
− (cos 2𝜃)
1 = cos 2𝜃 − 2 cos 2𝜃
cos 2𝜃 = −1

2𝜃 = cos−1 (−1) = 𝝅

This is the only minimum value of cosine within the 0 to 2𝜋 interval. For this case, we need to
double the interval to −2𝜋 < 𝜃 < 4𝜋. Let’s use ±2𝜋 periodicity property to find other values
in the new range as:

2𝜃 = 𝝅 + 2𝝅 2𝜃 = 𝝅 − 2𝝅
AND
= 3𝝅 = −𝝅
188 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Therefore

2𝜃 = −𝝅, 𝝅, 3𝝅

Divide through by 2 to have

1 1 3
𝜽 = − 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅
2 2 2
Therefore, the solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are:

𝝅 𝝅 3𝝅
𝜽=− , ,
2 2 2
Method 2

2 2
1 − (1 − 2sin 𝜃) = 2sin 𝜃 − 2cos2 𝜃
2 2
1 − 1 + 2sin 𝜃 = 2sin 𝜃 − 2cos2 𝜃
2cos2 𝜃 = 0
cos 𝜃 = 0
𝝅
𝜃 = cos−1 (0) =
2
3𝝅
The other minimum value of cosine within 0 to 2𝜋 interval is . Using the symmetry of cosine
2
𝝅 3𝝅
about the y-axis, we have − and − .
2 2

e) tan 3𝜃 = tan 𝜃
Solution
Given that

tan 3𝜃 = tan 𝜃

Step 1: Let’s simplify using triple-angle formula

tan 3𝜃 = tan 𝜃
2 tan 𝜃 − tan3 𝜃
= tan 𝜃
1 − 3tan2 𝜃
2 tan 𝜃 − tan3 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 (1 − 3tan2 𝜃)
2 tan 𝜃 − tan3 𝜃 = tan 𝜃 − 3tan3 𝜃
2 tan 𝜃 − tan3 𝜃 − tan 𝜃 + 3tan3 𝜃 = 0
tan 𝜃 + 2tan3 𝜃 = 0
tan 𝜃 (1 + 2tan2 𝜃) = 0
Solving Trigonometric Equations 189

Step 2: Solve the equation

tan 𝜃 = 0 OR 1 + 2tan2 𝜃 = 0
2tan2 𝜃 = −1
1
tan 𝜃 = ± −
√ 2
1
− is not a real number, hence the only valid solution is
√ 2

tan 𝜃 = 0

which implies that

𝜃 = tan−1 (0) = 0

Step 3: Tangent is also positive in the third quadrant, so we have

𝜃=𝜋

Step 4: Let’s use the ±𝜋 periodicity property as:

𝜃 = 𝜋 + 𝜋 = 2𝜋 AND 𝜃 = 0 − 𝜋 = −𝜋

Step 5: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are:

∴ 𝜽 = −𝝅, 0, 𝝅, 2𝝅

tan3θ - tanθ = 0
5.0
f( )

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 
-200 -110 -20 70 160 250 340
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

-5.0

FIGURE 5.20 Solution to Example 7(e).

190 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

f) 2 cos 2𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
Solution
Given that

2 cos 2𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0

Step 1: Let’s simplify using double-angle formula, we have

2
2 (1 − 2sin 𝜃) − sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
2
2 − 4sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
2
4sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃 − 3 = 0
(4 sin 𝜃 − 3) (sin 𝜃 + 1) = 0

Step 2: Solve the above quadratic equation

4 sin 𝜃 − 3 = 0 sin 𝜃 + 1 = 0
3
sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃 = −1
4
OR −1
−1 3
𝜃 = sin ( ) 𝜃 = sin (−1)
4
1
= 0.848 =− 𝜋
2
3
Step 3: When sin 𝜃 =
4

−1 3
𝜃 = sin ( ) = 0.848
4
Sine is positive in the first and second quadrants, so its value in the second quadrant is

𝜃 = 𝜋 − 0.848 = 2.294

Step 4: When sin 𝜃 = −1

−1 1
𝜃 = sin (−1) = − 𝜋
2
1
𝜃 = − 𝜋 is the same as
2

1
𝜃 = 2𝜋 − 𝜋
2
3
= 𝜋
2
Step 5: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

1 3
∴ 𝜽 = − 𝝅, 0.848, 2.294, 𝝅
2 2
Solving Trigonometric Equations 191

2cos2θ - sinθ + 1 = 0
4.0
f( )

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0 
-180 -90 0 90 180 270 360

-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

FIGURE 5.21 Solution to Example 7(f).

5.4.4 THE FACTOR FORMULAS

As with the previous categories, we will use the factor formulas here, and they are reproduced in
Table 5.8.
It is a good time to try a couple of examples.

Example 8

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the indicated intervals and sketch the graph to confirm
your answer. Present your answer correct to 3 s.f. where necessary.
a) cos 4x + sin x − cos 2x = 0 ; 0 < x < 𝜋
1
b) cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = ; −90° < x < 180°
√2
192 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 5.8
The Factor Formulas

Identities
1 1
Sine sin A + sin B = 2 sin (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
sin A − sin B = 2 sin (A − B) cos (A + B)
2 2

1 1
Cosine cos A + cos B = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
1 1
cos A − cos B = −2 sin (A + B) sin (A − B)
2 2

(5.4)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) cos 4x + sin x − cos 2x = 0; 0 < x < 𝜋

Solution
Given that

cos 4x + sin x − cos 2x = 0

Step 1: Let’s simplify

cos 4x + sin x − cos 2x = 0

cos 4x − cos 2x + sin x = 0
[cos 4x − cos 2x] + sin x = 0

Step 2: Applying the factor formula to the difference of cosine, we have

1 1
[−2 sin (4x + 2x) sin (4x − 2x)] + sin x = 0
2 2
−2 sin 3x sin x + sin x = 0
sin x − 2 sin 3x sin x = 0
sin x(1 − 2 sin 3x) = 0
Solving Trigonometric Equations 193

cos4x + sinx - cos2x = 0

3.5
f(x)

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0 x
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-0.5

-1.0

FIGURE 5.22 Solution to Example 8(a).

Step 3: Solve the equation

sin x = 0
−1
x = sin 0 = 0, 𝝅

OR

1 − 2 sin 3x = 0
1
sin 3x =
2
−1 1 5
3x = sin (0.5) = 𝝅, 𝝅
6 6
For this case, the new interval is 0 < 3x < 3𝜋. Hence, we will add 2𝜋 to each of the above two
solutions as:
1 13 5 17
2𝜋 + 𝜋 = 𝜋 AND 2𝜋 + 𝜋 = 𝜋
6 6 6 6
The full solution for the second part is

−1 1 5 13 17
3x = sin (0.5) = 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋
6 6 6 6
Divide through by 3:
1 5 13 17
x= 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋, 𝜋
18 18 18 18
194 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 4: The solutions of the equation in the range −𝜋 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

1 5 13 17
∴ 𝜽 = 0, 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅, 𝝅
18 18 18 18

1
b) cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = ; −90° < x < 180°
√2
Solution
Given that
1
cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) =
√2

Step 1: Let’s simplify

1
cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) =
√2
√2
cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) =
2
2 cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = √2

1 1
Step 2: Applying the factor formula 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B) = cos A + cos B to the LHS, we
2 2
have

1 1
2 cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = 2 cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
Or
1 1
cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = cos (A + B) cos (A − B)
2 2
This implies that
1
(A + B) = 30° + x − − − (i)
2
1
(A − B) = 30° − x − − − (ii)
2
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we have

A = 60° − − − (iii)

B = 2x − − − (iv)

Step 3: Now substitute the value of A and B in the RHS of the identity given in step 2.

2 cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = cos 60° + cos 2x

Solving Trigonometric Equations 195

cos(30°+x) cos(30°-x) - 1/√2 = 0

0.2
f(x)

0.0 x
-90 -40 10 60 110 160

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1.0

-1.2

FIGURE 5.23 Solution to Example 8(b).

Step 4: Let’s now simplify

2 cos (30° + x) cos (30° − x) = √2

cos 60° + cos 2x = √2
1
cos 2x = √2 − cos 60° = √2 −
2
2√2 − 1
2x = cos−1 ( ) = 23.9°, 336.1°
2

The new interval for this is −180° < 2x < 360°. As cosine is symmetry about the y-axis, another
solution is −23.9°. Hence, we have

2x = −23.9°, 23.9°, 336.1°

Divide each solution by 2 as:

−23.9° 23.9° 336.1°

x= , ,
2 2 2
Step 5: The solutions of the equation in the range −90° < x < 180° are

∴ 𝜽 = −12.0°, 12.0°, 168°

196 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 5.9
The R Formulas

Function Sum Difference

Sine a sin x + b cos x = R sin (x + 𝜶) a sin x − b cos x = R sin (x − 𝜶)

Cosine a sin x + b cos x = R cos (x − 𝜶) a sin x − b cos x = R cos (x + 𝜶)

(5.5)

5.4.5 R FORMULAS
In Chapter 4, we discussed R formulas or identities and extended our coverage by examining the
maximum/minimum value of the R formulas. By way of a quick recap, R formula is a trigonometric
expression that is a sum or difference of sine and cosine functions. We notice that we can write (more
technically transform) the sum of or difference of functions to a single function of sine or cosine,
with a phase angle (or horizontal translation) and a vertical stretch. The formulas are reproduced in
Table 5.9.
Again, our focus here is on using the above identities to solve trigonometric equations. It is a good
time to try a couple of examples.

Example 9

Solve the following trigonometric equations in the indicated intervals and sketch the graph to confirm
your answer. Present your answer correct to 3 s.f. where necessary.

a) 2√3 sin x − 2 cos x − 3 = 0 ; 0 < x < 2𝜋

b) 3 cos x − √2 sin x − 1 = 0 ; −180° < x < 180°

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

a) 2√3 sin x − 2 cos x − 3 = 0 ; 0 < x < 2𝜋

Solution
Step 1: Let’s simplify

2√3 sin x − 2 cos x − 3 = 0

This implies that

2√3 sin x − 2 cos x = 3

3
√3 sin x − cos x =
2
Solving Trigonometric Equations 197

Step 2: We will use the R formula to express the LHS in the sine function alone as:

√3 sin x − cos x = R sin (x + 𝛽)

For this

R = √a2 + b2
2
2
= √(√3) + (−1) = 2
| −1 || 𝜋
|𝛽| = ||tan−1 ( )| =
| √3 | 6
𝜋
This is the second quadrant, the adjusted 𝛽 = − . Thus
6

𝜋
√3 sin x − cos x = R sin (x − 𝛽) = 2 sin (x − )
6
Step 3: We now need to substitute and simplify as:

𝜋 3
2 sin (x − )=
6 2
𝜋 3
sin (x − ) =
6 4
This implies that
𝜋 −1 3
x− = sin ( ) = 0.848
6 4
𝜋 𝜋 11
The new range is − < (x − ) < 𝜋.
6 6 6

Step 4: Sine is also positive in the second quadrant, which implies that

𝜋
x− = 𝜋 − 0.848 = 2.29
6
0.848 and 2.29 are the only values within the new range.
Step 5: The values of x are:

𝜋
x= + 0.848 = 1.37
6
and
𝜋
x= + 2.29 = 2.81
6
Step 6: The solutions of the equation in the range 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋 are

∴ x = 1.37, 2.81

The graph is shown in Figure 5.24.

198 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2√3 sinx - 2 cosx - 3 = 0

2.0
f(x)

1.0

0.0 x
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

-5.0

-6.0

-7.0

-8.0

FIGURE 5.24 Solution to Example 9(a).

b) 3 cos x − √2 sin x − 1 = 0; −180° < x < 180°

Solution
Step 1: Let’s simplify

3 cos x − √2 sin x − 1 = 0

This implies that

3 cos x − √2 sin x = 1

Step 2: We will use the R formula to express the LHS in cosine function alone as:

3 cos x − √2 sin x = R cos (x + 𝛽)

For this

R = √a2 + b2
2
= √32 + (−√2) = √11
| −√2 ||
|𝛽| = ||tan−1 ( ) = 25.2°
| 3 ||

This is the fourth quadrant, the adjusted 𝛽 = 25.2°. Thus

cos x − √2 sin x = √11 cos (x + 25.2°)

Solving Trigonometric Equations 199

Step 3: We now need to substitute and simplify as:

√11 cos (x + 25.2°) = 1

1
cos (x + 25.2°) =
√11
This implies that

1
x + 25.2° = cos−1 ( ) = 72.5°
√11

The new range is −154.8° < (x + 25.2°) < 205.2°.

Step 4: Cosine is also positive in the fourth quadrant, but this is outside the range. Using periodicity
−360° will also take the solution outside the range. We can use its symmetry to determine
one solution as:

x + 25.2° = −72.5°

72.5° and −72.5° are the only values within the new range. The values of x are:

x = 72.5° − 25.2° = 47.3°

and

x = −72.5° − 25.2° = −97.7°

3 cosx - √2 sinx - 1 = 0
3.0
f(x)

2.0

1.0

0.0 x
-180 -150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150 180
-1.0

-2.0

-3.0

-4.0

-5.0

FIGURE 5.25 Solution to Example 9(b).

200 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 5: The solutions of the equation in the range −180° < x < 180° are

∴ x = −97.7°, 47.3°

Let’s try one final example, though not particularly about a specific category of the identity.

Example 10

Solve tan x + cot x = 4 in the intervals 0 < x < 𝜋. Present your answer in exact form.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

Step 1: We need to express this in one single trigonometric function. The LHS expression becomes:

2
sin x cos x sin x + cos2 x
tan x + cot x = + =
cos x sin x cos x sin x
1 2
= =
1
(sin 2x) sin 2x
2

Step 2: We could have reduced this to 2 cosec 2x, but this is not needed as we will have to reverse it.
Moreover, we can only find inverse functions of sine, cosine, and tangent on our calculators.
We can therefore say,

tan x + cot x = 4
2
=4
sin 2x
sin 2x 1
=
2 4
1
sin 2x =
2
This implies that
−1 1 1
2x = sin ( )= 𝝅
2 6
The original interval is 0 < x < 𝜋, the new range for this is 0 < 2x < 2𝜋.
Step 3: Sine is positive in the first and second quadrants, so its value in the second quadrant is

1 5
𝜋− 𝜋= 𝝅
6 6
Thus, we can see that the two values between 0 and 2𝜋 are
1 5
2𝜃 = 𝜋, 𝜋
6 6
Solving Trigonometric Equations 201

Divide each answer by 2 to have the values of x in the stated range as:

1 5
x= 𝜋, 𝜋
12 12
Step 4: The solutions of the equation in the range 0 < x < 𝜋 are:

1 5
∴x= 𝝅, 𝝅
12 12

5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) A trigonometric equation (linear and non-linear) is an equation involving trigonomet-

ric ratios. As such, solving this type of equation requires that one is equipped with
skills relating to trigonometric functions and identities, and how to solve equations in
general.
2) Due to their periodicity, there are unlimited solutions for any given trigonometric equa-
tion. Therefore, we need to know the range of values (angles) required. A calculator will
only give us one answer, usually in the first quadrant for positive values.
3) Unlike polynomials, we cannot foretell the number of solutions in trigonometric equa-
tions. The bigger the interval the more the solutions, but two solutions are generally
expected for every 360-degree (or 2𝜋) interval.
4) There are three methods to solve trigonometric equations, namely:
● Graph
● CAST
● Quadrant formula
5) CAST stands for Cos, All, Sin, and Tan. CAST diagram is a diagram which divides
x–y plane into four equal parts, called quadrants.
6) Each of the trigonometric functions is positive in two quadrants and negative in the
other two. They are all positive in the first quadrant.
7) Quadrant formulas are 180°−𝜽, 180°+𝜽, and 360°−𝜽 for the second, third, and fourth
quadrant, respectively.
8) When the trigonometric functions are transformed, the interval of the solutions will
change accordingly.
9) The three distinct transformations and how to solve problems involving each type.
a) For y = sin ax, y = cos ax, y = tan ax: This is simply a horizontal stretch, where
a is the factor of stretching. Consequently, we have that:
● the intervals will be a times the original interval, and
● the number of solutions will be, in general, a times the original number of
solutions.
202 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) For y = sin (x ± b) , y = cos (x ± b) , y = tan (x ± b): This is a horizontal trans-

lation, where b is a positive real number and represents the amount of translation,
left or right. Consequently, we have that:
● if the given interval is 𝜃1 ≤ x ≤ 𝜃2 , the new interval will be 𝜃1 ± b ≤ (x ± b) ≤
𝜃2 ± b, and
● the number of solutions will mostly remain unchanged.
c) For y = sin (ax ± b) , y = cos (ax ± b) , y = tan (ax ± b): This last type is a com-
bination of types 1 and 2. We can say that if the given interval is 𝜃1 ≤ x ≤ 𝜃2 ,
the new interval will be a𝜃1 ± b ≤ (ax ± b) ≤ a𝜃2 ± b. Notice that we need to
first multiply the limits (lower and upper) by the coefficient of the angle and then
add/subtract the phase angle. This order is very essential.

****

5.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 6 The Binomial Expansion
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Explain Pascal’s triangle and its derivation

● Compute factorials for n items
● Determine the coefficients of a binomial expansion using ( n ) or n Cr
r
● Discuss the relationship between factorials and Pascal’s triangle of
coefficients
● Discuss the limitations to the application of Pascal’s triangle
● Use Pascal’s triangle to solve binomial expressions involving pow-
ers that are positive integers
n n
● Use binomial expansion theorem for (1 + x) and (a + bx) for any
value of n
● State the validity of the expansion for rational power n
● Use binomial theorem to determine the approximate value of a ratio-
nal number

6.1 INTRODUCTION
If we have understood the opening brackets method of solving algebraic expressions, then expres-
2 3
sions such as (2x + 5)(4x − y), (4x − 3y) , and even (4x − 3y) will be easy. But imagine that we are
10
required to expand (4x − 3y) . Did you take a deep breath? Perhaps you wondered about its purpose
and how long this will take. Well, we may need this for good reasons, but it will take a pretty long
time if we follow the ‘conventional’ way of opening the brackets. Of course, we also have software
to do this. However, we equally have another technique in the absence of a calculating or processing
device. This technique is known as Binomial Expansion, which is the focus of this chapter.

6.2 WHAT IS A BINOMIAL EXPRESSION?

‘Bi’ means two just like ‘poly’ implies many. A binomial expression is an expression with just two
terms, with a plus (+) or minus (−) between them. In general, it takes the following forms:

a ± bxm OR axm ± bym

where a, b, and m are rational numbers.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-6 203
204 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Here, m is usually taken as 1, whilst a and b are (usually) integers but valid for any real number.
That is:
a ± bx OR ax ± by (6.1)
However, what we will learn in this chapter is applicable to when m ≠ 1. Through manipulation, we
can apply the binomial theorem to trinomials (expressions with three terms) and others.

6.3 PASCAL’S TRIANGLE

Pascal’s triangle is a pattern formed using the coefficients of the terms obtained when binomial
expressions of different orders are simplified. To illustrate, let’s take the binomial expression ax + by
n
and raise it to power n as (ax + by) . Power n (n is called the order) is by principle any real number,
but for Pascal’s triangle, we are limited to positive integers. We will, for simplicity, consider that
n
a = b = 1, hence we will expand (x + y) for n ≥ 0 as:

n Binominal Expression
0
0 (x + y) = 1x0 y0
1
1 (x + y) = 1x1 y0 +1x0 y1
2
2 (x + y) = 1x2 y0 +2x1 y1 +1x0 y2
3
3 (x + y) = 1x3 y0 +3x2 y1 +3x1 y2 +1x0 y3
4
4 (x + y) = 1x4 y0 +4x3 y1 +6x2 y2 +4x1 y3 +1x0 y4
5
5 (x + y) = 1x5 y0 +5x4 y1 +10x3 y2 +10x2 y3 +5x1 y4 +1x0 y5

n
Before we make any comments on the above, let’s try the same with the expression (1 + x) as:

n Binominal Expression
0
0 (1 + x) = 1x0
1
1 (1 + x) = 1x0 +1x1
2
2 (1 + x) = 1x0 +2x1 +1x2
3
3 (1 + x) = 1x0 +3x1 +3x2 +1x3
4
4 (1 + x) = 1x0 +4x1 +6x2 +4x3 +1x4
5
5 (1 + x) = 1x0 +5x1 +10x2 +10x3 +5x4 +1x5

We will now summarise the key points from the above as:

Note 1 If the power is n, the number of terms is n + 1. For example, if the power is 3, the number
of terms will be 4.
n
Note 2 Sum of the powers of the variables x and y equals n in each term of the expansion of (x + y) .
For example, when n = 4, the sum of the powers of x and y will also be equal to 4 in each
of the five terms. Consequently, if a term has x1 , then it must have y3 to make the sum of
the powers 4.
Note 3 We generally like to arrange the results in ascending or descending order of the power of
the variable x or y. If this is followed, the power of the variable will increase/decrease by 1
when moving from one term to the immediate next.
The Binomial Expansion 205

Note 4 If Note 3 is followed, then the array of coefficients (of the terms) will form a pattern called
Pascal’s triangle. The array can be easily formed.
n n
Now let’s turn back to our solution of (x + y) and (1 + x) , for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and extract the
coefficients to form a pattern, as shown in Figure 6.1.
We’ve used the coefficients to form an array of numbers. An extra line, without coefficients, has been
added (when n = 6), which will be completed shortly. A critical look at Figure 6.1 shows that:

a) The array of coefficients forms a pattern that can be enveloped in a triangle, hence the name
Pascal’s triangle. It is named after the French inventor and mathematician, Blaise Pascal.
b) The array is symmetrical. In other words, once you’ve obtained the first half of the coefficients,
the second half is a lateral reflection of the first about the middle (or the line of symmetry).
c) It is arranged such that there is an empty unit space between two vertically and horizontally
adjacent coefficients. The space is seen empty and greyed in Figure 6.1.
d) The array starts with 1 in the first row. This is followed with 1 twice in the second row, each
is placed to the left and right of the 1 in the first row. Each of the subsequent rows starts and
ends with 1.
e) To find a coefficient, follow a three-step approach:
Step 1: Look above the cell whose coefficient is to be found; this should be empty.
Step 2: Pick the number to the immediate left and immediate right of step 1. We’ve shown
this for 2 in Figure 6.2.
Step 3: Add the two numbers in step 2; this becomes the unknown coefficient.

Note e) has now been applied to complete the triangle as shown in Figure 6.2. Did you get the gist?

n
Line of symmetry
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6

FIGURE 6.1 Pascal’s triangle illustrated.

n
Line of symmetry
0 1
1 1 1
2 1 2 1
3 1 3 3 1
4 1 4 6 4 1
5 1 5 10 10 5 1
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1

FIGURE 6.2 Pascal’s triangle illustrated (extended).

206 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

That’s all for Pascal’s triangle. Let’s take a break and try a few examples.

Example 1

Using Pascal’s triangle, expand and completely simplify the following:

6 5 3
a) (1 + x) b) (x − y) c) (2x + 3y)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

● Since we have Pascal’s triangle drawn above, we will simply refer to it. Ordinarily, you
may have to do this.
● Note that anything raised to power zero is 1.
● We will also write power 1 without the number, i.e., x1 will be written simply as x.
6
a) (1 + x)
Solution
Let’s go slowly here.
Step 1: n = 6, so we expect seven terms as:

6
(1 + x) = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

Step 2: The two terms are 1 and x. We will arrange our expansion in ascending power of x as:

6 6 0 5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0 6
(1 + x) = (1) (x) + (1) (x) + (1) (x) + (1) (x) + (1) (x) + (1) (x) + (1) (x)

Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 6 from the triangle. Looking at the array, it is
1, 6, 15, 20, 15, 6, 1.

6 6 0 5 1 4 2 3 3 2 4 1 5 0 6
(1 + x) = 1(1) (x) + 6(1) (x) + 15(1) (x) + 20(1) (x) + 15(1) (x) + 6(1) (x) + 1(1) (x)

Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

6
(1 + x) = 1 (1) (1) + 6 (1) (x) + 15 (1) (x2 ) + 20 (1) (x3 ) + 15 (1) (x4 ) + 6 (1) (x5 ) + 1 (1) (x6 )
= 1 + 6x + 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 + 6x5 + 1x6
6
∴ (1 + x) = 1 + 6x + 15x2 + 20x3 + 15x4 + 6x5 + x6

5
b) (x − y)
Solution
5
This is a bit different because of the sign, but the steps are the same. Consider it as [x + (−y)] . You
get the gist? It is a very useful tip in this topic. Let’s go.
The Binomial Expansion 207

Step 1: n = 5, so we expect six terms: a pair of brackets for x term and the other for −y as:

5
(x − y) = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

Step 2: The two terms are x and −y. We will arrange our expansion in ascending power of y as:

5 5 0 4 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 0 5
(x − y) = (x) (−y) + (x) (−y) + (x) (−y) + (x) (−y) + (x) (−y) + (x) (−y)

Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 5 from the triangle. Looking at the array it is
1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1.

5 5 0 4 1 3 2 2 3 1 4 0 5
(x − y) = 1(x) (−y) + 5(x) (−y) + 10(x) (−y) + 10(x) (−y) + 5(x) (−y) + 1(x) (−y)

Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

5
(x − y) = 1 (x5 ) (1) + 5 (x4 ) (−y) + 10 (x3 ) (y2 ) + 10 (x2 ) (−y3 ) + 5 (x) (y4 ) + 1 (1) (−y5 )
= 1x5 − 5x4 y + 10x3 y2 − 10x2 y3 + 5xy4 − 1y5
5
∴ (x − y) = x5 − 5x4 y + 10x3 y2 − 10x2 y3 + 5xy4 − y5

3
c) (2x + 3y)
Solution
This is of the form ax + by where a ≠ b ≠ 1; it is all the same as we will see now. Let’s go.
Step 1: n = 3, so we expect four terms as:

3
(2x + 3y) = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

Step 2: The two terms are 2x and 3y. We will arrange our expansion in ascending power of y as:

3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
(2x + 3y) = (2x) (3y) + (2x) (3y) + (2x) (3y) + (2x) (3y)

Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 3 from the triangle. Looking at the array it is
1, 3, 3, 1.

3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
(2x + 3y) = 1(2x) (3y) + 3(2x) (3y) + 3(2x) (3y) + 1(2x) (3y)

Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

3 2 2
(2x + 3y) = 1 (8x3 ) (1) + 3 (4x ) (3y) + 3 (2x) (9y ) + 1 (1) (27y3 )
= 8x3 + 36x2 y + 54xy2 + 27y3
3
∴ (2x + 3y) = 8x3 + 36x2 y + 54xy2 + 27y3
208 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another example to try.

Example 2

3
The coefficient of y2 in the expansion of (ab2 + by) is 192. Given that b is half of a, determine the
exact value of a and b.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Looking at Pascal’s array for power 3, we have 1, 3, 3, 1 as the coefficients of the terms. The third
term will contain y2 . Thus, we have
2
3 (ab2 ) (by) = 3 (ab2 ) (b2 y2 ) = 3ab4 y2

Therefore

3ab4 = 192

But

a = 2b

Thus

3 × 2b × b4 = 192
6b5 = 192
b5 = 32
5
b = √32 = 2

Hence

a=2×2=4
∴ a = 4, b = 2

Here is another couple of examples to try.

Example 3

Using Pascal’s triangle, write down the expansion of the following in descending powers of x:
3
1 3
a) (x3 − ) b) (x2 − x − 2)
3x
The Binomial Expansion 209

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

3
1
a) (x3 − )
3x
Solution
Let’s go slowly here
Step 1: n = 3, so we expect four terms as:

3
1
(x3 − ) = ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( ) + ( )( )
3x
1
Step 2: The two terms are x3 and − . We will arrange our expansion in descending powers of x as:
3x

3 0 1 2 3
1 3 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
(x3 − ) = (x3 ) (− ) + (x3 ) (− ) + (x3 ) (− ) + (x3 ) (− )
3x 3x 3x 3x 3x
Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 3 from the triangle. Looking at the array, it is
1, 3, 3, 1.

3 0 1 2 3
1 3 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
(x3 − ) = 1(x3 ) (− ) + 3(x3 ) (− ) + 3(x3 ) (− ) + 1(x3 ) (− )
3x 3x 3x 3x 3x
Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

3 0 1 2 3
1 3 1 2 1 1 1 0 1
(x3 −
) = 1(x3 ) (− ) + 3(x3 ) (− ) + 3(x3 ) (− ) + 1(x3 ) (− )
3x 3x 3x 3x 3x
1 1 1
= 1 (x9 ) (1) + 3 (x6 ) (− ) + 3 (x3 ) ( 2 ) + 1 (1) (− )
3x 9x 27x3
x 1
= 1 (x9 ) + 3 (−3x5 ) + 3 ( ) + 1 (− )
9 27x3
1 1
= 1x9 − 9x5 + x −
3 27x3
3
1 1 1
∴ (x3 − ) = x9 − 9x5 + x −
3x 3 27x3

3
b) (x2 − x − 2)
Solution
We will do this in two stages. As we are dealing with a trinomial, we will model it as a binomial by
letting y = x2 − x then we have
3 3
(x2 − x − 2) = (y − 2)
210 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now, let’s go
Step 1: n = 3, so we expect four terms as:

3
(y − 2) = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

Step 2: The two terms are y and −2. We will arrange our expansion in descending powers of y as:

3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
(y − 2) = (y) (−2) + (y) (−2) + (y) (−2) + (y) (−2)

Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 3 from the triangle. Looking at the array, it is
1, 3, 3, 1.

3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
(y − 2) = 1(y) (−2) + 3(y) (−2) + 3(y) (−2) + 1(y) (−2)

Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

3
(y − 2) = 1 (y3 ) (1) + 3 (y2 ) (−2) + 3 (y) (4) + 1 (1) (−8)
= 1 (y3 ) + 3 (−2y2 ) + 3 (4y) + 1 (−8)
= y3 − 6y2 + 12y − 8

Step 5: Let’s replace y with x2 − x, we have

3 2
= (x2 − x) − 6(x2 − x) + 12 (x2 − x) − 8

Step 6: Let expand the powers of x2 − x as

2
(x2 − x) = x4 − 2x3 + x2
3 3 0 2 1 1 2 0 3
(x2 − x) = 1(x2 ) (−x) + 3(x2 ) (−x) + 3(x2 ) (−x) + 1(x2 ) (−x)
= x6 − 3x5 + 3x4 − x3

Step 7: It is time to put our results in step 6 into step 5 and then simplify

3 3 2
(x2 − x − 2) = (x2 − x) − 6(x2 − x) + 12 (x2 − x) − 8
= x6 − 3x5 + 3x4 − x3 − 6 (x4 − 2x3 + x2 ) + 12 (x2 − x) − 8
= x6 − 3x5 + 3x4 − x3 − 6x4 + 12x3 − 6x2 + 12x2 − 12x − 8
= x6 − 3x5 + 3x4 − 6x4 − x3 + 12x3 − 6x2 + 12x2 − 12x − 8
3
∴ (x2 − x − 2) = x6 − 3x5 − 3x4 + 11x3 + 6x2 − 12x − 8
The Binomial Expansion 211

Another example to try.

Example 4

4
Using Pascal’s triangle, determine the value of 1.9 . Give your answer correct to 2 s.f.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

Think about how the single number can be best split into two separate digits. Each represents a
term in a binomial.

There are many ways of splitting 1.9 but think about the one that you can easily deal with their
4 4
powers. For the current case, we will consider 1.9 as (2 − 0.1) . Let’s work this out as before:
Step 1: n = 4, so we expect five terms as:

4
(2 − 0.1) = ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( ) + ( ) ( )

Step 2: The two terms are 2 and −0.1. We will arrange our expansion in ascending powers
of 0.1 as:

4 4 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0 4
(2 − 0.1) = (2) (−0.1) + (2) (−0.1) + (2) (−0.1) + (2) (−0.1) + (2) (−0.1)

Step 3: Let’s now insert the coefficients for power 4. Looking at the array it is 1, 4, 6, 4, 1.

4 4 0 3 1 2 2 1 3 0 4
(2 − 0.1) = 1(2) (−0.1) + 4(2) (−0.1) + 6(2) (−0.1) + 4(2) (−0.1) + 1(2) (−0.1)

Step 4: All we are left with is simplification; let’s go:

4
(2 − 0.1) = 1 (16) (1) + 4 (8) (−0.1) + 6 (4) (0.01) + 4 (2) (−0.001) + 1 (1) (0.0001)
= 16 − 3.2 + 0.24 − 0.008 + 0.0001
= 13.0321

∴ 1.94 = 13 (2 s.f.)

To wrap up our discussion on Pascal’s triangle, it is important to highlight the limitations and
challenges to its usage, which include the following:

a) Unless provided, if we require power 7 for example, we need to find the coefficients for power
6 and all numbers < 6 down to 1.
b) It can only be used for positive integers of n. In other words, we cannot use it when n is negative
1
−4
or a fraction, such as (x − 3) or (2x + y) 3 respectively.
212 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We will now explore how we can overcome these limitations and create a more universal and robust
approach.

6.4 FACTORIALS
Factorial is denoted by an exclamation mark (!). Technically, it implies the product of all positive
integers between a particular given integer and 1. Two things to note here are that factorials are
generally computed for: (i) positive numbers and (ii) integers.
Given that r is an integer, r! is read as ‘r factorial’ or ‘factorial r’, and it is given by:

r! = r × (r − 1) × (r − 2) × (r − 3) × ⋯ × 3 × 2 × 1 (6.2)

OR

r! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ⋯ × (r − 3) × (r − 2) × (r − 1) × r (6.3)

In other words, if we like we can start from the given number until 1 or from 1 until the given number.
To make this clear, we’ve provided a few examples in Table 6.1.
But you need not go through the above process as there is a function key on most calculators. It is
denoted as x! where x is the number.
Perhaps you noticed that 10! is not fully computed (or expanded) and looks a bit unusual. It is a
good trick that is purposefully introduced here. If we stop on a number, then we can finish it off
with the factorial symbol. Since the value of 6! is known, it will be used to simplify 10!, that is,
10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 720 = 3, 628, 800. 6! is however not the only place to stop. In fact, 10! can
be expressed in any of the following ways:

10! = 10 × 9!
= 10 × 9 × 8!
= 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
=…
= 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 3, 628, 800

TABLE 6.1
Factorial Illustrated

Example Read as Solution (A) Solution (B)

3! 3-factorial 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 3! = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6

6! 6-factorial 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720 6! = 1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 = 720

10! 10-factorial 10! = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6! 10! = 6! × 7 × 8 × 9 × 10

The Binomial Expansion 213

All done and dusted on factorials. It is now time to look at some examples.

Example 5

Without using a calculator, simplify the following. Confirm your answer using a suitable calculator.

10! 15! 12!

a) 4! b) c) d) e) 1! f) 0!
8! 5!13! 9!3!

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

a) 4!
Solution
Let’s go

4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
∴ 4! = 24

10!
b)
8!
Solution
Let’s go
10! 10 × 9 × 8!
=
8! 8!
= 10 × 9 = 90
10!
∴ = 90
8!

15!
c)
5!13!
Solution
Let’s go

15! 15 × 14 × 13! 15 × 14 × 13!

= =
5!13! (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × 13! (5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1) × 13!
15 × 14 7
= =
5×4×3×2×1 4
15! 7
∴ =
5!13! 4
214 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

12!
d)
9!3!
Solution
Let’s go
12! 12 × 11 × 10 × 9! 12 × 11 × 10 × 9!
= =
9!3! 9! × (3 × 2 × 1) 9! × (3 × 2 × 1)
12 × 11 × 10
= = 220
6
12!
∴ = 220
9!3!

e) 1!
Solution
Obviously, we are starting with 1 and ending with 1. What do you think? Let’s go

1! = 1
∴ 1! = 1

f) 0!
Solution
This is an incredibly tricky one! Wait for a second, what we’ve just seen is not a factorial, but rather
an exclamation, because factorials are counted from a number down to 1 and 0 is not included.
There are few ways to show this, which include modification of the definition of factorial to
(n+1)!
n! = to include zero. Therefore, we have:
n+1

1!
0! = =1
1

6.5 NOTATION FOR COMBINATION

What we have covered on factorials above is a stepping stone to unravelling the limitations of Pascal’s
triangle. We now need to introduce a useful notation, which is

n
nCr OR ( ) (6.4)
r

The above notations can be used interchangeably and represent a combination of n items taken r at a
time, where the order or sequence of arrangement is irrelevant. It is premised on the fact that n ≥ r.
The Binomial Expansion 215

Let’s say we have a team of five equally capable participants, and we need just two to represent the
team in a competition. The number of choices we have is denoted by ( 5 ). Let’s use A, B, C, D, and
2
E to represent the participants. The choices, or more technically the combinations, are given below:

AB AC AD AE BC BD BE CD CE DE

This shows that there are ten different choices. The query here is, could we have obtained this without
listing it ‘manually’. The answer to this is yes indeed! This is by using the formula:

n n n!
Cr = ( ) = (6.5)
r r! (n − r)!
We know how to handle factorials, so let’s try the above equation with our example as:

5 5 5! 5! 5 × 4 × 3! 5×4
C2 = ( ) = = = = = 10
2 2! (5 − 2)! 2!3! (2 × 1) × 3! (2 × 1)
Great! We obtained the same answer ‘10’. If we need four students out of five, this will be denoted
by 5 C4 and the answer is 5.

5 5 5! 5! 5 × 4!
C4 = ( ) = = = =5
4 4! (5 − 4)! 4!1! 4! × 1
Like factorial, simply enter this on your calculator via the notation n Cr . To perform this, follow these
steps in order: n → second function → nCr → r. There is a sister operator called permutation and is
denoted as n Pr . It is not directly connected to our binomial expression, so it is fine to ignore it here.

6.6 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PASCAL’S TRIANGLE AND COMBINATION

By now we should have mastered factorials n! and combination n Cr . Let’s start this section by find-
ing the answer to the following: 5C0 , 5C1 , 5C2 , 5C3 , 5C4 , 5C5 . What did you get? My answers are
1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1. Does the sequence look familiar? Yes, it does. It is the coefficients of the binomial
expansion for n = 5. Really! That sounds cool! Well, try a new set, say n = 6, and check our Pascal’s
triangle on page 205 and see the values on Figure 6.3 or you can create yours if your n cannot be
found on page 205.
At this stage, it is obvious that:

a) we can obtain the coefficients of any binomial expansion, where n is a positive integer without
the need to create Pascal’s triangle, and
b) we can obtain the coefficient of a single term in any expansion.

This is a great milestone and will be used in our subsequent work in this chapter.
216 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Coefficients of Coefficients of
n Binomial Expansions Binomial n
0 1 using Pascal's Expansions using 0 0
C0
Triangle nC nota!on 1 1
1 1 1 r 1 C0 C1
2 2 2
2 1 2 1 2 C0 C1 C2
3 3 3 3
3 1 3 3 1 3 C0 C1 C2 C3
4 4 4 4 4
4 1 4 6 4 1 4 C0 C1 C2 C3 C4
5 5 5 5 5 5
5 1 5 10 10 5 1 5 C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
6 6 6 6 6 6 6
6 1 6 15 20 15 6 1 6 C0 C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6

FIGURE 6.3 Coefficient of binomial expansions using Pascal’s triangle and n Cr compared.

n
6.7 BINOMIAL EXPANSIONS FOR (1 ± ax)
n n
Let’s consider the expansion of the form (1 ± x) and (1 ± ax) for when n is any rational number.

6.7.1 WHEN n IS A POSITIVE INTEGER

● When a = 1

Recall that the coefficients of a binomial expansion can be obtained using n Cr notation. Hence,
n
(1 + x) can be written as:
n n n n n n n
(1 + x) = ( ) x0 + ( ) x1 + ( ) x2 + ( ) x3 + ( ) x4 + ⋯ + ( ) xn
0 1 2 3 4 n

You can choose to use n Cr instead of the ( n ) notation and we have:

r

n
(1 + x) = n C0 x0 + n C1 x1 + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ + n Cn xn

Have you noticed the pattern? The power of x in any term is r. It makes it easy to recall, but we can
tidy this up a bit. Note that n C0 = n Cn = 1, n C1 = n, and x0 = 1 and x1 = x. Thus:
n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ + xn (6.6)
n
The above is the standard formula for (1 + x) . If we replace x with −x, we will have:
n
(1 − x) = 1 − nx + n C2 x2 − n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ ± xn (6.7)

Notice that the formula is the same for both cases above except that the sign alternates in the latter,
such that it becomes negative for every odd power and positive for even powers. The last term will
be positive if n is even otherwise negative.

● When a ≠ 1

n n
To expand (1 + ax) , we use the expansion of (1 + x) and substitute each x with ax as:
n 2 3 4 n
(1 + ax) = 1 + n (ax) + n C2 (ax) + n C3 (ax) + n C4 (ax) + ⋯ + (ax)

Simplify the above as:

n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + n C2 a2 x2 + n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ + an xn (6.8)
The Binomial Expansion 217

and by extension, we also have

n
(1 − ax) = 1 − nax + n C2 a2 x2 − n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ ± an xn (6.9)
Notice that it is not different – we’ve only introduced a with a similar power as x for every given
term.
n
Given (1 + ax) , we may be interested in a particular term. To derive a specific term, the (r + 1) th,
the formula is:
n r
Cr (ax)
Now it is time to look at a couple of examples.

Example 6

Using the binomial theorem, expand the following giving the first five terms in ascending power of x.

12 8
a) (1 + x) b) (1 − 2x)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

We just need to apply

n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + n C2 a2 x2 + n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ + an xn

Remember that we only need to show the first five terms.

12
a) (1 + x)
Solution
Let’s get started
Step 1: Write down the formula

12 n n n
(1 + x) = 1 + nax + ( ) a2 x2 + ( ) a3 x3 + ( ) a4 x4 + …
2 3 4
Step 2: Substitute for n = 12 and a = 1.

12 12 2 12 3 12 4
(1 + x) = 1 + 12 (1) x + ( ) (1) x2 + ( ) (1) x3 + ( )(1) x4 + …
2 3 4
Step 3: It is time to simplify
12
(1 + x) = 1 + 12x + 66x2 + 220x3 + 495x4 + …
12
∴ (1 + x) = 1 + 12x + 66x2 + 220x3 + 495x4 + …
218 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

8
b) (1 − 2x)
Solution
Let’s get started
Step 1: Write down the formula

8 n n n
(1 − 2x) = 1 + nax + ( )a2 x2 + ( )a3 x3 + ( )a4 x4 + …
2 3 4

Step 2: Substitute for n = 8 and a = −2.

8 8 2 8 3 8 4
(1 − 2x) = 1 + 8 (−2) x + ( )(−2) x2 + ( )(−2) x3 + ( )(−2) x4 + …
2 3 4

Step 3: It is time to simplify

8
(1 − 2x) = 1 − 16x + (28) (4) x2 + (56) (−8) x3 + (70) (16) x4 + …
= 1 − 16x + 112x2 − 448x3 + 1120x4 + …
8
∴ (1 − 2x) = 1 − 16x + 112x2 − 448x3 + 1120x4 + …

Another example to try.

Example 7

Using binomial theorem or otherwise, determine the coefficient of x3 in the expansion

5 7
(x + 1) (1 − 3x) .

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

● Apply either of the formulas below to each term. Show up to the fourth term only since we
want only the coefficient of x3 .

n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + …
n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + n C2 a2 x2 + n C3 a3 x3 + …

● Appropriately multiply the results from above.

5 5
Let’s get started with (x + 1) = (1 + x)
Notice that we have switched the position of 1 and x. It is based on the commutative law of addition,
and it also helps to write the expression in the same format as the formula.
The Binomial Expansion 219

Step 1: Write down the formula

n n n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + ( )x2 + ( )x3 + …
2 3

Step 2: Substitute for n = 5 and a = 1.

5 5 5
(1 + x) = 1 + 5x + ( )x2 + ( )x3 + …
2 3

Step 3: It is time to simplify

5
(1 + x) = 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + …
5
∴ (1 + x) = 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + …
7
Now let’s deal with (1 − 3x) .
Step 4: Write down the formula

n n n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + ( )a2 x2 + ( )a3 x3 + …
2 3

Step 5: Substitute for n = 7 and a = −3.

7 7 2 7 3
(1 − 3x) = 1 + 7 (−3) x + ( )(−3) x2 + ( )(−3) x3 + …
2 3

Step 6: It is time to simplify

7 2 3
(1 − 3x) = 1 − 21x + (21) (9) x + (35) (−27) x + …
7
∴ (1 − 3x) = 1 − 21x + 189x2 − 945x3 + …
5 7
Now let’s deal with (x + 1) (1 − 3x)
Step 7: Write down the formula

5 7
(x + 1) (1 − 3x)
= (1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + … ) (1 − 21x + 189x2 − 945x3 + … )
= 1 (1 − 21x + 189x2 − 945x3 + … ) + 5x (1 − 21x + 189x2 + … )
+ 10x2 (1 − 21x + … ) + 10x3 (1 + … )
= 1 − 21x + 189x2 − 945x3 + ⋯ + 5x − 105x2 + 945x3 + ⋯ + 10x2 − 210x3 + ⋯ + 10x3 …
= 1 − 16x + 94x2 − 200x3 + …

∴ The coefficient of x3 is − 200

220 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another example to try.

Example 8

Using the binomial theorem, determine the term containing the indicated term of x. Give your answer
in the simplest form.

10 13
a) (1 − x) , with [x8 ] b) (1 + 3x) , with [x5 ]

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Hint

Apply

n r
( )(ax)
r

We can try to verify this using the formula below

n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + n C2 a2 x2 + n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ + an xn

10
a) (1 − x) , with [x8 ]
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Write down the formula for finding a term

n r
( )(ax)
r

Step 2: Substitute for n = 10, r = 8 and a = −1.

10 8
( )(−x)
8

Step 3: It is time to simplify

45x8
10
Thus, the term containing x8 in (1 − x)

45x8
The Binomial Expansion 221

13
b) (1 + 3x) , with [x5 ]
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Write down the formula for finding a term

n r
( )(ax)
r
Step 2: Substitute for n = 13, r = 5, and a = 3.

13 5
( )(3x)
5

Step 3: It is time to simplify

(1287) (35 ) x5 = 312741x5

13
Thus, the term containing x5 in (1 + 3x) is

312741x5

6.7.2 WHEN n IS NEGATIVE

We may wonder what is special about a negative number. Yes, there is nothing special about it, but
our approach so far cannot take care of a negative value of n. This is because Pascal’s triangle only
has positive values of coefficients, and ( n ) is not valid for n < 0. You can try this on your calculator,
r
say ( −5 ).
3

We will thus need to modify our previous formula to eliminate the need for ( n ). Before this, it is
r
important to mention that when n is positive, the resulting series is finite, i.e., we have a fixed number
of terms. What we will have now is an infinite series, such that we can only show up to a particular
term. Now let’s go.
n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ + xn
= 1 + nx + (n C2 ) x2 + (n C3 ) x3 + (n C4 ) x4 + ⋯ + xn
n! n! n!
= 1 + nx + ( ) x2 + ( ) x3 + ( ) x4 + …
2! (n − 2)! 3! (n − 3)! 4! (n − 4)!
‘Open up’ (or evaluate) n! in each numerator as:
n (n − 1) (n − 2)! 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3)! 3
= 1 + nx + ( )x + ( )x
2! (n − 2)! 3! (n − 3)!
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) (n − 4)! 4
+( ) x + ⋯ + xn
4! (n − 4)!
After cancelling out, we have:
n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4
= 1 + nx + ( )x + ( )x + ( )x + …
2! 3! 4!
222 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We can therefore write a general formula which has no need for the combination notation as:

n n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x
2! 3! (6.10)
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4
+ x +…
4!

The above modified form has eliminated the need for ( n ).

r
Let’s summarise the main key points about this formula to ensure we get the pattern and can
effectively use it.

Note 1 The first and the second terms are identical to what we have in the first case when n is a
positive integer.
Note 2 The last term cannot be obtained as the expansion is infinite as opposed to a finite expansion
when n is a positive integer.
Note 3 If the denominator is r!, the power of x or ax will be r.
Note 4 If the denominator is r!, there will be r multiplicands in the numerator such that the first will
be n (positive or negative), the second will be one less than the first, and so on. To illus-
−5
trate, if the binomial expression is (1 + x) and the denominator of a term is 3!, then the
numerator will be (−5 × −6 × −7). Notice that we have produced three numbers starting
with n = −5 and subtracted 1 each time to have −6 and −7.
Note 5 The above formula can be used for both positive and negative values of n.
1−x
Note 6 We can now expand a fractional algebra, such as 5 , provided that the denominator is a
(3−2x)
binomial expression. Otherwise, we will need to apply the partial fractions technique (see
Chapter 7) first before the application of the binomial expansion technique.
n n
For (1 + ax) , it follows the same pattern as (1 + x) with a little modification as:

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + ax + ax
2! 3! (6.11)
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4 4
+ a x +…
4!

6.7.3 WHEN n IS A FRACTION

1
n
Recall that √(1 + ax) = (1 + ax) n . When n is a fraction, the approach will be the same as when n
is negative, hence the formulas shown before (Equations 6.10 and 6.11) remain the same. You will
see this shortly in the worked examples.
The Binomial Expansion 223

6.7.4 VALIDITY OF BINOMIAL EXPRESSION

Now that we’ve covered all possible rational values of n, we should mention the validity of our
expansions as follows:
n
Rule 1 When n > 1, the binomial expression (a + bx) is valid for all values of x.
n
Rule 2 When n < 1 (n is negative or fraction), the binomial expression (a + bx) is valid only when

a
|bx| < a OR |x| <
b
for all values of x.
It is time to try examples to illustrate this.

Example 9

Using the binomial theorem, expand the following up to (and including) the term in x3 . Also state
the range of x for which each expansion is valid.

5 3
1 1 2 (1−x)
a) 4 b) (1 − x) c) √(1 − 4x) d) 7
(1+x) √ 3 (1+6x)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Hint
n
Firstly, we need to apply the relevant law(s) of indices to obtain (1 + ax) and then apply the
expansion below

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + ax + ax
2! 3!
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4 4
+ a x +…
4!
n n
We will use the above for all four variants (1 ± x) and (1 ± ax) by appropriate substitutions.

1
a) 4
(1+x)
Solution
1 −4
4
= (1 + x)
(1 + x)
224 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s get started.

Step 1: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
Step 2: Substitute for n = −4 and a = 1

n n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x +…
2! 3!

−4 −4 (−4 − 1) 2 −4 (−4 − 1) (−4 − 2) 3

(1 + x) = 1 + (−4) x + x + x +…
2! 3!
Step 3: Now simplify

−4 20 2 −120 3
(1 + x) = 1 − 4x + x + x +…
2! 3!
= 1 − 4x + 10x2 − 20x3 + …
1
∴ 4
≈ 1 − 4x + 10x2 − 20x3
(1 + x)
1
4 is valid when |x| < 1
(1+x)

∴ Validity is |x| < 1

1
b) (1 − x)
√ 3
Solution
1
1 1 2
√(1 − 3 x) = (1 − 3 x)

Let’s get started.

Step 1: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
1 1
Step 2: Substitute for n = and a = −
2 3

1 1 1 1 1 1
( − 1) 2 ( − 1) ( − 2) 3
1 2 1 1 2 2 1 2 2 2 1
(1 − x) = 1 + ( ) (− ) x + (− ) x2 + (− ) x3 + …
3 2 3 2! 3 3! 3
The Binomial Expansion 225

Step 3: Now simplify

1 1 3
(− )
1 2 1 4 1 8 1
(1 − x) = 1 − x + ( ) x2 + (− ) x3 + …
3 6 2! 9 3! 27
1 1 1 1 1
= 1 − x + (− ) ( ) x2 + ( ) (− ) x3 + …
6 8 9 16 27
1 1 1 3
= 1 − x − x2 − x +…
6 72 432
1 1 1 1 3
∴ (1 − x) ≈ 1 − x − x2 − x
√ 3 6 72 432

1 |1 |
(1 − x) is valid when || x|| < 1
√ 3 3

1
|x| < 1 OR |x| < 3
3

∴ Validity is |x| < 3

5 2
c) √(1 − 4x)
Solution
2
5 2
√(1 − 4x) = (1 − 4x) 5

Let’s get started.

Step 1: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
2
Step 2: Substitute for n = and a = −4
5

2 2 2 2 2
2 ( − 1) ( − 1) ( − 2)
2 5 5 2 5 5 5 3
(1 − 4x) 5 = 1 + ( ) (−4) x + (−4) x2 + (−4) x3 + …
5 2! 3!
Step 3: Now simplify

6 48
2 (− )
8 25 125 3
(1 − 4x) 5 = 1 − x + (16) x2 + (−64) x + …
5 2! 3!
8 3 8
= 1 − x + (− ) (16) x2 + ( ) (−64) x3 + …
5 25 125
8 48 512 3
= 1 − x − x2 − x +…
5 25 125
5 2 8 48 512 3
∴ √(1 − 4x) ≈ 1 − x − x2 − x
5 25 125
226 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5 2
√(1 − 4x) is valid when |4x| < 1
1
4 |x| < 1 OR |x| <
4

1
∴ Validity is |x| <
4
3
(1−x)
d) 7
(1+6x)
Solution
3
(1 − x) 3 −7
7
= (1 − x) (1 + 6x)
(1 + 6x)
3
Let’s start with (1 − x)
Step 1: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x +…
2! 3!
Step 2: Substitute for n = 3 and a = −1. Alternatively, replace x with −x

3 3 (3 − 1) 2 3 (3 − 1) (3 − 2) 3
(1 − x) = 1 + 3 (−x) + (−x) + (−x)
2! 3!
Step 3: Now simplify

3 6 2 6
(1 − x) = 1 − 3x + (x ) + (−x3 )
2! 3!
= 1 − 3x + 3x2 − x3
−7
Now we need (1 + 6x)
Step 4: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
Step 5: Substitute for n = −7 and a = 6.

−7 −7 (−7 − 1) 2 2 −7 (−7 − 1) (−7 − 2) 3 3

(1 + 6x) = 1 + (−7) (6) x + (6) x + (6) x + …
2! 3!
Step 6: Now simplify

−7 56 (−504) 3
(1 + 6x) = 1 − 42x + (36) x2 + (216) x + …
2! 3!
= 1 − 42x + (28) (36) x2 + (−84) (216) x3 + …
= 1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + …
3 −7
Now we need (1 − x) (1 + 6x) .
The Binomial Expansion 227

Step 7: Multiply the two expressions

3 −7
(1 − x) (1 + 6x) = (1 − 3x + 3x2 − x3 ) (1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + … )

Step 8: Simplify

3 −7
(1 − x) (1 + 6x)
= 1 (1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + … ) − 3x (1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + … )
+ 3x2 (1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + … ) − x3 (1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + … )
= 1 − 42x + 1008x2 − 18144x3 + ⋯ − 3x + 126x2 − 3024x3 + … 3x2 − 126x3 + ⋯ − x3
= 1 − 45x + 1137x2 − 21295x3 + …
3
(1 − x)
∴ 7
≈ 1 − 45x + 1137x2 − 21295x3
(1 + 6x)
3
(1 − x) is valid for all values of x, because n is a positive integer and the expansion is therefore
finite.
−7
(1 + 6x) is valid when |6x| < 1

6 |x| < 1
1
|x| <
6
3
(1−x)
The validity of 7 is the overlap region of the two validities
(1+6x)

1
∴ Validity is |x| <
6

n
6.8 BINOMIAL EXPANSION: (p + q)
In this section, we will look at the last possible case that we may encounter in binomial expansion.
n
This takes the general form of (p + q) and can fall under one of the following categories:
n
Type 1 p and q are numerical values, with a form (a + b) where a and b are rational numbers. For
2
5
example, (2 + 3) is a simple indicial expression and (√3 − 1) is a surdic expression, and
do not fall under binomial expression.
n
Type 2 p is an algebraic term ax and q is a numerical value b, which takes a general form (ax + b) ;
5
for example, (2x + 3) . Alternatively, p is a numerical value a and q is an algebraic term bx,
n 10
which takes a general form (a + bx) . For example, (5 + 2x) . Both are the same and can
be taken as one.
Type 3 p is an algebraic term ax and q is another algebraic term by, such that x ≠ y. This takes a
n 5
general form (ax + by) ; for example, (2x + 3y) . If, however, x = y this becomes similar
to type 1 and is treated as a simple algebraic expression.

We will now consider two methods of dealing with Type 2 and Type 3 as follows.
228 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

6.8.1 METHOD 1
n
Given (ax + by) , the binomial expansion is

n n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3

(ax + by) = ( )(ax) (by) + ( )(ax) (by) + ( )(ax) (by) + ( )(ax) (by) + …
0 1 2 3
n 1 n−1 n 0 n
+( )(ax) (by) + ( )(ax) (by)
n−1 n

You should recognise this pattern from Pascal’s triangle at the beginning of this chapter. Let’s tidy
the above up a bit as:

n n n−1 1 n−2 2 n−3 3

(ax + by) = (ax) + n(ax) (by) + (n) (ax) (by) + (n) (ax) (by) +
1
2
n−1 n
3 (6.12)
⋯ + n(ax) (by) + (by)

To ensure that we can use the above formula for any rational value of n, including negative and
fraction, let’s get rid of the n Cr bit. Here we go:

n n n−1 1 n(n−1) n−2 2

(ax + by) = (ax) + n(ax) (by) + (ax) (by) +
2!
n(n−1)(n−2) n−3 3
(6.13)
(ax) (by) + …
3!

By appropriate substitution, we can say that:

n n n−1 1 n(n−1) n−2 2

(a + bx) = (a) + n(a) (bx) + (a) (bx)
2!
n(n−1)(n−2) n−3 3
(6.14)
+ (a) (bx) + …
3!

6.8.2 METHOD 2
n n
This approach is more appropriate for (a + bx) , but can also be applied to (ax + by) . Recall that
b
a + bx = a (1 + x)
a
Thus,
n n
n b b
(a + bx) = [a (1 + x)] = an (1 + x)
a a
n
n b
What this implies is that to find the expansion for (a + bx) , we will find the expansion for (1 + x)
a
and multiply each term of the result by an as follows
n
n b
(a + bx) = an (1 + x)
a
2 3
b n (n − 1) b 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) b 3
= an [1 + n ( ) x + ( )x + ( )x
a 2! a 3! a
4
n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) b 4
+ ( ) x + …]
4! a
The Binomial Expansion 229

n
You should be able to use the same trick shown above to (ax + by) . I guess we’ve now mastered the
technique. It is time to try some examples.

Example 10

Using the binomial theorem, expand the following up to (and including) the term indicated. State the
range of values of x for which the expansion is valid.

3
a) (4x + 2) , up to x3 b) √(5x + 9) , up to x2
1 5
c) 7 , up to x2 d) (3x + 4y) , up to x5
(2−3x)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

3
a) (4x + 2)
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation
3 3
(4x + 2) = (2 + 4x)
3
4 3
= [2 (1 + x)] = 23 (1 + 2x)
2
3
= 8(1 + 2x)
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
Step 3: Substitute for n = 3 and a = 2.
3 3
(2 + 4x) = 8(1 + 2x)
3 (3 − 1) 2 2 3 (3 − 1) (3 − 2) 3 3
= 8 [1 + 3 (2) x + (2) x + (2) x ]
2! 3!
Step 4: It is time to simplify

3 6 6 3
(2 + 4x) = 8 [1 + 6x + (4) x2 + (8) x ]
2! 3!
6 6 3
= 8 [1 + 6x + (4) x2 + (8) x ]
2! 3!
= 8 [1 + 6x + 12x2 + 8x3 ]
= 8 + 48x + 96x2 + 64x3
3
∴ (4x + 2) = 8 + 48x + 96x2 + 64x3
230 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

3
(4x + 2) is valid for all values of x, because n is a positive integer and the expansion is therefore
finite.

∴ Valid for all values of x

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Step 1: Write down the formula

n n n−1 1 n (n − 1) n−2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3

(a + bx) = (a) + n(a) (bx) + (a) (bx) + (a) (bx)
2! 3!
Step 2: Substitute for n = 3, a = 2, and b = 4.

3 3
(4x + 2) = (2 + 4x)
3 3−1 1 3 (3 − 1) 3−2 2 3 (3 − 1) (3 − 2) 3−3 3
= (2) + 3(2) (4x) + (2) (4x) + (2) (4x)
2! 3!
Step 3: It is time to simplify

3 3 3 (2)
2 3 (2) (1) 0 3 3
(4x + 2) = (2 + 4x) = 8 + 3(2) (4x) + (2) (42 x2 ) + (2) (4 x )
2! 3!
= 8 + 48x + (3) (2) (16x2 ) + (1) (1) (64x3 )
3
∴ (4x + 2) = 8 + 48x + 96x2 + 64x3

b) √(5x + 9)
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

1
√(5x + 9) = √(9 + 5x) = (9 + 5x) 2

Step 2: Write down the formula

n n n−1 1 n (n − 1) n−2 2
(a + bx) = (a) + n(a) (bx) + (a) (bx) + …
2!
1
Step 3: Substitute for n = , a = 9, and b = 5.
2

1 1
1 1 1 ( − 1) 1
1 ( −1) 1 2 2 ( −2) 2
(9 + 5x) 2 = (9) 2 + ( ) (9) 2 (5x) + (9) 2 (5x) + …
2 2!
The Binomial Expansion 231

Step 4: It is time to simplify

1
1 1 (− ) 3
1 (− ) 4 (− )
(9 + 5x) 2 = 3 + ( ) (9) 2 (5x) + (9) 2 (52 x2 ) + …
2 2!
1 1 1 1
= 3 + ( ) (5x) − ( ) (25x2 ) + …
2 3 8 27
5 25 2
=3+ x− x +…
6 216
5 25 2
∴ √(5x + 9) ≈ 3 + x − x
6 216
1
(9 + 5x) 2 is valid when |5x| < 9

5 |x| < 9
9
|x| <
5
9
∴ Validity is |x| <
5

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

1
√(5x + 9) = √(9 + 5x) = (9 + 5x) 2
1 1
5 2
1
( ) 5 2
= [9 (1 + x)] = 9 2 (1 + x)
9 9
1
5 2
= 3(1 + x)
9
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x +…
2!
1 5
Step 3: Substitute for n = and a = .
2 9

1
5 2
√(9 + 5x) = 3(1 + x)
9
1 1
⎡ ( − 1) 2 ⎤
1 5 2 2 5
= 3 ⎢1 + ( ) x + ( ) x2 + … ⎥
⎢ 2 9 2! 9 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
232 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 4: It is time to simplify

1 1
⎡ (− ) ⎤
5 2 2 25
√(9 + 5x) = 3 ⎢1 + x + ( ) x2 + … ⎥
⎢ 18 2! 81 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
5 1 25 2
= 3 [1 + x − ( ) x + … ]
18 8 81
5 25 2
= 3 [1 + x − x + …]
18 648
5 25 2
=3+ x− x +…
6 216
5 25 2
∴ √(9 + 5x) ≈ 3 + x − x
6 216

1
c) 7
(2−3x)
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

1 −7
7
= (2 − 3x)
(2 − 3x)
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n n−1 1 n (n − 1) n−2 2
(a + bx) = (a) + n(a) (bx) + (a) (bx) + …
2!
Step 3: Substitute for n = −7, a = 2 and b = −3.

−7 −7 −7−1 1 −7 (−7 − 1) −7−2 2

(2 − 3x) = (2) + (−7) (2) (−3x) + (2) (−3x) + …
2!
Step 4: It is time to simplify

−7 1 −8 1 −7 (−8) −9 2
(2 − 3x) = + (−7) (2) (−3x) + (2) (−3x) + …
27 2!
1 7 1
= − 8 (−3x) + (28) ( 9 ) (9x2 ) + …
128 2 2
1 21 63 2
= + x+ x +…
128 256 128

1 1 21 63 2
∴ 7
≈ + x+ x
(2 − 3x) 128 256 128
The Binomial Expansion 233

1
7 is valid when |3x| < 2
(2−3x)

3 |x| < 2
2
|x| <
3

2
∴ Validity is |x| <
3

5
d) (3x + 4y)
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Write down the formula

n n n 0 n n−1 1 n n−2 2 n n−3 3

(ax + by) = ( ) (ax) (by) + ( ) (ax) (by) + ( ) (ax) (by) + ( ) (ax) (by) + …
0 1 2 3

Step 2: Substitute for n = 5, a = 3, and b = 4.

5
(3x + 4y)
5 5 0 5 5−1 1 5 5−2 2 5 5−3 3 5 5−4 4
= ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y)
0 1 2 3 4
5 5−5 5
+ ( ) (3x) (4y)
5

Step 3: It is time to simplify

5
(3x + 4y)
5 5 4 1 5 3 2 5 2 3 5 1 4 5
= (1) (3x) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + ( ) (3x) (4y) + (1) (4y)
1 2 3 4
= (35 x5 ) + (5) (34 x4 ) (4y) + (10) (33 x3 ) (42 y2 ) + (10) (32 x2 ) (43 y3 ) + (5) (3x) (44 y4 ) + (45 y5 )
= (35 x5 ) + (5 × 34 × 4) (x4 y) + (10 × 33 × 42 ) (x3 y2 ) + (10 × 32 × 43 ) (x2 y3 ) + (5 × 3 × 44 ) (xy4 )
+ (45 y5 )
= 243x5 + (1620) (x4 y) + (4320) (x3 y2 ) + (5760) (x2 y3 ) + (3840) (xy4 ) + (1024y5 )
= 243x5 + 1620x4 y + 4320x3 y2 + 5760x2 y3 + 3840xy4 + 1024y5
5
∴ (3x + 4y) = 243x5 + 1620x4 y + 4320x3 y2 + 5760x2 y3 + 3840xy4 + 1024y5
5
(3x + 4y) is valid for all values of x, and because n is a positive integer, the expansion is therefore
finite.

∴ Validity is all values of x

234 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

6.9 APPROXIMATION
We can use binomial expansion to find the approximate value of a number raised to a power n, and
n
we have encountered this in Example 4. To do this, we use the expression (a + bx) such that the
value of x is very small. This is because the term xr will be negligible at higher powers and can
n
thus be ignored. In other words, we only need the first few terms of the expansion of (a + bx) to
approximate the value of the given number.
Let’s try a few examples to finish this chapter.

Example 11

Using the binomial theorem, determine the approximate value of the following. Present your answer
correct to 3 d.p.

12 3 500
a) 0.993 b) √1.03 c)
494

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

12
a) 0.993
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

12 12
0.993 = (1 − 0.007)
12
= (1 − 7x)

where x = 0.001
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
Step 3: Substitute for n = 12 and a = −7.

12 12 (12 − 1) 2 12 (12 − 1) (12 − 2) 3

(1 − 7x) = 1 + 12 (−7) x + (−7) x2 + (−7) x3 + …
2! 3!
Step 4: It is time to simplify

12
(1 − 7x) = 1 − 84x + (66) (49) x2 + 220 (−343) x3 + …
= 1 − 84x + 3234x2 − 75460x3 + …
The Binomial Expansion 235

Step 5: Now substitute for x = 0.001.

12 2 3
(1 − 7x) = 1 − 84 (0.001) + 3234(0.001) − 75460(0.001) + …
−3 −5
= 1 − 0.084 + 3.234 × 10 − 7.546 × 10 + ⋯ ≈ 0.91915854
12
∴ 0.993 ≈ 0.919

3
b) √1.03
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

1 1
3
√1.03 = (1.03) 3 = (1 + 0.03) 3
1
= (1 + 3x) 3

where x = 0.01
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3 n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4 4
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x + a x +…
2! 3! 4!
1
Step 3: Substitute for n = and a = 3.
3

1 1 1 1 1
1 ( − 1) ( − 1) ( − 2)
1 3 3 2 2 3 3 3 3
(1 + 3x) 3 = 1 + (3) x + (3) x + (3) x3
3 2! 3!
1 1 1 1
( − 1) ( − 2) ( − 3)
3 3 3 3 4
+ (3) x4 + …
4!
Step 4: It is time to simplify

1
1 5 3 10
(1 + 3x) 3 = 1 + x + (− ) (9) x2 + ( ) (27) x + (− ) (81) x4 + …
9 81 243
5 10
= 1 + x − x2 + x3 − x4 + …
3 3
Step 5: Now substitute for x = 0.01.

1
2 5 3 10 4
(1 + 3x) 3 = 1 + (0.01) − (0.01) + (0.01) − (0.01) + …
3 3
1 1 1 1
=1+ 2 − 4 + 5
− 7
+ ⋯ ≈ 1.0099001633
10 10 6 × 10 3 × 10
3
∴ √1.03 ≈ 1.010
236 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

500
c)
494
Solution
Let’s get started.
Step 1: Preliminary manipulation

500 1000 1 1
= = =
494 988 988 0.988
( )
1000
−1 −1
= (0.988) = (1 − 0.012)
−1
= (1 − 6x)

where x = 0.002
Step 2: Write down the formula

n n (n − 1) 2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x +…
2! 3!
Step 3: Substitute for n = −1 and a = −6.

−1 −1 (−1 − 1) 2 −1 (−1 − 1) (−1 − 2) 3

(1 − 6x) = 1 + (−1) (−6) x + (−6) x2 + (−6) x3 + …
2! 3!
Step 4: It is time to simplify

−1 3
(1 − 6x) = 1 + 6x + 36x2 + (−1) (−216) x + …
3
= 1 + 6x + 36x2 + 216x + …

Step 5: Now substitute for x = 0.002.

−1 2 3
(1 − 6x) = 1 + 6 (0.002) + 36(0.002) + 216(0.002) + …
12 144 1728
=1+ 3 + 6 + 9
+ ⋯ ≈ 1.012145728
10 10 10
500
∴ ≈ 1.012
494

6.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) ‘Bi’ means two just like ‘poly’ implies many.

2) A binomial expression is an expression with just two terms and takes the following
forms:

a ± bxm OR axm ± bym

The Binomial Expansion 237

where a, b, and m are rational numbers.

m is usually taken as 1 whilst a and b are (usually) integers but valid for any real number, that
is:

a ± bx OR ax ± by

3) Pascal’s triangle is a pattern formed using the coefficients of the terms obtained when
binomial expressions of different orders are simplified.
4) Factorial is denoted by an exclamation mark (!). Technically, it implies the product of
all positive integers between a particular given integer and 1.
5) Factorials are generally computed for: (i) positive numbers, and (ii) integers.
6) Given that r is an integer, r! is read as ‘r factorial’ and it is given by:

r! = r × (r − 1) × (r − 2) × (r − 3) × ⋯ × 3 × 2 × 1

OR

r! = 1 × 2 × 3 × ⋯ × (r − 3) × (r − 2) × (r − 1) × r

7) Combination of n items taken r at a time, where the order of arrangement is irrelevant,

is denoted by:

n n
Cr OR ( )
r

The above notations can be used interchangeably and are premised on the fact that n ≥ r such
that:
n n n!
Cr = ( ) =
r r! (n − r)!
n n
8) The expansion of the form (1 ± x) and (1 ± ax) for when n is a positive integer.

● When a = 1

n
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + n C2 x2 + n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ + xn
n
(1 − x) = 1 − nx + n C2 x2 − n C3 x3 + n C4 x4 + ⋯ ± xn

● When a ≠ 1

n
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + n C2 a2 x2 + n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ + an xn
n
(1 − ax) = 1 − nax + n C2 a2 x2 − n C3 a3 x3 + n C4 a4 x4 + ⋯ ± an xn
n
9) Given (1 + ax) , the (r + 1) th term is determined using:

n r
Cr (ax)
238 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

n n
10) The expansion of the form (1 ± x) and (1 ± ax) when n is a negative integer is given
by:

n n (n − 1) 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) 3 n (n − 1) (n − 2) (n − 3) 4
(1 + x) = 1 + nx + x + x + x +…
2! 3! 4!
n n(n−1) 2 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3 3
(1 + ax) = 1 + nax + a x + a x+
2! 3!
n(n−1)(n−2)(n−3) 4 4
a x +…
4!

11) When n is a fraction, the approach will be the same as when n is negative, hence the
formula shown above remains the same.

****

6.11 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 7 Partial Fractions
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Discuss partial fractions

● Carry out basic operations involving partial fractions
● Explain the various types of partial fractions
● Convert improper algebraic fractions into partial fractions

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Adding or subtracting two or more fractions (whether they are numeric or algebraic fractions) to
obtain a single fraction is apparently necessary. However, the inverse of this process (i.e., splitting
a compound algebraic fraction into two or more simple fractions) might be obscure, although it has
its applications in integration and binomial expansion among others. This chapter will discuss the
concept and techniques of splitting a fraction into two or more simple ones.

7.2 WHAT IS A PARTIAL FRACTION

1 2
Let’s consider two arithmetic fractions, and . To add these fractions, we will find the LCM of
3 5
their denominators (3 and 5) which is 15, and express both fractions such that they have the same
denominators. Here is the full workings:

1 2 5 6 5+6 11
+ = + = =
3 5 15 15 15 15
1 2 11
∴ + =
3 5 15
1 2 11
In the above example, we were given and and added them to obtain a single fraction . Though
3 5 15
11
not frequently required, is it possible that the single fraction is given and we are required to find
15
two or more simple fractions that form this? There are indeed many options that can lead to this result
11 1 2 2 3 11 2 3
(i.e., ). Obviously, one of the options is and . Another one is and , because = + .
15 3 5 15 5 15 15 5
1 4 11 11 4 1
Furthermore, we know that subtracting from will yield , since = − . The option
15 5 15 15 5 15
is endless, and therefore, we are unable to establish what gave the result. Will the situation be the

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-7 239
240 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

same with algebraic fractions? Let’s start by subtracting one algebraic fraction from another simple
1 2
fraction, similar to what we did with and .
3 5

Example 1

Express the following as a single fraction:

3 2
−
x−1 x+5

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

3 2
−
x−1 x+5
Step 1: We will try to make the denominators the same by multiplying the first term by (x + 5) and
the second term by (x − 1). In each case, both the numerator and denominator should be
multiplied with the same as:

3 2 3 (x + 5) 2 (x − 1)
− = −
x−1 x+5 (x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 1) (x + 5)
Step 2: Now that the denominators are the same. This is our LCM. Take the LCM as the denom-
inator for the single fraction and subtract the numerator of the second from the first one
as:

3 (x + 5) − 2 (x − 1)
=
(x − 1) (x + 5)
Step 3: Open the brackets, with particular attention given to the signs.

3x + 15 − 2x + 2
=
(x − 1) (x + 5)
Step 4: Simplify the terms (or collect the like terms).
3 2 x + 17
∴ − =
x−1 x+5 (x − 1) (x + 5)

2 3
In the above example, we have managed to subtract one algebraic fraction ( ) from another ( )
x+5 x−1
x+17
to obtain a single fraction, i.e., . We know that if 2 + 3 = 5, then 5 = 2 + 3. In a similar
(x−1)(x+5)
way, we can say that since
3 2 x + 17
− =
x−1 x+5 (x − 1) (x + 5)
Partial Fractions 241

then
x + 17 3 2
= −
(x − 1) (x + 5) x−1 x+5

Whilst the above are pretty much the same. The subtle difference, however, is that in the first case,
we seemingly started with two simple fractions and ended with a single fraction that represents the
combination. This is fine. The second case denotes that we begin with a single algebraic fraction
and then end up with two simple fractions, in which one is subtracted from the other. The resulting
(simple) fractions are called partial fractions of the original single fraction. The process of achieving
this is called resolving into partial fractions or partial fraction decomposition, which is the subject
of this chapter.

7.3 RESOLVING INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS

x+17 2
From the problem we looked at in the last worked example, we obtained when is sub-
(x−1)(x+5) x+5
3
tracted from . Great! What we want to do now is to set out the rules and procedures of deriving
x−1
the two latter simple fractions when we are given the former single fraction.
x+17 x+17
Note that is the same as . To split the last fraction (or any other fraction) into two
(x−1)(x+5) x2 +4x−5
or more simpler (partial) fractions, we need to note the following:

Note 1 Degree of the denominator

Check if the degree of the denominator is greater than that of the numerator, otherwise apply the
long division method to simplify the algebraic fraction first. To illustrate:

3x2 −5
a) To resolve into partial fractions, we will proceed as normal using the relevant princi-
x3 −6x2 +8x
ple(s) explained below. This is because the expression in the numerator is of power 2 and that
of the denominator is of power 3, i.e., the power of the denominator is greater than that of the
numerator.
3x2 −5 3x3 −2x+5
b) However, to resolve or into partial fractions, we will first need to use the long
x2 −6x+8 x2 −6x+8
division method to simplify the rational before proceeding to resolve into partial fractions.
This is because the expression in the numerator is of power 2 and that of the denominator is of
power 2 or 3 (i.e., the power of the denominator is equal to or less than that of the numerator).

In summary, our first check is to ensure that the degree of the algebraic expression in the numerator
is less than that of the denominator. So, for a linear denominator, the numerator must be a numerical
value, while for a quadratic denominator, the numerator can either be a linear algebraic expression
or a number.

Note 2 Factorising the denominator

Completely factorise the denominator where applicable. If the expression in the denominator is
x+5
already in prime factors, proceed to resolving to partial fractions. For example, in ,
(3x−1)(x−2)(x+1)
242 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

the denominator (3x − 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) is already expressed as a product of its prime factors. Simi-
3x2 −x−5
larly, the denominator of is already in its simplest form. This is because (x2 + 3), though
(x2 +3)(x−1)
a quadratic expression, cannot be simplified further. Also, remember that we generally require that
the number of prime factors is equal to the degree of the polynomial expression in the denominator.

Note 3 Nature of the factors in the denominator

The nature of the factors in the denominator determines the approach to be taken in resolving into
partial fractions. We can generally classify the nature into five:

a) Non-repeated linear factors

b) Repeated linear factors
c) Irreducible non-repeated non-linear factors
d) Irreducible repeated non-linear factors
e) Improper fractions

The explanation of each class will come in the next section under their respective headings. Follow
the method (or steps) given for each class.

Note 4 The use of identity

Use the identity ≡ sign instead of the equal sign = to indicate that the expressions on both sides are
equal for all possible values of the unknown variable.

7.4 TYPES OF PARTIAL FRACTIONS

As noted above, the method of splitting a complex algebraic fraction into simpler ones will be deter-
mined strictly by the denominator of the fraction. We will now consider each of the five categories
and illustrate them with examples.

7.4.1 NON-REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

This is when the denominator has linear factors or can be factorised into linear factors. In general,
an expression with two or more linear terms can be split into partial fractions as:

f (x) A B C D
≡ + + +⋯+
(a1 x + b1 ) (a2 x + b2 ) (a3 x + b3 ) … (an x + bn ) a1 x + b1 a2 x + b2 a3 x + b3 an x + bn
(7.1)

where a1 , a2 , a3 , … , b1 , b2 , b3 , … and A, B, C, … are numerical values.

f (x) is the numerator of the original fraction, which is a polynomial of degree less than that of the
product of the factors in the denominator. Note that only A, B, C, … are to be determined while
others will be derived from the single fraction.
Partial Fractions 243

For example:
x + 17 A B
≡ +
(x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 1) (x + 5)
and
2x − 1 A B C
≡ + +
(x + 1) (2x − 3) (x + 5) (x + 1) (2x − 3) +
(x 5)
From the above two examples, it becomes apparent that the key challenge is how to find A, B, and
C. To do this, we can use one of the following three methods:

1) Substitution method
2) Equating coefficients method
3) Eliminating a denominator method

The above methods can be used in most cases, but experience will be a good guide in choosing the
appropriate one. Do not worry if you’re new to this, consider them in the order listed above. We shall
illustrate these methods now.

Example 2

x+17
Using the substitution method, split into partial fractions.
(x−1)(x+5)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

x + 17
(x − 1) (x + 5)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction is already linear and in factored form. Hence,
we have:

x + 17 A B
≡ +
(x − 1) (x + 5) x − 1 x + 5

Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x − 1) (x + 5). Using this, we have the simplified
expression.

x + 17 A (x + 5) B (x − 1)
≡ +
(x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 1) (x + 5)
x + 17 A (x + 5) + B (x − 1)
≡
(x − 1) (x + 5) (x − 1) (x + 5)
244 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 3: Since the denominators at the LHS and RHS are the same, it is then logical to conclude that
the numerators are equivalent. Now we can equate them as:

x + 17 ≡ A (x + 5) + B (x − 1)

Step 4: The sign ≡ implies that this expression is true for all values of x. It is however important
to diligently choose the values to substitute for x. As a result, we will choose x = 1 and
x = −5. We chose these because they will make a term of the expression equal to zero or
the expression in the brackets zero. Thus:
● when x = 1, we have:

1 + 17 = A (1 + 5) + B (1 − 1)
18 = 6A
18
∴A= =3
6
Step 5: For this case, once we find A, we can choose any x value to substitute in order to find B.
However, using x = −5 will still be better. Thus:
● when x = −5, we have:

−5 + 17 = A (−5 + 5) + B (−5 − 1)
12 = −6B
12
∴B= = −2
−6
Step 6: As these cannot be simplified further, the partial fractions are:

x + 17 3 −2
= +
(x − 1) (x + 5) x−1 x+5
−2 2 2
Step 7: Notice that B = −2 appears as though B = 2. This is because = =− . We
x+5 −(x+5) x+5
chose the last variant. Hence

x + 17 3 2
∴ = −
(x − 1) (x + 5) x−1 x+5

CHECK
Let’s double-check by simplifying the RHS to see if we can obtain the LHS as:

3 2 3 (x + 5) − 2 (x − 1)
− =
x−1 x+5 (x − 1) (x + 5)
3x + 15 − 2x + 2
=
(x − 1) (x + 5)
x + 17
=
(x − 1) (x + 5)
Correct!
Partial Fractions 245

Another example to try is the second method.

Example 3

4−x
Using the method of equating the coefficients, express into partial fractions.
3x2 −x−10

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

4−x
3x2 − x − 10
Step 1: Let’s factorise the denominator. Thus, we have:

3x2 − x − 10 = (3x + 5) (x − 2)

So, we can write the fraction as:

4−x 4−x
=
3x2 − x − 10 (3x + 5) (x − 2)
Step 2: The above is now in prime factors form and is linear, so we have:

4−x A B
≡ +
(3x + 5) (x − 2) 3x + 5 x − 2
Step 3: The LCM of the right-hand side is (3x + 5) (x − 2). We can proceed as we did in Example
2 above, but let’s use cross-multiplication. Using this, we have the simplified expression

4−x A B
≡ +
(3x + 5) (x − 2) 3x + 5 x − 2
A (x − 2) + B (3x + 5)
≡
(3x + 5) (x − 2)
Step 4: Open the brackets in the numerator and simplify as:

4−x Ax − 2A + 3Bx + 5B
=
(3x + 5) (x − 2) (3x + 5) (x − 2)
Ax + 3Bx + 5B − 2A
=
(3x + 5) (x − 2)
(A + 3B) x + (5B − 2A)
=
(3x + 5) (x − 2)
Step 5: Since the denominators at the LHS and RHS are the same, it is logical to conclude that the
numerators are equivalent. Now we can equate them

4 − x ≡ (A + 3B) x + (5B − 2A)

246 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 6: As the method suggests, we will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x2 ]

This does not appear on either side (LHS and RHS). No further action is required.

● For [x], we have

−x = (A + 3B) x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

−1 = A + 3B
∴ A + 3B = −1 − − − (i)

● For [constant], we have

4 = 5B − 2A
∴ − 2A + 5B = 4 − − − (ii)

Step 7: We now have two simultaneous linear equations. To eliminate A, we will multiply equation
(i) by 2 as

2A + 6B = −2 − − − (iii)

Add equation (ii) and (iii) to have

11B = 2
2
∴B=
11
From equation (i), we have:

A = −3B − 1
2
= −3 ( ) − 1
11
17
=−
11
Therefore
17 2
A=− , B=
11 11
Step 8: The partial fractions are:

4−x 4−x
=
3x2 − x − 10 (3x + 5) (x − 2)
17 2
(− ) ( )
11 11
= +
3x + 5 x−2
Partial Fractions 247

Simplify the above to have

−17 2
= +
11 (3x + 5) 11 (x − 2)
2 17
= −
11 (x − 2) 11 (3x + 5)
4−x 2 17
∴ 2 = −
3x − x − 10 11 (x − 2) 11 (3x + 5)

Here is another example to try the third method.

Example 4

x2 +1
Using the eliminating a denominator method, split into partial fractions.
(x−3)(x+2)(x+5)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

x2 + 1
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction is already in factored form and linear. Hence,
we have:

x2 + 1 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) x − 3 x + 2 x + 5

Step 2: To find A, multiply both sides by the denominator of A, i.e., (x − 3).

x2 + 1 A (x − 3) B (x − 3) C (x − 3)
× (x − 3) ≡ + +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) x−3 x+2 x+5

Simplify to have:

x2 + 1 B (x − 3) C (x − 3)
≡A+ +
(x + 2) (x + 5) x+2 x+5
248 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

To determine A, we need to ensure that the terms containing B and C on the RHS become zero. This
is achieved by using x = 3 as:
2
(3) + 1 B (3 − 3) C (3 − 3)
=A+ +
(3 + 2) (3 + 5) 3+2 3+5
9+1 B (0) C (0)
=A+ +
(5) (8) 5 8
10
=A+0+0
40
1
=A
4
1
∴A=
4
Step 3: We will repeat step 2 to find B, in this case by multiplying with (x + 2).

x2 + 1 A (x + 2) B (x + 2) C (x + 2)
× (x + 2) ≡ + +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) x−3 x+2 x+5

Simplify to have:

x2 + 1 A (x + 2) C (x + 2)
≡ +B+
(x − 3) (x + 5) x − 3 x+5

To determine B, we need to ensure that the terms containing A and C on the RHS become zero. This
is achieved by using x = −2, we have:
2
(−2) + 1 A (−2 + 2) C (−2 + 2)
= +B+
(−2 − 3) (−2 + 5) −2 − 3 −2 + 5
4+1 A (0) C (0)
= +B+
(−5) (3) −5 3
5
=0+B+0
−15
1
− =B
3
1
∴B=−
3
Step 4: Again, we will repeat step 2 to find C, in this case by multiplying by (x + 5).

x2 + 1 A (x + 5) B (x + 5) C (x + 5)
× (x + 5) ≡ + +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) x−3 x+2 x+5

Simplify to have:

x2 + 1 A (x + 5) B (x + 5)
≡ + +C
(x − 3) (x + 2) x−3 x+2
Partial Fractions 249

To determine C, we need to ensure that the terms containing A and B on the RHS become zero. This
is achieved by using x = −5, we have:
2
(−5) + 1 A (−5 + 5) B (−5 + 5)
= + +C
(−5 − 3) (−5 + 2) −5 − 3 −5 + 2
25 + 1 A (0) B (0)
= + +C
(−8) (−3) −8 −3
26
=0+0+C
24
13
=C
12
13
∴C=
12
Step 5: The partial fractions are:

1 1 13
( ) (− ) ( )
x2 + 1 4 3 12
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) x − 3 x + 2 x + 5
Simplify the above to have
1 −1 13
= + +
4 (x − 3) 3 (x + 2) 12 (x + 5)

x2 + 1 1 1 13
∴ = − +
(x − 3) (x + 2) (x + 5) 4 (x − 3) 3 (x + 2) 12 (x + 5)

7.4.2 REPEATED LINEAR FACTORS

This is when the denominator has linear factors, but one or more of the factors are repeated. In other
words, the power is not equal to 1. The general expression for three linear factors in which one of
them is repeated is given below.

f(x) A B C1
n ≡ + +
(a1 x+b1 )(a2 x+b2 )(a3 x+b3 ) a1 x+b1 a2 x+b2 a3 x+b3
(7.2)
C2 C3 Cn
+ 2 + 3 +… n
(a3 x+b3 ) (a3 x+b3 ) (a3 x+b3 )

where a1 , a2 , a3 , … , b1 , b2 , b3 , … , n, and A, B, C1 , C2 , C3 , … , Cn are numerical values.

f (x) is the numerator of the original fraction, which is a polynomial of a degree less than that of
the product of the factors in the denominator. Note that only A, B, C1 , C2 , C3 , … , Cn are to be
determined, while others will be known from the compound fraction. For example:
17 A B C
≡ + +
(3x − 5)
3 (3x − 5) (3x − 5)2
(3x − 5)
3
250 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

and
x2 − x + 1 A B C D
≡ + + +
(5x + 1) (x − 3)
3 (5x + 1) (x − 3) (x − 3)2 (x − 3)3

Similarly
3
2x + 1 A B C D E
≡ + + + +
2
(x − 1) (x + 3) (x − 7)
2 (x − 1) (x − 1) 2 (x + 3) (x − 7) (x − 7)2

From the above three examples, it is apparent that A, B, C, D, and E are the unknown constants to
be obtained. To find these unknowns, we can use one of the following two methods:

1) Substitution method
2) Equating coefficients method

The eliminating a denominator method is not suitable for this current case; it is most appropriate for
the first category only. Let’s illustrate this class using the above two methods.

Example 5

x+9
Using the substitution method, split 2 into partial fractions.
(x+2)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

x+9
2
(x + 2)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction is already in factored form and linear. Hence,
we have:

x+9 A B
≡ +
(x + 2)
2 x + 2 (x + 2)2

2
Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x + 2) . Recall that the LCM of 2 and 4 is 4 and not 8.
2 2
(x + 2) and (x + 2) are like 2 and 22 (or 4), respectively, so that is why we chose (x + 2)
as our LCM. Thus, we have:

x+9 A (x + 2) + B
2
≡ 2
(x + 2) (x + 2)
Step 3: Since the denominators at the LHS and RHS are the same, we have:

x + 9 ≡ A (x + 2) + B
Partial Fractions 251

Step 4: Let’s substitute now

● when x = −2, we have

−2 + 9 = A (−2 + 2) + B
7 = A (0) + B
∴B=7

● when x = −1, we have

−1 + 9 = A (−1 + 2) + B
8 = A (1) + B
8=A+7
A=8−7
∴A=1

Step 5: The partial fractions are:

x+9 1 7
≡ +
(x + 2)
2 x + 2 (x + 2)2

CHECK
Let’s double-check by simplifying the RHS to see if we can obtain the LHS as:

1 7 (x + 2) + 7
+ =
x + 2 (x + 2) 2
(x + 2)
2

x+9
= 2
(x + 2)
Correct!

Here is another example to try the second method.

Example 6

x2 +3x−2
Using the method of equating the coefficients, express 3 in partial fractions.
(x−1)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

x2 + 3x − 2
3
(x − 1)
252 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction is already in factored form and linear. Hence,
we have:

x2 + 3x − 2 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 1)
3 x − 1 (x − 1)2 (x − 1)3

3
Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x − 1) , so we have

2
x2 + 3x − 2 A(x − 1) + B (x − 1) + C
3
≡ 3
(x − 1) (x − 1)
Step 3: Open the brackets in the numerator and simplify as:

x2 + 3x − 2 A (x2 − 2x + 1) + B (x − 1) + C
3
≡ 3
(x − 1) (x − 1)
2
Ax − 2Ax + A + Bx − B + C
= 3
(x − 1)
Ax2 − (2A − B) x + A − B + C
= 3
(x − 1)
Step 4: We now need to equate the numerators as:

x2 + 3x − 2 ≡ Ax2 − (2A − B) x + A − B + C

Step 5: We will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x2 ], we have

Ax2 = x2

Divide both sides by x2 , we have:

∴A=1

● For [x], we have

− (2A − B) x = 3x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

− (2A − B) = 3
−2A + B = 3
B = 3 + 2A = 3 + 2
∴B=5
Partial Fractions 253

● For [constant], we have

A − B + C = −2
C = −2 − A + B
= −2 − 1 + 5
∴C=2

Step 6: The partial fractions are:

x2 + 3x − 2 1 5 2
=+ +
(x − 1) x3− 1 (x − 1)
2
(x − 1)
3

x2 + 3x − 2 1 5 2
∴ = + +
(x − 1)
3 x − 1 (x − 1)
2
(x − 1)
3

The repeated factor(s) can be mixed with non-repeated factors. Let’s try an example.

Example 7

x(x−3)
Using the method of equating the coefficients, express 2 in partial fractions.
(x+1)(2x+1)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

x (x − 3)
2
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction is already in factored form and linear. Hence,
we have:

x (x − 3) A B C
≡ + +
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2 x + 1 2x + 1 (2x + 1)2

2
Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x + 1) (2x + 1) , so we have:

2
x (x − 3) A(2x + 1) + B (x + 1) (2x + 1) + C (x + 1)
2
≡ 2
(x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1) (2x + 1)
254 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 3: Open the brackets in the numerator and simplify as:

x (x − 3) A (4x2 + 4x + 1) + B (2x2 + 3x + 1) + C (x + 1)
2
≡ 2
(x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1) (2x + 1)
2
4Ax + 4Ax + A + 2Bx2 + 3Bx + B + Cx + C
= 2
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2
(4A + 2B) x + (4A + 3B + C) x + (A + B + C)
= 2
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
Step 4: We now need to equate the numerators as:

x (x − 3) ≡ (4A + 2B) x2 + (4A + 3B + C) x + (A + B + C)

x2 − 3x ≡ (4A + 2B) x2 + (4A + 3B + C) x + (A + B + C)

Step 5: We will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x2 ], we have:

(4A + 2B) x2 = x2

Divide both sides by x2 , we have:

4A + 2B = 1 − − − − − (i)

● For [x], we have:

(4A + 3B + C) x = −3x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

4A + 3B + C = −3 − − − − − (ii)

Equation (ii) – equation (i), we have

B + C = −4 − − − − − (iii)

● For [constant], we have:

A+B+C=0 − − − − − (iv)

Multiply equation (iv) by 4, we have

4A + 4B + 4C = 0 − − − − − (v)

Equation (v) – equation (i), we have:

2B + 4C = −1 − − − − − (vi)
Partial Fractions 255

Step 6: Solving for A, B, and C:

First, we will use equations containing only B and C, i.e., equations (iii) and (vi)

B + C = −4 − − − − − (iii)
2B + 4C = −1 − − − − − (vi)

Let’s use the substitution method to solve these simultaneous equations. From (iii), we have

B = −4 − C − − − − − (vii)

Substitute (vii) in (vi), we have

2B + 4C = −1
2 (−4 − C) + 4C = −1
−8 − 2C + 4C = −1
2C = −1 + 8
2C = 7
7
∴C=
2
From equation (vii), we have

B = −4 − C
7
B = −4 −
2
15
∴B=−
2
From equation (i), we have

4A + 2B = 1
4A = 1 − 2B
15
= 1—2 (− )
2
= 1 + 15
= 16
∴A=4

Step 7: The partial fractions are:

15 7
(− ) ( )
x (x − 3) 4 2 2
= + +
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2 x + 1 2x + 1 (2x + 1)
2

x (x − 3) 4 15 7
∴ = − +
(x + 1) (2x + 1)
2 x + 1 2 (2x + 1) 2 (2x + 1)
2
256 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

CHECK
Let’s double-check by simplifying the RHS to see if we can obtain the LHS as:
2
4 15 7 4 × 2(2x + 1) − 15 (x + 1) (2x + 1) + 7 (x + 1)
− + =
x + 1 2 (2x + 1) 2 (2x + 1)2 2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
2

8 (4x2 + 4x + 1) − 15 (2x2 + 3x + 1) + 7 (x + 1)
= 2
2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
(32x2 + 32x + 8) − (30x2 + 45x + 15) + (7x + 7)
= 2
2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
(32x2 − 30x2 ) + (32x − 45x + 7x) + (8 − 15 + 7)
= 2
2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
(2x2 ) + (−6x) + (0) 2x2 − 6x
= 2
= 2
2 (x + 1) (2x + 1) 2 (x + 1) (2x + 1)
2x (x − 3) x (x − 3)
= 2
= 2
2 (x + 1) (2x + 1) (x + 1) (2x + 1)
Correct!

7.4.3 IRREDUCIBLE NON-REPEATED NON-LINEAR FACTORS

This is when the denominator has non-linear factors (e.g., quadratic, cubic) that are not repeated,
provided the non-linear polynomials cannot be factorised or simplified further.
The general expression for two non-repeated non-linear factors which cannot be reduced further is
given below.

f (x) Ax + B Cx2 + Dx + E
≡ +
(a1 x2 + b1 x + c1 ) (a2 x + b2 x + c2 x + d1 ) a1 x + b1 x + c1 a2 x + b2 x2 + c2 x + d1
3 2 2 3

(7.3)

where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , d1 and A, B, C, D, and E are numerical values.

f (x) is the numerator of the original fraction, which is a polynomial of a degree less than that of the
product of the factors in the denominator. Note that only A, B, C, D, and E are to be determined
while the others will be known from the complex fraction. For example

x2 − x + 1 Ax + B Cx2 + Dx + E
≡ +
(x2 + x − 1) (x3 + x2 + x − 1) (x2 + x − 1) (x3 + x2 + x − 1)
and
2x − 1 A B Cx2 + Dx + E
≡ + +
x (x + 1) (x3 + 3) x x+1 x3 + 3
Notice that even when some terms are missing in the denominator, the complete form of the poly-
nomial is used in the numerator. From the above two examples, it is apparent that the key challenge
is how to find A, B, C, D and E. To do this, we can use one of the following methods.
Partial Fractions 257

1) Substitution method
2) Equating coefficients method

To test if a quadratic expression can be factorised into its prime factors or not, use the discriminant
D, where D = b2 − 4ac. If D is a perfect square, then we can factorise it otherwise the quadratic
expression is not reducible.
Let’s try an example.

Example 8

4x
Using the method of equating the coefficients, express in partial fractions.
(3x−1)(2x2 +x−5)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

4x
(3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction has a linear and quadratic factor and the lat-
ter cannot be factorised further. Given (2x2 + x − 5), we can show that b2 − 4ac = 12 −
4 (2) (−5) = 41. Whilst b2 − 4ac > 0, it is not a perfect square so cannot be factorised.
Hence, we can say that:

4x A Bx + C
≡ +
(3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5) 3x − 1 2x2 + x − 5

Notice that the numerator used for 2x2 + x − 5 is a linear expression. This is based on the stated rule
(page 256).
Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5), but we will just cross-multiply,
thus:

4x A (2x2 + x − 5) + (Bx + C) (3x − 1)

≡
(3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5) (3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5)
Step 3: We now need to equate the numerators as:

4x ≡ A (2x2 + x − 5) + (Bx + C) (3x − 1)

Step 4: Open the brackets in the numerator and simplify as:

4x ≡ (2Ax2 + Ax − 5A) + (3Bx2 − Bx + 3Cx − C)

≡ (2A + 3B) x2 + (A − B + 3C) x + (−5A − C)
258 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 5: We will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x2 ] , we have:

(2A + 3B) x2 = 0x2

Divide both sides by x2 , we have:

2A + 3B = 0 − − − − − (i)

● For [x], we have

(A − B + 3C) x = 4x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

A − B + 3C = 4 − − − − − (ii)

● For [constant], we have

−5A − C = 0
5A + C = 0 − − − − − (iii)

Multiply equation (iii) by 3, we have

15A + 3C = 0 − − − − − (iv)

Equation (iv) – equation (ii), we have

14A + B = −4 − − − − − (v)

Step 6: Solving for A, B, and C

Let’s start with equations (i) and (v)

2A + 3B = 0 − − − − − (i)
14A + B = −4 − − − − − (v)

Multiply (i) by 7, we have

14A + 21B = 0 − − − − − (vi)

Equation (vi) – equation (v), we have

20B = 4
1
∴B=
5
From equation (i), we have

2A + 3B = 0
1 3
2A = −3B = −3 ( ) = −
5 5
3
∴A=−
10
Partial Fractions 259

From equation (iii), we have

5A + C = 0
3
C = −5A = −5 (− )
10
3
C=
2
Step 7: The partial fractions are:

3 1 3
(− ) x+
4x 10 5 2
≡ +
(3x − 1) (2x2 + x − 5) 3x − 1 2x2 + x − 5
1 3
(2x + 15) ( )
10 10
= −
2x2 + x − 5 3x − 1
2x + 15 3
= −
10 (2x2 + x − 5) 10 (3x − 1)
4x 2x + 15 3
∴ = −
(3x − 1) (2x + x − 5)
2 10 (2x + x − 5) 10 (3x − 1)
2

We’ve attempted a linear with a quadratic above; let’s go for a linear and a cubic expression now.
Here we go.

Example 9

18
Using the substitution method, express in partial fractions.
(x−2)(x3 +1)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

18
(x − 2) (x3 + 1)
Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction has a linear and a cubic factor. Obviously,
(x3 + 1) cannot be factorised further, hence we can say that

18 A Bx2 + Cx + D
≡ +
(x − 2) (x + 1) x − 2
3 x3 + 1

Notice that the numerator for x3 + 1 is a complete quadratic expression, though (x3 + 1) is missing
[x2 ] and [x] terms. This is based on the stated rule on page 256.
260 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x − 2) (x3 + 1), but we will just cross-multiply as in the
previous example, thus:

18 A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)
≡
(x − 2) (x3 + 1) (x − 2) (x3 + 1)
Step 3: We now need to equate the numerators as:

18 ≡ A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)

Step 4: We do not need to open the brackets; we will however carefully choose values of x to
substitute. Thus:

● For [x = 2], we have

18 = A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)
18 = A (23 + 1) + (2 − 2) (B × 22 + C × 2 + D)
18 = A (9) + (0) (4B + 2C + D)
18 = 9A
∴A=2

● For [x = 0], we have

18 = A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)
18 = A (03 + 1) + (0 − 2) (B × 02 + C × 0 + D)
18 = A (1) + (−2) (0 + 0 + D)
18 = 2 − 2D
2D = −16
∴ D = −8

● For [x = −1], we have

18 = A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)
3 2
18 = A ((−1) + 1) + (−1 − 2) (B × (−1) + C × −1 + D)
18 = A (−1 + 1) + (−3) (B − C + D)
18 = A (0) − 3 (B − C − 8)
18 = −3 (B − C − 8)
−6 = B − C − 8
−6 + 8 = B − C
B−C=2 − − − − − (i)
Partial Fractions 261

● For [x = 1], we have

18 = A (x3 + 1) + (x − 2) (Bx2 + Cx + D)
3 2
18 = A ((1) + 1) + (1 − 2) (B × (1) + C × 1 + D)
18 = A (1 + 1) + (−1) (B + C + D)
18 = 2 (2) − (B + C − 8)
18 = 4 − B − C + 8
18 − 4 − 8 = −B − C
6 = −B − C
B + C = −6 − − − − − (ii)

Equation (i) + equation (ii), we have

2B = −4
−4
B=
2
∴ B = −2

From equation (ii), we have

B + C = −6
C = −B − 6 = 2 − 6
∴ C = −4

Step 5: The partial fractions are:

18 A Bx2 + Cx + D
= +
(x − 2) (x3 + 1) x−2 x3 + 1
2 −2x2 − 4x − 8
= +
x−2 x3 + 1
2 −2 (x2 + 2x + 4)
= +
x−2 x3 + 1
2
2 2 (x + 2x + 4)
= −
x−2 x3 + 1
2
18 2 2 (x + 2x + 4)
∴ = −
(x − 2) (x + 1)
3 x − 2 x3 + 1
262 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

CHECK
Let’s double-check by simplifying the RHS to see if we can obtain the LHS as:

2 2 (x2 + 2x + 4) 2 (x3 + 1) − 2 (x − 2) (x2 + 2x + 4)

− =
x−2 x3 + 1 (x − 2) (x3 + 1)
(2x3 + 2) − 2 (x3 + 2x2 + 4x − 2x2 − 4x − 8)
=
(x − 2) (x3 + 1)
(2x + 2) − 2 (x3 − 8)
3
=
(x − 2) (x3 + 1)
2x + 2 − 2x3 + 16
3
=
(x − 2) (x3 + 1)
18
=
(x − 2) (x3 + 1)
Correct!
CHECK (Author’s method)
A quick way to check is to choose an appropriate value for x and substitute on the LHS and RHS
independently. The answer should be the same provided the working is correct (i.e., they are equal)
AND that the chosen value is such that it is highly improbable to accidentally have equal results. For
this case, let’s say x = 0.2.

● RHS

2
2 2 (x2 + 2x + 4) 2 2 ((0.2) + 2 (0.2) + 4)
− = −
x−2 x +1
3 0.2 − 2 3
(0.2) + 1
625
=−
63
● LHS

18 18 625
= =−
(x − 2) (x3 + 1) 3
(0.2 − 2) ((0.2) + 1) 63

Thus,

LHS = RHS

Correct!
Partial Fractions 263

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
In the above workings, we stated that x3 + 1 cannot be factorised. This is not entirely true as
x3 + 1 can be factorised to obtain (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1). This is because

a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2 ) AND a3 − b3 = (a − b) (a2 + ab + b2 )

Therefore
18 18
≡
(x − 2) (x3 + 1) (x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
Step 1: Let’s re-write the above as

18 A B Cx + D
≡ + +
(x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) x − 2 x + 1 x2 − x + 1

Step 2: The LCM of the right-hand side is (x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1), thus:

18
(x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)
≡
(x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
Step 3: We now need to equate the numerators as:

18 ≡ A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)

Step 4: We do not need to open the brackets; we will however carefully choose values of x to
substitute. Thus:

● For [x = 2], we have

18 = A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)

18 = A (2 + 1) (22 − 2 + 1) + B (2 − 2) (22 − 2 + 1) + (C (2) + D) (2 − 2) (2 + 1)
18 = A (3) (3) + B (0) (3) + (2C + D) (0) (3)
18 = 9A
∴A=2
264 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● For [x = −1], we have

18 = A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)

2 2
18 = A (−1 + 1) ((−1) − (−1) + 1) + B (−1 − 2) ((−1) − (−1) + 1)
+ (C (−1) + D) (−1 − 2) (−1 + 1)
18 = A (0) (3) + B (−3) (3) + (−C + D) (−3) (0)
18 = −9B
∴ B = −2

● For [x = 0], we have

18 = A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)

18 = A (0 + 1) (02 − 0 + 1) + B (0 − 2) (02 − 0 + 1) + (C (0) + D) (0 − 2) (0 + 1)
18 = A (1) (1) + B (−2) (1) + (D) (−2) (1)
18 = A − 2B − 2D
18 = 2 − 2 (−2) − 2D
18 = 6 − 2D
12 = −2D
∴ D = −6

● For [x = 1], we have

18 = A (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) + B (x − 2) (x2 − x + 1) + (Cx + D) (x − 2) (x + 1)

18 = A (1 + 1) (12 − 1 + 1) + B (1 − 2) (12 − 1 + 1) + (C (1) + D) (1 − 2) (1 + 1)
18 = A (2) (1) + B (−1) (1) + (C + D) (−1) (2)
18 = 2A − B − 2 (C + D)
18 = 2 (2) − (−2) − 2 (C − 6)
18 = 4 + 2 − 2C + 12
∴C=0

The partial fractions are:

18 A B Cx + D
≡ + +
(x − 2) (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1) x − 2 x + 1 x2 − x + 1
2 −2 −6
= + +
x − 2 x + 1 x2 − x + 1
2 2 6
= − − 2
x−2 x+1 x −x+1
18 2 2 6
∴ = − − 2
(x − 2) (x + 1)
3 x−2 x+1 x −x+1
Partial Fractions 265

Note
The final answer in this alternative method is not an exact match of the previous one, but we
can modify the latter as

2 2 6 2 2 6
− − = −( + )
x − 2 x + 1 x2 − x + 1 x−2 x + 1 x2 − x + 1
2 2 (x2 − x + 1) + 6 (x + 1)
= −( )
x−2 (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
2 2x2 − 2x + 2 + 6x + 6
= −( )
x−2 (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
2 2x2 + 4x + 8
= −( )
x−2 (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
2 2 (x2 + 2x + 4)
= −( )
x−2 (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
2 (x2 + 2x + 4)
= − 2( )
x−2 (x + 1) (x2 − x + 1)
2 2 (x2 + 2x + 4)
= −
x−2 x3 + 1
Thus the answers are identical.

One more example for us to finish this section. Get ready as the example will be challenging.

Example 10

x3 −6x−5
Using any suitable method, express in partial fractions.
(x2 +1)(x2 −x+2)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

x3 − 6x − 5
(x2 + 1) (x2 − x + 2)

Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction has two quadratic factors. Obviously, (x2 + 1)
cannot be factorised further and checking with b2 − 4ac will equally show that we cannot
factorise (x2 − x + 2), hence we say that

x3 − 6x − 5 Ax + B Cx + D
≡ 2 + 2
(x2 + 1) (x2 − x + 2) x +1 x −x+2
266 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: We will apply cross-multiplication, thus:

x3 − 6x − 5 (Ax + B) (x2 − x + 2) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 1)

≡
(x2 + 1) (x2 − x + 2) (x2 + 1) (x2 − x + 2)
Step 3: We now need to equate the numerators as:

x3 − 6x − 5 ≡ (Ax + B) (x2 − x + 2) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 1)

Step 4: Open the brackets in the numerator and simplify as:

x3 − 6x − 5 ≡ (Ax + B) (x2 − x + 2) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 1)

3
≡ (Ax − Ax2 + 2Ax + Bx2 − Bx + 2B) + (Cx3 + Cx + Dx2 + D)
3
≡ (Ax3 + Cx ) + (−Ax2 + Bx2 + Dx2 ) + (2Ax − Bx + Cx) + (2B + D)
≡ (A + C) x3 + (−A + B + D) x2 + (2A − B + C) x + (2B + D)

Step 5: We will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x3 ]

We have

(A + C) x3 = x3

Divide both sides by x3 , we have:

A+C=1 − − − − − (i)

● For [x2 ], we have

(−A + B + D) x2 = 0x2

Divide both sides by x2 , we have:

−A + B + D = 0 − − − − − (ii)

● For [x], we have

(2A − B + C) x = −6x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

2A − B + C = −6 − − − − − (iii)

● For [constant], we have

2B + D = −5 − − − − − (iv)
Partial Fractions 267

Step 6: We now need to solve for A, B, C, and D.

Let’s quickly reproduce the four equations:

A+C=1 − − − − − (i)

−A + B + D = 0 − − − − − (ii)

2A − B + C = −6 − − − − − (iii)

2B + D = −5 − − − − − (iv)

Matrix or a similar technique would be ideal in this case, but we will try solving these ‘manually’.
As A and B appear in three out of four equations, and C and D only in two out of four, we will form
two equations containing only these two as follows:
● Equation (iii) – equation (i) to eliminate C

A − B = −7 − − − − − (v)

● Equation (iv) – equation (ii) to eliminate D

A + B = −5 − − − − − (vi)

● Equation (v) + equation (vi) to eliminate B

2A = −12
∴ A = −6

From equation (vi), we have

A + B = −5
B = −5 − A = −5 − (−6) = −5 + 6
∴B=1

From equation (i), we have

A+C=1
C = 1 − A = 1 − (−6) = 1 + 6
∴C=7

From equation (ii), we have

−A + B + D = 0
D = A − B = −6 − 1
∴ D = −7

Thus, we have

A = −6, B = 1, C = 7, D = −7
268 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 7: The partial fractions are:

x3 − 6x − 5 Ax + B Cx + D
≡ 2 + 2
(x + 1) (x − x + 2)
2 2 x +1 x −x+2
−6x + 1 7x − 7
= 2 + 2
x +1 x −x+2
− (6x − 1) 7 (x − 1)
= + 2
x +1
2 x −x+2
7 (x − 1) (6x − 1)
= 2 − 2
x −x+2 x +1
x3 − 6x − 5 7 (x − 1) (6x − 1)
∴ 2 = 2 − 2
(x + 1) (x2 − x + 2) x −x+2 x +1

CHECK (Author’s method)

1
For this case, let’s say x =
3

● RHS

1 1
7 ( − 1) (6 × − 1)
7 (x − 1) (6x − 1) 3 3
− 2 = −
x −x+2
2 x +1 1
2
1 1
2
( ) − +2 ( ) +1
3 3 3
2
7 (− )
3 (2 − 1) 141
= − =−
1 1 1 40
− +2 +1
9 3 9

● LHS

3
1 1
3 ( ) −6× −5
x − 6x − 5 3 3
=
(x2 + 1) (x2 − x + 2) 1
2
1
2
1
(( ) + 1) (( ) − + 2)
3 3 3
1
−2−5
27 141
= =−
1 1 1 40
( + 1) ( − + 2)
9 9 3

Thus,

LHS = RHS

Correct!

We’ve had enough examples on this class of partial fractions. Off to the next!
Partial Fractions 269

7.4.4 IRREDUCIBLE REPEATED NON-LINEAR FACTORS

This is when the denominator has non-linear factors and one or more of the factors are repeated. The
general expression for two non-linear factors in which one of them is repeated is given below.

f(x) Ax+B Cx2 +Dx+E

n ≡ + +
(a1 x2 +b1 x+c1 )(a2 x3 +b2 x2 +c2 x+d1 ) a1 x2 +b1 x+c1 a2 x3 +b2 x2 +c2 x+d1
(7.4)
Fx2 +Gx+H Ix2 +Jx+K
2 +⋯+ n
(a2 x3 +b2 x2 +c2 x+d1 ) (a2 x3 +b2 x2 +c2 x+d1 )

where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2 , c1 , c2 , and d1 and A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and H are numerical values.

f (x) is the numerator of the original fraction, which is a polynomial of a degree less than that of
the product of the factors in the denominator. Note that only A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, … are to be
determined, while others will be known from the compound fraction. For example:

2x A Bx2 + Cx + D Ex2 + Fx + G
≡ + 3 +
x(x3 + x2 + x − 1)
2 x (x + x2 + x − 1) (x3 + x2 + x − 1)2

and
5 A Bx + C Dx + E Fx + G
≡ + + +
2 3 x − 3 5x2 + 7 2 2 2 3
(x − 3) (5x + 7) (5x + 7) (5x + 7)

From the above two examples, it is apparent that the key challenge is how to find A, B, C, D, E, F,
and G. To do this, we can use one of the following methods.

1) Substitution method
2) Equating coefficient method

Notice that this category is like a combination of category 2 and category 3, and it is as though it is
not an independent category. Let’s try an example for this.

Example 11

x3 −5x−1
Using any suitable method, express 2 in partial fractions.
(x2 +3)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

x3 − 5x − 1
2
(x2 + 3)
270 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 1: The denominator of the compound fraction has two quadratic factors. Obviously, (x2 + 3)
cannot be factorised further. We have:

x3 − 5x − 1 Ax + B Cx + D
≡ +
(x2 + 3)
2 x +3
2
(x2 + 3)
2

2
Step 2: LCM in this case is (x2 + 3) , thus we have:

x3 − 5x − 1 (Ax + B) (x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)

2
≡ 2
(x2 + 3) (x2 + 3)
Step 3: We now need to equate the numerators as:

x3 − 5x − 1 ≡ (Ax + B) (x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)

Step 4: Open the brackets and simplify as:

x3 − 5x − 1 ≡ (Ax + B) (x2 + 3) + (Cx + D)

≡ (Ax3 + Bx2 + 3Ax + 3B) + (Cx + D)
≡ (Ax3 ) + (Bx2 ) + (3Ax + Cx) + (3B + D)
≡ Ax3 + Bx2 + (3A + C) x + (3B + D)

Step 5: We will now compare the coefficients and equate them. Thus:

● For [x3 ], we have

Ax3 = x3

Divide both sides by x3 , we have:

∴A=1

● For [x2 ], we have

Bx2 = 0x2

Divide both sides by x2 , we have:

∴B=0

● For [x], we have

(3A + C) x = −5x

Divide both sides by x, we have:

3A + C = −5
C = −3A − 5 = −3 (1) − 5 = −3 − 5
∴ C = −8
Partial Fractions 271

● For [constant], we have

3B + D = −1
D = −1 − 3B = −1 − 3 (0) = −1
∴ D = −1

So we have

A = 1, B = 0, C = −8, D = −1

Step 6: The partial fractions are:

x3 − 5x − 1 Ax + B Cx + D
≡ +
(x2 + 3)
2 x2 + 3 (x2 + 3)
2

x+0 −8x − 1
= 2 +
x + 3 (x2 + 3)2
x − (8x + 1)
= +
x2 + 3 (x2 + 3)
2

x 8x + 1
= 2 −
x + 3 (x2 + 3)2
x3 − 5x − 1 x 8x + 1
∴ = −
(x2 + 3)
2 x2 + 3 (x2 + 3)2

CHECK (Author’s method)

For this case, let’s say x = −0.25 (since we’ve not used a negative number thus far).

● RHS

x 8x + 1 (−0.25) 8 (−0.25) + 1
− = −
x2 + 3 (x2 + 3) 2 2
(−0.25) + 3 [(−0.25)2 + 3]
2

4 256 60
=− − (− )=
49 2401 2401
● LHS

3
x3 − 5x − 1 (−0.25) − 5 (−0.25) − 1 60
2
= 2
=
(x2 + 3) 2 2401
[(−0.25) + 3]

Thus,

LHS = RHS

Correct!
272 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

For this example, the forward process can be easily done, so let’s verify our answer using the
conventional method.
x 8x + 1 x (x2 + 3) − 8x + 1
− =
x2 + 3 (x2 + 3)2 (x2 + 3)
2

x3 + 3x − 8x + 1
= 2
(x2 + 3)
x3 − 5x + 1
= 2
(x2 + 3)
Correct!

This will do for this category; let’s move to the last category.

7.4.5 IMPROPER FRACTIONS

The last category is when the degree of the numerator is equal to or greater than the degree of the
denominator. This is called an improper fraction, and is similar to the numerical improper fraction
7
such as . Examples include:
3

x2 +1 x3 +2x−1 x4 −2x+1
2
x2 −5x+6 (x−11)(2x+3) (x2 −3)(x+1)

In this case, we first need to divide the numerator by the denominator using the Remainder Theorem
before we proceed to splitting it into partial fractions.
Given that n (x) and d (x) are the numerator and denominator, respectively, using the Remainder
Theorem, we can simplify this into:

n (x) R
= Q (x) + (7.5)
d (x) d (x)

where Q (x) and d (x) are the quotient and remainder, respectively. Q (x) can be a number or a polyno-
R
mial, but it must be of a lesser degree than both the dividend and the divisor. is a proper fraction
d(x)
as the degree of the remainder R should be less than that of the divisor d (x). We can therefore choose
a suitable method out of the three discussed to split it into partial fractions, depending on the nature
of the resulting fraction.
A couple of examples will make this clearer (though a review of division of polynomials covered
in Foundation Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples by the same author
may be helpful).

Example 12

3x2 −4x−5
Using a suitable method, split into partial fractions.
(x−3)(x+5)
Partial Fractions 273

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

3x2 − 4x − 5
(x − 3) (x + 5)
Step 1: As the power of the expression in the numerator is equal to that in the denominator, we need
to reduce this using the long division. Let’s get started with this.
We need to open the brackets in the denominator first, as the long division will require that, so we
have
3x2 − 4x − 5 3x2 − 4x − 5
= 2
(x − 3) (x + 5) x + 2x − 15
Let’s carry out this in the long division format as:

3
x2 + 2x − 15 3x2 − 4x − 5
3x2 + 6x − 45

− 10x + 40

Hence, we can write the rational fraction as:

3x2 − 4x − 5 −10x + 40
≡3+ 2
(x − 3) (x + 5) x + 2x − 15
40 − 10x
≡3+
(x − 3) (x + 5)
40−10x
The expression was not in the simplest form and we needed to apply partial fractions tech-
(x−3)(x+5)
nique to it. Notice that this is now in the format of the first category, and we know how to handle
this. Let’s move to the next step.
40−10x
Step 2: Splitting into partial fractions.
(x−3)(x+5)

40 − 10x A B
≡ +
(x − 3) (x + 5) x − 3 x + 5
Eliminating the denominator method will be quick here.
● To obtain A, multiply through by (x − 3)

40 − 10x A B
(x − 3) = (x − 3) + (x − 3)
(x − 3) (x + 5) x−3 x+5
Therefore
40 − 10x B
=A+ (x − 3)
(x + 5) x + 5
274 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Using x = 3, we have
40 − 10 (3) B
=A+ (3 − 3)
(3 + 5) 3+5
40 − 30 B
= A + (0)
8 8
10
=A+0
8
5
∴A=
4
● To obtain B, multiply through by (x + 5)

40 − 10x A B
(x + 5) = (x + 5) + (x + 5)
(x − 3) (x + 5) x−3 x+5
40 − 10x A
= (x + 5) + B
(x − 3) x−3
Using x = −5, we have
40 − 10 (−5) A
= (−5 + 5) + B
(−5 − 3) −5 − 3
40 + 50
= A (0) + B
−8
90
=0+B
−8
45
∴B=−
4
Hence
5 45
( ) (− )
40 − 10x 4 4
≡ +
(x − 3) (x + 5) x − 3 x+5
5 45
= −
4 (x − 3) 4 (x + 5)
Step 3: Finally, we need to write the partial fraction

3x2 − 4x − 5 −10x + 40
≡3+ 2
(x − 3) (x + 5) x + 2x − 15
5 45
≡3+ −
4 (x − 3) 4 (x + 5)
You can check using either the author’s method or the conventional method.

One final example for us to try.

Example 13

2
(x2 −1)
Using a suitable method, split into partial fractions.
x3 −2x2 −5x+6
Partial Fractions 275

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

2
(x2 − 1)
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
Step 1: As the power of the expression in the numerator is greater than that in the denominator, we
need to reduce this using long division. Let’s get started with this.
We need to open the brackets in the numerator first, as the long division will require that, so we have
2
(x2 − 1) x4 − 2x2 + 1
=
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
Note that x4 − 2x2 + 1 can be written in the complete polynomial format as x4 + 0x3 − 2x2 + 0x + 1.
Let’s start as:

x+2
2
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x4 + 0x3 − 2x + 0x + 1
4 3 2
x − 2x − 5x + 6x
2x3 + 3x2 − 6x + 1
2x3 − 4x2 − 10x + 12

7x2 + 4x − 11

Hence, we can write the rational fraction as:

2
(x2 − 1) x4 − 2x2 + 1 7x + 4x − 11
2
≡ ≡x+2+ 3
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x − 2x2 − 5x + 6
Although experience can tell that this is not in the simplest form, because the denominator (i.e.,
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6) can still be factorised into prime factors. This is our next task; otherwise the above
could be taken as the simplest partial fractions and our final answer.
Step 2: Factorise x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
Given that
f (x) = x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6
If x − a is a factor of f (x), then
f (a) = 0
Because the constant in f (x) is 6, we can try the following values of a: ±1, ±2, ±3, and ±6.
●a=1
3 2
f (1) = (1) − 2(1) − 5 (1) + 6 = 1 − 2 − 5 + 6 = 0
Because f (1) = 0, we have that x − 1 is a factor. We need two more linear factors or one quadratic
factor.
276 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● a = −1

3 2
f (−1) = (−1) − 2(−1) − 5 (−1) + 6 = (−1) − 2 (1) + 5 + 6 = −1 − 2 + 5 + 6 ≠ 0

Because f (−1) ≠ 0, we can conclude that x + 1 is NOT a factor.

● a = −2

3 2
f (−2) = (−2) − 2(−2) − 5 (−2) + 6
= (−8) − 2 (4) + 10 + 6 = −8 − 8 + 10 + 6 = 0

Because f (−2) = 0, we have that x+2 is a factor. One more linear factor to go. Since we’ve identified
a = 1 and a = −2, the third and the last one is a = 3. This is because the constant in f (x) is 6, such
that 6 = −1 × 2 × −3 or c = a1 × a2 × a3 . In other words, x − 3 is a factor.
●a=3

3 2
f (3) = (3) − 2(3) − 5 (3) + 6 = 27 − 18 − 15 + 6 = 0

Because f (3) = 0, we have that x − 3 is a factor. Therefore, the complete factorisation is

x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2)

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Alternatively, when we obtained the first factor we can then write that

x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1) (ax2 + bx + c)

Comparing the coefficients – we do not really need to open the brackets on the RHS – we have

a = 1, c = 6

Note that a = 1 is obtained by multiplying x with ax2 and c = 6 is obtained when you multiply
the last term in the first bracket with the last term in the second bracket, i.e., (−1)(c). This can
be done visually.
Equate the power of [x2 ] on the RHS, if open, with that on the LHS

bx2 − ax2 = −2x2

b − a = −2
b = −2 + a = −2 + 1
∴ b = −1

Therefore, we can write the quadratic factor as:

x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1) (x2 − x + 6)

It is easy to factorise now

x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 = (x − 1) (x − 3) (x + 2)
Partial Fractions 277

In summary, we now have

2
(x2 − 1) x4 − 2x2 + 1
2
7x + 4x − 11
≡ ≡x+2+
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2)

7x2 +4x−11
Step 3: Splitting into partial fractions.
(x−3)(x−1)(x+2)

2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
Eliminating the denominator method will be quick here.
● To obtain A, multiply through with (x − 3)

2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
(x − 3) ≡ (x − 3) + (x − 3) + (x − 3)
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
Therefore
2
7x + 4x − 11 B C
≡A+ (x − 3) + (x − 3)
(x − 1) (x + 2) x − 1 x + 2
Using x = 3, we have
2
7 (3) + 4 (3) − 11 B C
≡A+ (3 − 3) + (3 − 3)
(3 − 1) (3 + 2) 3−1 3+2
63 + 12 − 11 B C
≡A+ (0) + (0)
(2) (5) 3−1 3+2
64
≡A
10
32
∴A=
5
● To obtain B, multiply through by (x − 1)

2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
(x − 1) ≡ (x − 1) + (x − 1) + (x − 1)
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
Therefore
2
7x + 4x − 11 A C
≡ (x − 1) + B + (x − 1)
(x − 3) (x + 2) x−3 x+2
Using x = 1, we have
2
7 (1) + 4 (1) − 11 A C
≡ (1 − 1) + B + (1 − 1)
(1 − 3) (1 + 2) 1 − 3 1 + 2
278 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

7 + 4 − 11 A C
≡ (0) + B + (0)
(−2) (3) 1 − 3 1 + 2
0
≡B
−6
∴B=0
● To obtain C, multiply through by (x + 2)
2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
≡ + +
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
2
7x + 4x − 11 A B C
(x + 2) ≡ (x + 2) + (x + 2) + (x + 2)
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x−3 x−1 x+2
Therefore
2
7x + 4x − 11 A B
≡ (x + 2) + (x + 2) + C
(x − 3) (x − 1) x−3 x−1
Using x = −2, we have
2
7 (−2) + 4 (−2) − 11 A B
≡ (−2 + 2) + (−2 + 2) + C
(−2 − 3) (−2 − 1) −2 − 3 −2 − 1
28 − 8 − 11 A B
≡ (0) + (0) + C
(−5) (−3) −2 − 3 −2 − 1
9
≡C
15
3
∴C=
5
Hence
32 3
2 ( ) ( )
7x + 4x + 13 5 (0) 5 32 3
≡ + + = +
(x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2) x − 3 x − 1 x + 2 5 (x − 3) 5 (x + 2)
Step 4: Finally, we need to write the partial fraction

2
(x2 − 1) x4 − 2x2 + 1
2
7x + 4x − 11
≡ ≡x+2+
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 x − 2x2 − 5x + 6
3 (x − 3) (x − 1) (x + 2)

2
(x2 − 1) 32 3
∴ ≡x+2+ +
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 5 (x − 3) 5 (x + 2)
This is a long one! It will be helpful to check, but this will be done using author’s approach.
CHECK (Author’s method)
For this case, let’s say x = −0.4
● RHS

32 3 32 3
x+2+ + = (−0.4 + 2) + +
5 (x − 3) 5 (x + 2) 5 (−0.4 − 3) 5 (−0.4 + 2)
8 32 3 63
= ( ) + (− ) + ( ) =
5 17 8 680
Partial Fractions 279

● LHS

2 441
(x2 − 1)
2 2
[(−0.4) − 1] ( )
625 63
= = =
x3 − 2x2 − 5x + 6 3 2
(−0.4) − 2(−0.4) − 5 (−0.4) + 6 (
952
)
680
125

Thus,

LHS = RHS

Correct!

This brings us to the end of this chapter.

7.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) The need to add or subtract two or more fractions to obtain a single fraction is appar-
ently necessary. However, the inverse of this process (i.e., converting or splitting a
compound algebraic fraction into two or more simple fractions) might be obscure.
2) The resulting (simple) fractions are called partial fractions of the original single frac-
tion. The process of achieving this is called resolving into partial fractions.
3) The nature of the factors in the denominator determines the steps to be taken in resolv-
ing into partial fractions. We can generally classify the nature into five:
● Non-repeated linear factors
● Repeated linear factors
● Irreducible non-repeated non-linear factors
● Irreducible repeated non-linear factors
● Improper fractions
4) The methods commonly used for resolving into partial fractions are:
● Substitution method
● Equating coefficients method
● Eliminating a denominator method

****

7.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 8 Complex Numbers I
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Explain the j operator

● Explain the real and imaginary parts
● Apply fundamental principles of complex numbers
● Carry out addition, subtraction, and multiplication of complex
numbers
● Discuss complex conjugates
● Carry out division of complex numbers using rationalising the
denominator

8.1 INTRODUCTION
You probably have heard about numbers and their different types. The category we are interested in
is their classification into real and imaginary numbers. Most of the numbers (e.g., integers, rational,
and irrational numbers) you might have encountered are real. Imaginary numbers, on the other hand,
are not very common except in science and engineering, and together with real numbers form the
basis of complex numbers. They are called complex numbers by convention, not because they are
difficult to understand or work with. The core differences between complex numbers and other num-
bers are few, and it only takes understanding a few tips about what constitutes complex numbers to
spot these dissimilarities. In this chapter, we will look at the definition of j or i operator, evaluating
complex numbers, expressing complex numbers in different forms, and converting from one form to
another.

8.2 COMPLEX NUMBERS

8.2.1 j OPERATOR
j is an operator that functions just like ×, √, ∪, %, or any other mathematical operator. Letter j is
used in engineering while i is employed in other STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics) subjects for vector analysis, though both denote the same numerical process. i sym-
bolises electric current and usually a complex number is applied in AC (alternating current) circuit
analysis where electric current is also used. Consequently, it will be difficult to discern when i is
used as electric current or complex number operator. In this chapter, j will be used.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-8 280
Complex Numbers I 281

This arrow indicates the irst anti-

clockwise turning, which corresponds to
multiplied by the operator. Each subsequent
turn implies multiplying with the operator.

FIGURE 8.1 Complex plane.

So what is j? The answer is simply

j = √−1 OR j2 = − 1

In broader terms, j is a 90° counter-clockwise rotation of a vector, usually taken from the positive
x-axis. Notice that when such a rotation is performed twice, the vector will be on the same line but
pointing towards the opposite direction. It is therefore not surprising that j2 = −1. j2 = j × j, which
is 90° turn followed by another 90° turn, making a total of 180°. In addition, when a 360° rotation
is carried out on a vector, the vector will return to its original position and again j4 = 1. We use j4
because there are four 90° in 360°.
For example, when a vector of x units (Figure 8.1), originally pointing East (that is, on the positive
x-axis) is rotated counter-clockwise by 90°, the new vector can be regarded as j ∗ x units pointing
northward or on the positive y-axis. If the same vector is rotated again in the same direction and with
the same magnitude (i.e., 90° counter-clockwise), the new vector has a value of j ∗ j ∗ x units, which
is –x units. It therefore follows that j ∗ j = j2 = −1.
The third and fourth rotations will produce vectors of values j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ x units and j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ x units,
respectively. Obviously, after the third rotation, the vector will be pointing southward. Because it
is on the negative y-axis, its value is the same in magnitude but opposite to the value of the vector
pointing northward. Therefore, j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ x = − j ∗ x or j3 = −j. Similarly, the fourth rotation will
be identical in magnitude and direction to the initial vector, thus j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ j ∗ x = x or j4 = 1. In
summary, we have
282 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
j = √−1 j2 = − 1 j3 = −j j4 = 1 = −j
j

Note that
1 1 j j j
= × = 2 = = −j (8.1)
j j j j −1
It is important to note that jn , where n is any positive integer, has only four possible values, namely:

1 j −1 −j

They respectively correspond to values of n which when divided by 4 leave the remainders 0, 1, 2, 3.
For example, j137 = j since dividing 137 by 4 leaves 1 as a remainder and this corresponds to j. Sim-
ilarly, j102 = −1 since dividing 102 by 4 leaves 2 as a remainder and this corresponds to −1. It is
also important to note that when n is an even number, the answer is 1 or −1, and for when n is an
odd number, the equivalent is either j or −j.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Write the following in their simplest form.

3 5
a) j40 b) j15 c) (3j) d) (−3j) e) j + 3j3 − 2j2 + 2j

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

In this example, the key rule is to realise that j2 = −1 and j4 = 1. It is also important to apply
the laws of indices when and where necessary.

a) j40
Solution
10 10
j40 = (j4 ) = (1) = 1
40
∴j =1

b) j15
Solution
j15 = j(4+4+4+2+1) = J4 × j4 × j4 × j2 × j
= 1 × 1 × 1 × −1 × j
=−j
Complex Numbers I 283

3
c) (3j)
Solution
3
(3j) = 33 × j3 = 27 × J2 × j
= 27 × (−1) × j = −27j
3
∴ (3j) = −27j

5
d) (−3j)
Solution
5 5 5 5
(−3j) = (−3 × j) = (−3) (j)
4
= −243(j) . j = −243 (1) . j
5
∴ (−3j) = −243j

e) j + 3j3 − 2j2 + 2j
Solution

j + 3j3 − 2j2 + 2j = j + 3j2 × j − 2j2 + 2j

= j + 3 (−j) − 2 (−1) + 2j
= j − 3j + 2 + 2j = 2
3 2
∴ j + 3j − 2j + 2j = 2

So, the problem of the square roots of negative numbers is finally solved. We can now say, for
example, that:

√−9 = √9 × −1 = √9 × √−1
= ±3 × j = ±3j

Let’s try an example.

Example 2

Without using a calculator, evaluate √−0.64.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

√−0.64 = √−1 × 0.64

64 8
= √−1 × √ =j × = 0.8j
100 10
∴ √−0.64 = 0.8j
284 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Note
64 8
We can say that =± = ±0.8. Therefore √−0.64 = ±0.8j.
√ 100 10

Before now we know that when discriminant b2 − 4ac < 0, the quadratic equation cannot be solved
or does not have real values. But with the above knowledge, it can be revealed that any quadratic
equations can now be solved. Great! In general, we have

√−n = √−1 × n = √−1 × √n = j√n (8.2)

Let’s try some examples.

Example 3

Use the quadratic formula to solve the following equations. Present the answers in the form a + jb,
such that a and b are real numbers.

a) x2 + 9 = 0 b) 3𝛼2 − 2𝛼 + 7 = 0 c) 2t2 + 4t + 6 = 0

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

a) x2 + 9 = 0
Solution
Remember that x2 + 9 = 0 can be written as x2 + 0x + 9 = 0. For this case, a = 1, b = 0, and c = 9.
Let’s substitute the values of a, b, and c in the quadratic formula and then simplify.

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
Here is the working:
−0 ± √02 − 4 (1) (9)
x=
2
±√−36 6
= = ± j = ±3j
2 2
Hence, the solutions to the equation are x = 3j and x = −3j.

b) 3𝛼2 − 2𝛼 + 7 = 0
Solution
For this case, a = 3, b = −2, and c = 7. Now substitute the values and simplify.
2
2 ± √(−2) − 4 (3) (7) 2 ± √−80
𝛼= =
2 (3) 6
2 ± j4√5 1
= = (1 ± j2√5)
6 3
Complex Numbers I 285

1 1
Hence, the solutions to the equation are 𝜶 = (1 + j2√5) and = (1 − j2√5) .
3 3

c) 2t2 + 4t + 6 = 0
Solution
For this case, a = 2, b = 4, and c = 6. Now substitute the values and then simplify. Here is the
working:
−4 ± √42 − 4 (2) (6)
t=
2 (2)
−4 ± √−32 −4 ± j4√2
= =
4 4
∴ t = −1 ± j√2

Hence, the solutions to the equation are t = −1 + j√2 and = −1 − j√2.

Let’s try another example.

Example 4

Determine the roots of the equation x3 + 27 = 0.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

The above cubic equation (and similar ones) can be factorised using factor theorem or standard
expressions:

a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 − ab + b2 ) and a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )

x3 + 27 = 0 can be expressed as x3 + 33 = 0, where a = x and b = 3.

Thus
x3 + 33 = (x + 3) (x2 − 3x + 9) = 0
Therefore, either
x+3=0
which implies that
x = −3
or
x2 − 3x + 9 = 0
286 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

this implies that

2
3 ± √(−3) − 4 (9)
x=
2
3 ± √−27 3 ± j3√3
= =
2 2
∴ x = 1.5 ± j1.5√3

Therefore, the roots of x3 + 27 = 0 are

x = −3, x = 1.5 + j1.5√3 and x = 1.5 − j1.5√3.

Let’s try one more example.

Example 5

Determine the quadratic equation whose roots are x = j3√2 and x = −j3√2.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Let 𝛼 and 𝛽 be the roots of a quadratic equation, it follows that

(x − 𝛼) (x − 𝛽) = 0

or

x2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽) x + 𝛼𝛽 = 0

Given that x = j3√2 and x = −j3√2, we have

x2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽) x + 𝛼𝛽 = 0

this implies that

x2 − (j3√2 − j3√2) x + (j3√2) (−j3√2) = 0

2
x2 − (0) x + (−j2 × 32 × (√2) ) = 0

x2 − 0 + (1 × 9 × 2) = 0
∴ x2 + 18 = 0

Note
x2 + 18 = 0 is one out of many (or infinite) equations that will have x = j3√2 and x = −j3√2 as
their solutions. This is because any possible vertical stretch will produce the same roots. In general,
Complex Numbers I 287

the family of the equations that will produce these roots can be given as k (x2 + 18) = 0, where k is
any real number.

To reiterate, whenever we take the square root of a number, we always have two answers. The two
solutions are equal in magnitude but with opposite signs. Generally, ±x is used to denote this, where
x is the magnitude.

8.2.2 IMAGINARY NUMBER

A number such as j3 is called an imaginary number. A complex number is a number that is made up
of two parts, the real and the imaginary. This is expressed as:

z = x + jy

where x is the real part (or component) of the complex number (z), abbreviated as Re (z), and the
imaginary part is y, shortened as Im (z). Note that the imaginary part does not include the j operator
itself.
Sometimes the j operator is written first before the number, and the number is written before the j
operator at other times. Therefore, 2j can be written as j2, though the former seems more common.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 6

State the real and imaginary components of the following complex numbers:

a) z = 0.5 − 3j b) z = j√3 c) z = 3𝛼 + j(𝛽 − 𝛾)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

All you need to watch out for is the presence of the j operator. If a term has the operator, it is
the imaginary part, otherwise it is the real part.

a) z = 0.5 − 3j
Solution

Re (z) = 0.5
Im (z) = −3
288 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) z = j√3
Solution

Re (z) = 0
Im (z) = √3

c) z = 3𝛼 + j(𝛽 − 𝛾)
Solution

Re (z) = 3𝜶
Im (z) = 𝜷 − 𝜸

Is there any number that is both real and imaginary? Yes, the answer is 0. This is simply because
+0 = −0 so we can regard √0 as real and √−0 as imaginary.
One other point that should be mentioned is that in engineering, the real part refers to the active (or
in-phase) component and the imaginary is the reactive (or quadrature) part.

8.3 FUNDAMENTAL OPERATIONS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on complex numbers. The rules
governing these operations are like other numbers, though with a minor manipulation.

8.3.1 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

To carry out addition or subtraction of two or more complex numbers, add/subtract the real parts and
add/subtract the imaginary parts. Given that z1 = a1 + jb1 and z2 = a2 + jb2 , then

z1 ± z2 = (a1 ± a2 ) + j (b1 ± b2 ) (8.3)

That is all we need to do. Let’s try some examples.

Example 7

Given that Z1 = 3 + 2j, Z2 = 5 − j, and Z3 = 1 + 7j, simplify the following:

a) Z1 + Z2 b) Z2 − Z3 c) Z1 + Z3
Complex Numbers I 289

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

a) Z1 + Z2
Solution

Z1 + Z2 = (3 + 2j) + (5 − j) = 3 + 2j + 5 − j
= 3 + 5 + 2j − j = 8 + j
∴ Z1 + Z2 = 8 + j

b) Z2 − Z3
Solution

Z2 − Z3 = (5 − j) − (1 + 7j) = 5 − j − 1 − 7j
= 5 − 1 − j − 7j = 4 − 8j = 4(1 − 2j)
∴ Z2 − Z3 = 4(1 − 2j)

c) Z1 + Z3
Solution

Z1 + Z3 = (3 + 2j) + (1 + 7j) = 3 + 2j + 1 + 7j
= 3 + 1 + 2j + 7j = 4 + 9j
∴ Z1 + Z3 = 4 + 9j

8.3.2 MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication involving complex numbers is carried out in the same way as with numbers in arith-
metic, but we need to note that j × j = − 1. In other words, if numbers with j terms are multiplied,
j will disappear leaving a new term (now a real number) with a negative sign.
It is as simple as that. Let’s try some examples.

Example 8

Given that Z1 = 2 − 3j, Z2 = 3 + 7j, Z3 = 2 + j, and Z4 = 2 + 3j, simplify the following:

2
a) 3Z1 b) jZ2 c) Z1 Z4 d) (Z2 ) e) Z1 Z2 Z3
290 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) 3Z1
Solution
In this example, a complex number is multiplied by a real number.

3Z1 = 3 × (2 − 3j)
= (3 × 2) − (3 × 3j) = 6 − 9j
∴ 3Z1 = 6 − 9j

b) jZ2
Solution
In this example, a complex number is multiplied by an imaginary number.

jZ2 = j × (3 + 7j)
= (j × 3) + (j × 7j) = 3j + 7j2 = 3j − 7
∴ jZ1 = −7 + 3j

c) Z1 Z4
Solution

Z1 Z4 = (2 − 3j) (2 + 3j)
= (4 + 6j − 6j + 9) = (4 + 9)
∴ Z1 Z4 = 13

Z1 and Z4 are said to be conjugates because they differ only in the sign between the real part and
the imaginary part; one is positive while the other is negative. Notice that the answer here is a real
number. This is what happens when conjugate complex numbers are multiplied together. This is
the same as conjugates in surds, which is covered in Foundation Mathematics for Engineers and
Scientists with Worked Examples by the same author.

2
d) (Z2 )
Solution
In this example, a complex number is squared. This is the same as multiplying a complex number
by itself.
2
(Z2 ) = Z2 Z2 = (3 + 7j) (3 + 7j)
= (9 + 21j + 21j − 49) = −40 + 42j = −2 (20 − 21j)
∴ Z2 Z2 = −2 (20 − 21j)
Complex Numbers I 291

e) Z1 Z2 Z3
Solution
In this example, three complex numbers are multiplied together. We will use associative law here such
that Z1 Z2 Z3 = Z1 (Z2 Z3 ), i.e., we will multiply Z2 and Z3 together first and the result is multiplied
with Z1 as:

Z1 Z2 Z3 = (2 − 3j) (3 + 7j) (2 + j)
= (6 + 14j − 9j + 21) (2 + j)
= (27 + 5j) (2 + j)
= 54 + 27j + 10j − 5 = 49 + 37j
∴ Z1 Z2 Z3 = 49 + 37j

8.3.3 DIVISION
Division occurs in two forms, and each will be covered as follows.

8.3.3.1 Division by Real Numbers

When a complex is divided by a real number (rational or irrational), the process is straightforward.
The result will be another complex number with new real and imaginary parts. Let’s try an example.

Example 9

Divide 3 + 2j by 5.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

3 + 2j
3 + 2j ÷ 5 =
5
a+b a b
In this example, the denominator is a real number. Thus, using the fact that = + , we will
c c c
divide the real part and imaginary part by 5.
3 + 2j 3 2j
= +
5 5 5
= 0.6 + 0.4j

Alternatively
3 + 2j 1
= (3 + 2j)
5 5
292 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

In the first solution, the problem is simplified giving the answer in the form x + yj. Alternatively, the
problem could be simplified in a factored form.

8.3.3.2 Division by Complex Numbers

Division in this category is when:

a) a number is divided by a complex number, or

b) a complex number is divided by another complex number.

In either of the two above cases, division is carried out using the concept of rationalising the denom-
inator. Recall that multiplying a surd with its conjugate results in a rational number. So, what about
a complex conjugate?
Given a complex number z = x + yj, its complex conjugate is denoted as z such that z = x − yj. Note
that we have only changed the sign between the real and imaginary parts of the complex number to
obtain a complex conjugate pair. z∗ is also used to indicate a complex conjugate.
If z = x + yj, then the following (Table 8.1) are true about a complex number and its conjugate.

TABLE 8.1
Complex Conjugates Illustrated

Operation Note
z (z) = x2 + y2 When conjugate complex numbers are multiplied together, the
result is equal to the sum of the squares of the real and the imag-
inary parts. The result is therefore always a non-negative real
number. It is also possible to obtain −x2 − y2 if the sign of
the real part is changed to make the conjugate. In other words,
(x + yj) (−x + yj) = −x2 − y2 .

(z1 z2 ) = z1 ∗ z2 The product of two or more conjugates is equal to the product of

their individual conjugates.

z + z = 2 ∗ Re (z) The sum of a complex number and its conjugate is equal to its real
part multiplied by 2.

z − z = 2j ∗ Im (z) When a conjugate complex number is subtracted from its cor-

responding complex number, the result is the imaginary part
multiplied by 2.

Note The asterisk sign ∗ implies multiplication.

Complex Numbers I 293

Let’s try some examples.

Example 10

Evaluate the following products of complex conjugates:

a) (a − bj) (a + bj) b) (1 + 5j) (1 − 5j)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) (a − bj) (a + bj)
Solution

(a − bj) (a + bj) = a2 + abj − abj − b2 j2

= a2 − b2 j2 = a2 + b2
∴ (a − bj) (a + bj) = a2 + b2

b) (1 + 5j) (1 − 5j)
Solution

(1 + 5j) (1 − 5j) = 1 − 5j + 5j − 25j2

= 1 − 25j2 = 1 + 25 = 26
∴ (1 + 5j) (1 − 5j) = 26

It can be observed from the above that multiplying a complex number with its complex conjugate
gives a real number, it is therefore easy to render a complex denominator into a real number by mul-
tiplying both denominator and numerator by the conjugate of the denominator. Once this is done,
dividing the numerator (complex number or another number) becomes easy. This process is called
rationalising the denominator.

Let’s try some examples.

Example 11

Evaluate each of the following:

1 5+2j
a) b)
j3 +2j8 3−j
294 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

1
a)
j3 +2j8
Solution
Step 1: First, we need to simplify the denominator. Note that j3 = −j and j4 = 1, as noted on page
282. Therefore

1 1 1
= =
j3 + 2j 8 −j + 2 2 −j

Step 2: We need to rationalise the expression above using the conjugate of the denominator. That
is, we need to multiply both the numerator and denominator by 2 + j.

1 1 2+j 2+j
= × =
2−j 2−j 2+j (2 − j) (2 + j)
Step 3: Open the brackets at the denominator which, because they are a conjugate pair, produces a
real number.

2+j 2+j
= 2
(2 − j) (2 + j) 2 + 12
2+j 2 j
= = +
5 5 5
Therefore
1
= 0.4 + 0.2j
j3 + 2j8

5+2j
b)
3−j
Solution
Given that
5 + j2
3−j
Step 1: Let’s rationalise the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by
3 + j.

5 + j2 5 + j2 5 + j2 3 + j (5 + j2) (3 + j)
= ×1= × =
3−j 3−j 3−j 3+j (3 − j) (3 + j)
Step 2: Open the brackets at the denominator which, because they are a conjugate pair, produces a
real number.

15 + 5j + 6j − 2 13 + 11j 13 11j
= = = +
3 +1
2 2 10 10 10
Complex Numbers I 295

Therefore
5 + j2
= 1.3 + j1.1
3−j

Let’s try another example.

Example 12

Show that
cos 2x + j sin 2x
= cos x − j sin x
cos 3x + j sin 3x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

Step 1: Let’s start with the LHS

cos 2x + j sin 2x
cos 3x + j sin 3x
Step 2: The complex conjugate of the denominator is cos 3x − j sin 3x, so we need to multiply both
the numerator and denominator by this complex conjugate. In other words, we need to
rationalise the expression. Thus,

cos 2x + j sin 2x cos 2x + j sin 2x cos 3x − j sin 3x

= { } × { }
cos 3x + j sin 3x cos 3x + j sin 3x cos 3x − j sin 3x
(cos 2x + j sin 2x )( cos 3x − j sin 3x)
=
(cos 3x + j sin 3x) (cos 3x − j sin 3x)
Step 3: Let’s simplify, starting with the numerator and then the denominator.
Numerator

(cos 2x + j sin 2x ) (cos 3x − j sin 3x)

= cos 2x cos 3x − j cos 2x sin 3x + j sin 2x cos 3x + sin 2x sin 3x

Group this into real and imaginary parts, which gives:

= (cos 2x cos 3x + sin 2x sin 3x) + j (sin 2x cos 3x − cos 2x sin 3x)

Use trigonometric identities to simplify the above expression, which gives

= cos (2x − 3x) + j sin (2x − 3x)

= cos (−x) + j sin (−x)
= cos x − j sin x
296 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Denominator
2
(cos 3x + j sin 3x) (cos 3x − j sin 3x) = cos2 3x + sin 3x
=1

Step 4: Now, it is time to evaluate the whole expression. Therefore

cos 2x + j sin 2x (cos 2x + j sin 2x )( cos 3x − j sin 3x)

=
cos 3x + j sin 3x (cos 3x + j sin 3x) (cos 3x − j sin 3x)
cos x − j sin x
=
1
cos 2x + j sin 2x
∴ = cos x − j sin x
cos 3x + j sin 3x

Final example to try.

Example 13

2+2j 1
If z = , determine the real and the imaginary parts of the complex number z − .
3−J z

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

Given that
2 + 2j
z=
3−j
1
Step 1: Let’s determine the inverse z (or ) as
z

1 3−j
=
z 2 + 2j
1
Step 2: Let’s compute z − as:
z

1 2 + 2j 3−j
z− = −
z 3−j 2 + 2j
(2 + 2j) (2 + 2j) − (3 − j) (3 − j)
=
(3 − j) (2 + 2j)
2 2
(2 + 2j) − (3 − j)
=
(3 − j) (2 + 2j)
Complex Numbers I 297

Applying the difference of two squares, i.e., a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b), for the numerator, we will
have
(2 + 2j + 3 − j) (2 + 2j − 3 + j)
=
(3 − j) (2 + j2)
(5 + j) (−1 + 3j)
=
(3 − j) (2 + 2j)
Now open the brackets
−8 + 14j
=
8 + 4j
Divide each term by 2
−4 + 7j
=
4 + 2j
Step 3: Now it is time to rationalise using the complex conjugate of the denominator, thus

−4 + 7j −4 + 7j 4 − 2j (−4 + 7j) (4 − 2j)

={ }×{ }=
4 + 2j 4 + 2j 4 − 2j (4 + 2j) (4 − 2j)
Step 4: Open the brackets at the denominator which, because they are a conjugate pair, produces a
real number.

−16 + 8j + 28j + 14
=
42 + 22
−2 + 36j −2 36j
= = +
20 20 20
= −0.1 + 1.8j

Therefore
1
z− = −0.1 + 1.8j
z
Hence

Re (z) = −0.1
Im (z) = 1.8

8.4 FORMS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

Complex numbers can be expressed in three main forms, namely Cartesian, polar, and exponential.

8.4.1 CARTESIAN FORM

The format of the complex number used so far is known as the Cartesian (or the rectangular) form,
written as x + yj, where x is the real part and y is the imaginary part. This is the most commonly used
form.
298 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 8.2 Determining polar form illustrated.

8.4.2 POLAR FORM

The polar form is expressed as z = r∠𝜽, where r is called the modulus (or magnitude) of the com-
plex number, which is the length of the line joining the origin to the point representing the complex
number. It is abbreviated as mod z or |z| and given by:

r = √x2 + y2 (8.4)

On the other hand, 𝜽 is the angle between the positive real-axis and the line joining the complex
number with the origin (0, 0), as shown in Figure 8.2. The angle must be in the interval −𝝅 < 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅
(or −180° < 𝜽 ≤ 180°).
It follows from Figure 8.2 that

imaginary part y
𝜽 = tan−1 { } OR 𝜽 = tan−1 { } (8.5)
real part x

Angle 𝜽 is generally called the argument of the complex number and is written as arg (z).
Let’s try some examples.

Example 14

Determine the modulus and argument of the following complex numbers.

a) z = 3 + 4j b) z = 5 − 12j
Complex Numbers I 299

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) z = 3 + 4j
Solution

mod z = |z| = |3 + 4j|

= √32 + 42
=5

and

arg (z) = arg (3 + 4j)

4
= tan−1
3
= 53.13°

b) z = 5 − 12j
Solution

mod z = |z| = |5 − 12j|

2
= √52 + (−12)
= 13

and

arg (z) = arg (5 − 12j)

−12
= tan−1 ( )
5
= −67.38°

Let’s try another set of examples.

Example 15

Given that z1 = 3 + 5j, z2 = −4 + 7j, z3 = −2 − 9j, and z4 = 1 − j, show that:

2 2 2 2
a) z1 z1 = |z1 | b) z2 z2 = |z2 | c) z3 z3 = |z3 | d) z4 z4 = |z4 |
300 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

2
a) z1 z1 = |z1 |
Solution
Given that z1 = 3 + 5j, the conjugate is z1 = 3 − 5j

z1 z1 = (3 + 5j) (3 − 5j) = 32 + 52
= 9 + 25
= 34

Also,

|z1 | = √32 + 52
= √9 + 25
= √34

Thus
2
2
|z1 | = (√34) = 34
2
∴ z1 z3 = |z1 |

2
b) z2 z2 = |z2 |
Solution
Given that z2 = −4 + 7j, the conjugate is z2 = −4 − 7j

z2 z2 = (−4 + 7j) (−4 − 7j) = 42 + 72

= 16 + 49
= 65

Also,

|z2 | = √42 + 72
= √16 + 49
= √65

Thus
2
2
|z2 | = (√65) = 65
2
∴ z2 z2 = |z2 |
Complex Numbers I 301

2
c) z3 z3 = |z3 |
Solution
Given that z3 = −2 − 9j, the conjugate is z3 = −2 + 9j

z3 z3 = (−2 − 9j) (−2 + 9j) = 22 + 92

= 4 + 81
= 85

Also,

|z3 | = √22 + 92
= √4 + 81
= √85

Thus
2
2
|z3 | = (√85) = 85
2
∴ z3 z3 = |z3 |

2
d) z4 z4 = |z4 |
Solution
Given that z4 = 1 − j, the conjugate is z4 = 1 − j

z4 z4 = (1 − j) (1 + j) = 12 + 12
=1+1
=2

Also,

|z4 | = √12 + 12
= √1 + 1
= √2

Thus
2
2
|z4 | = (√2) = 2
2
∴ z4 z4 = |z4 |

From the above examples, we can conclude that for any given complex z = x + jy, it follows that

2
zz = |z| (8.6)
302 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another example to try.

Example 16

(7−j)(3+2j)
Find the modulus and argument of z = 2 .
(4−5j)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

Hint

Here we need to simplify the expression until the complex number is in its simplest rectangular
form.

(7 − j) (3 + 2j)
z= 2
(4 − 5j)
Step 1: We will start by simplifying the numerator and denominator separately.

Numerator

(7 − j) (3 + 2j) = 21 + 14j − 3j + 2
= 23 + 11j

Denominator
2
(4 − 5j) = (4 − 5j) (4 − 5j) = −9 − 40j

Thus,
(7 − j) (3 + 2j) 23 + 11j
z= =
(4 − 5j)
2 −9 − 40j

Step 2: Rationalise the denominator by multiplying both the numerator and denominator by
−9 + 40j.

23 + 11j −9 + 40j (23 + 11j) (−9 + 40j)

z={ } × { }=
−9 − 40j −9 + 40j (−9 − 40j) (−9 + 40j)
Step 3: Open the brackets at the denominator which, because they are a conjugate pair, produces a
real number.

(23 + 11j) (−9 + 40j) −207 + 920j − 99j − 440

=
(−9 − 40j) (−9 + 40j) 2
(−9) + 40
2

−647 + 821j
=
1681
647 821
=− + j
1681 1681
Complex Numbers I 303

Step 4: Modulus
Let the modulus of the above complex number be |z|, therefore

2 2
647 821
|z| = (− ) +( )
√ 1681 1681
650
=√
1681
= 0.6218

Step 5: Argument
If the argument is denoted by arg (z), therefore
821
arg (z) = tan−1 (− )
647
= 128.24°

8.4.3 EXPONENTIAL FORM

The exponential form is represented as:

z = re±j𝜽 (8.7)

where r is the modulus of z and 𝜽 the argument of z. The angle 𝜽 here is measured in radians (unlike
degrees in polar form).
The relationship between the different forms of complex numbers is summarised in Table 8.2.

TABLE 8.2
Complex Number Forms

Expression Name Note

z = x + jy Rectangular or Cartesian —

z = r(cos 𝜽 ± j sin 𝜽) Polar This is also called a trigonometrical form in

some textbooks, while some authors consider
it as a rectangular form.

z = r∠ ± 𝜽 Shortened polar It is simply a representation, which can be

considered as a derivative of the exponen-
tial form except that its angle is measured in
degrees while the former is in radians.

z = re±j𝜽 Exponential —
304 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 8.3
Operations of Complex Numbers Explained

Expression Note
z1 + z2 = (x1 + x2 ) + j (y1 + y2 ) Note 1 Addition and subtraction carried out in rectangular
form.
z1 − z2 = (x1 − x2 ) + j (y1 − y2 )

z1 ∗ z2 = r1 ∗ r2 ∠ (𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) Note 2 Multiplication and division carried out in polar form.

z1 r1
= (𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) Note 3 The same can be done in exponential form.
z2 r2

8.5 CONVERSION BETWEEN VARIOUS FORMS

Conversion from one form to another, particularly polar to rectangular and vice versa, is inevitable.
A complex number z = r∠𝜃 in polar form has its rectangular form given as z = x + jy, such that

x = r cos 𝜽 and y = r sin 𝜽 (8.8)

Note that r in polar form is the same as r in the rectangular form. 𝜃 (in degree) in the rectangular
form is a radian equivalent of the 𝜃 in exponential form.
It is important to sketch an Argand diagram to determine the quadrant of a complex number when
converting between the various forms. This is because there are two possible values for angle 𝜃
between 0° and 360°.
It should also be noted that adding and subtracting complex numbers are easier in Cartesian form
whilst multiplication and division can be easily evaluated in polar or exponential form.
Consider two complex numbers z1 = x1 + jy1 = r1 ∠𝜃1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 = r2 ∠𝜃2 , the four
operations are shown in Table 8.3.
The following relationship is also valid and can be proven.

|z1 ∗ z2 | = |z1 | | z2 | arg (z1 ∗ z2 ) = arg (z1 ) + arg (z2 )

| z1 | |z1 | z1
| |= arg ( ) = arg (z1 ) − arg (z2 )
| z2 | |z2 | z2

(8.9)
Let’s try some examples.

Example 17

Express the following complex numbers in polar form, presenting the answer in surd form where
appropriate.

a) z = 15 b) z = 6 − 7j c) z = j
Complex Numbers I 305

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

Hint

Conversion between various forms is very important and can be done quickly using a calculator.
It is however essential that we are familiar with the principles of how this is ‘manually’ carried
out.

a) z = 15
Solution
If z = 15, it follows that

2
r = √15 + 02
= 15

and
0
𝜃 = tan−1
15
= 0°

Hence

z = 15 + j0
= 15∠0°

b) z = 6 − 7j
Solution
If z = 6 − 7j, it follows that

2
r = √62 + (−7)
= √85
= 9.22

and
−7
𝜃 = tan−1
6
= −49.40°

Hence

z = 6 − 7j = 9.22∠ − 49.40°
306 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

c) z = j
Solution
If z = j, it follows that

r = √02 + 12
=1

and
1
𝜃 = tan−1
0
= 90°

Hence

z=0+j
= 1∠90°

Example 18

Express the following complex numbers in Cartesian form, presenting the answer in surd form where
appropriate.
𝜋
−j
a) z = 10 (cos 135° + j sin 135°) b) z = √12e 6

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 18

a) z = 10 (cos 135° + j sin 135°)

Solution

10 (cos 135° + j sin 135°)

√2 √2
= 10 (− +j )
2 2

= −5 (√2 − j√2)
Complex Numbers I 307

𝜋
−j
b) z = √12e 6

Solution
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
√12e−j 6 = √12(cos − j sin )
6 6
= √12(cos 30° − j sin 30°)
√3 1
= √12 ( −j )
2 2
√12
= (√3 − j)
2
= √3 (√3 − j)

= 3 − j√3

Example 19

Express the following complex numbers in exponential form, presenting the answer in surd form
where appropriate.

a) z = 1 − j b) z = 6 − 7j

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 19

a) z = 1 − j
Solution

1 − j = r (cos 𝜃 + j sin 𝜃)
= rej𝜃

where

2
r = √12 + (−1)
= √2

and

𝜃 = tan−1 (−1)
𝜋
= −45° = − rad
4
308 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Hence
𝜋 𝜋
1 − j = √2 (cos − j sin )
4 4
𝜋
−j
= √2e 4
= √2e−j0.7854
∴ 1 − j = √2e−j0.7854

b) z = 6 − 7j
Solution

6 − 7j = r (cos 𝜃 + j sin 𝜃)
= rej𝜃

where

2
r = √62 + (−7)
= √85

and
−7
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −0.8622 rad
6
Hence

6 − 7j = √85 (cos (0.8622) − j sin (0.8622 ))

= √85e−j0.8622
= √85e−j0.8622
∴ 6 − 7j = √85e−j0.8622

8.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) j is an operator that functions just like ×, √, ∪, %, or any other mathematical operator.

2) Letter j is used in engineering while i is employed in other STEM (Science, Technol-
ogy, Engineering, and Mathematics) subjects for vector analysis, though both denote
the same numerical process.
3) j simply means

j = √−1 OR j2 = − 1
Complex Numbers I 309

4) j is a 90° counter-clockwise rotation of a vector, usually taken from the positive x-axis.
When such a rotation is performed twice, the vector will be on the same line but point-
ing towards the opposite direction. When a 360° rotation is carried out on a vector, the
vector will return to its original position and again j4 = 1. In summary, we have:

1
j = √−1 j2 = − 1 j3 = −j j4 = 1 = −j
j

5) A complex number is a number that is made up of two parts, the real and the imaginary.
This is expressed as:

z = x + jy

where x is the real part (or component) of the complex number (z) abbreviated as Re (z) and
the imaginary part is y, shortened as Im (z).

6) Sometimes, the j operator is written first before the number, and the number is written
before the j operator at other times. Therefore, j2 can be written as 2j.
7) Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division can be performed on complex num-
bers. The rules governing these operations are like other numbers, though with a minor
manipulation.
8) Given a complex number z = x + yj, its complex conjugate is denoted as z such that
z = x−yj. Note that, generally, we only change the sign between the real and imaginary
parts of the complex number to obtain a complex conjugate pair.
9) z∗ is also used to indicate a complex conjugate.
10) Multiplying a complex number with its complex conjugate gives a real number. Con-
sequently, it is straightforward to convert a complex denominator into a real number
by multiplying both denominator and numerator by the conjugate of the denomina-
tor. Once this is done, dividing the numerator (complex number or another number)
becomes easy. This process is called rationalising the denominator.
11) For any given complex z = x + yj, it can be shown that

2
zz = |z|

12) Writing the complex number as x + yj is known as the Cartesian (or the rectangular)
form, which is the most commonly used representation.
13) The polar form is expressed as z = r∠𝜽, where r is called the modulus (or magnitude)
of the complex number (or the length of the line joining the origin to the point repre-
senting the complex number). It is abbreviated as mod z or |z| and given by:

r = √x2 + y2
310 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

On the other hand, 𝜽 is the angle between the positive real-axis and the line joining the com-
plex number with the origin. The angle must be in the interval −𝝅 < 𝜽 ≤ 𝝅 (or − 180° <
𝜽 ≤ 180°). It follows that

imaginary part y
𝜽 = tan−1 { } OR 𝜽 = tan−1 { }
real part x

Angle 𝜽 is generally called the argument of the complex number and is written as arg (z).

14) The exponential form is represented as:

z = re±j𝜽

where r is the modulus of z and 𝜽 the argument of z. The angle 𝜽 here is measured in radians
(unlike degrees in polar form).

15) Conversion from one form to another, particularly a polar to rectangular and vice versa,
is inevitable. A complex number z = r∠𝜃 in polar form has its rectangular form given
as z = x + jy, such that

x = r cos 𝜽 and y = r sin 𝜽

16) r in polar form is the same as r in the rectangular form. 𝜃 (in degree) in the rectangular
form is a radian equivalent of the 𝜃 in exponential form.
17) It is important to sketch an Argand diagram to determine the quadrant of a complex
number when converting between the various forms.
18) The following relationship is valid:

|z1 ∗ z2 | = |z1 | | z2 | arg (z1 ∗ z2 ) = arg (z1 ) + arg (z2 )

| z1 | |z1 | z1
| |= arg ( ) = arg (z1 ) − arg (z2 )
| z2 | |z2 | z2

****

8.7 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 9 Complex Numbers II
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Determine the nth roots of complex numbers

● Determine the powers of trigonometric function and multiple angles
● Determine the logarithm of complex numbers

9.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will continue our discussion on complex numbers, covering Argand diagrams,
complex number equations, De Moivre’s theorem, and logarithms of complex numbers, among
others.

9.2 ARGAND DIAGRAMS

An Argand diagram, named after the French mathematician Jean-Robert Argand, is a geometrical
plot of complex numbers on the x-y Cartesian plane, also known as the complex plane. The x-axis
(horizontal axis) represents the real parts and the y-axis (vertical axis) represents the imaginary parts
of complex numbers. They are called the real axis and the imaginary axis, respectively.
To represent a complex number on an Argand diagram is very similar to the way a vector, specifically
a position vector, will be represented. To illustrate, a complex z = a + jb will be represented by a
straight line which starts from the origin (0, 0) of the diagram to a point (a, b) on the same diagram.
Similarly, a complex number w = c − jd will be represented by a straight line which starts from
(0, 0) of the diagram to a point (c, −d) on the same diagram. Both complex numbers are shown in
Figure 9.1.
Let’s try some examples on this.

Example 1

Use the Argand diagram shown in Figure 9.2 to answer the following questions.

a) Write the complex numbers z1 , z2 , … , z6 in Cartesian form z = x + jy.

b) Use an Argand diagram to determine z7 such that z1 + z4 . Confirm this algebraically.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-9 311
312 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 9.1 Complex numbers illustrated on Argand diagram.

FIGURE 9.2 Example 1 on Argand diagram.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

a) z1 , z2 , … , z6
Solution

z1 = 4 + j5
z2 = 6 + j0
z3 = 7 − j10
Complex Numbers II 313

FIGURE 9.3 Solution to Example 1(b).

z4 = 0 − j8 = −j8
z5 − 3 − j11
z6 = −2 + j9

Note
You will notice that z2 has no imaginary part or zero imaginary part; in fact, it’s simply a real num-
ber. On the other hand, z4 has only an imaginary part. However, both are still considered complex
numbers.

b) z7 = z1 + z4
Solution (Figure 9.3)

z1 = 4 + j5
z4 = (0 − j8)
z7 = z1 + z4
= (4 + j5) + (0 − j8)
= 4 − j3
∴ z7 = 4 − j3

Note
Notice that the complex numbers are added graphically in the same way we add vectors
(see Chapter 11).

9.3 EQUATIONS INVOLVING COMPLEX NUMBERS

When working with complex number equations, there are two rules to apply, namely:

Rule 1 If a complex number is equal to zero, both the real part and the imaginary part must also be
equal to zero. In other words, if x + jy = 0, then x = 0 and y = 0.
Rule 2 If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts and imaginary parts must be equal.
For instance, given that z1 = x1 + jy1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 such that z1 = z2 then x1 = x2 and
y1 = y2 .
314 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Note that the second rule can be derived from the first as follows. From rule (ii), z1 = z2 implies that

x1 + jy1 = x2 + jy2

Collect the like terms

(x1 − x2 ) + j ( y1 − y2 ) = 0

Applying the first rule, we have

x1 − x2 = 0

this implies that

x1 = x2

and

y1 − y2 = 0

this gives

y1 = y2

as before.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 2

Determine the values of x and y given that (1 − 3j) (1 + 3j) (0.5 + 0.6j) = x + jy.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Step 1: Let us start by simplifying the left-hand side (LHS) as:

(1 − 3j) (1 + 3j) (0.5 + 0.6j) = (12 + 32 ) (0.5 + 0.6j)

= (1 + 9) (0.5 + 0.6j)
= 10 (0.5 + 0.6j)
= 5 + 6j

Step 2: Now we need to equate both sides as

5 + 6j = x + yj

Therefore

x = 5, y=6
Complex Numbers II 315

Example 3

Given that (2x − y) + (x + 2y)j = 7 + 6j, determine the values of x and y which satisfy this equation.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

(2x − y) + (x + 2y) j = 7 + 6j

Step 1: Comparing both sides of the above equation, we have

2x − y = 7 − − − − − − − (i)

and

x + 2y = 6 − − − − − − (ii)

Step 2: Solve the simultaneous equations.

Using the elimination method, multiply equation (i) by 2 to obtain

4x − 2y = 14 − − − − − (iii)

Add equations (ii) and (iii) to eliminate y,

5x = 20
20
x=
5

∴ x=4

Substitute for x in either equation (i) or (ii) to obtain the value of y. From equation (i), we have

y = 2x − 7
y = 2 (4) − 7 = 1

∴ y=1

Example 4

Determine the values of x and y which satisfy the complex equation:

2x − jy − 1 2−j
=
x + j3y 3
316 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Given that
2x − jy − 1 2−j
= − − − − (i)
x + j3y 3

Step 1: Multiplying both sides of the equation (i) by 3(x + j3y), we have

3 (2x − jy − 1) = (2 − j) (x + j3y)

Simplifying this, we have

6x − j3y − 3 = 2x + j6y − jx + 3y
4x − 3y − 3 − j9y + jx = 0
(4x − 3y − 3) + j (x − 9y) = 0

Step 2: Equate the real part to zero and do the same for the imaginary part.

4x − 3y − 3 = 0
4x − 3y = 3 − − − − − (iii)

and

x − 9y = 0 − − − − − − (iv)

Step 3: Solve the simultaneous equations.

Multiply equation (iv) by 4

4x − 36y = 0 − − − − − − (v)

Subtract equation (v) from equation (iii)

33y = 3
1
∴ y=
11
From (iv)

x = 9y
9
∴x=
11
Complex Numbers II 317

Example 5

Show that (5 + j3) e(2+j2)x + (5 − j3)e(2−j2)x is a real number if x is also a real number.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Given that

(5 + 3j) e(2+2j)x + (5 − 3j) e(2−2j)x

Step 1: Let’s simplify (5 + j3) e(2+j2)x

(5 + j3) e2x × ej2x = (5 + j3) e2x (cos 2x + j sin 2x)

= (5e2x + j3e2x ) (cos 2x + j sin 2x)
= (5e2x ) (cos 2x + j sin 2x) + (j3e2x ) (cos 2x + j sin 2x)

Step 2: Let’s simplify (5 − j3)e(2−j2)x

(5 − j3) e2x × e−j2x = (5 − j3) e2x (cos 2x − j sin 2x)

= (5e2x − j3e2x ) (cos 2x − j sin 2x)
= (5e2x ) [cos 2x − j sin 2x] − (j3e2x ) (cos 2x − j sin 2x)

Step 3: Add the results from steps 1 and 2.

Therefore

(5 + j3) e(2+j2)x + (5 − j3) e(2−j2)x = {(5e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x] + (j3e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x]}
+ {(5e2x ) [cos 2x − j sin 2x] − (3je2x ) [cos 2x − j sin 2x]}
= {(5e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x] + (5e2x ) [cos 2x − j sin 2x]}
+ {(j3e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x] − (j3e2x ) [cos 2x − j sin 2x]}
= {(5e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x + cos 2x − j sin 2x]}
+ {(j3e2x ) [cos 2x + j sin 2x − cos 2x + j sin 2x]}
= {(5e2x ) [2 cos 2x]} + {(j3e2x ) [j2 sin 2x]}
= {(10e2x × cos 2x)} + {(j2 6e2x sin 2x)}
= (10e2x × cos 2x) − (6e2x sin 2x)
= 2e2x (5 cos 2x − 3 sin 2x)

Since there is no j component in the above answer, it follows that it’s a real number because x is also
a real number.
318 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

9.4 PHASOR AND j OPERATOR

In AC (alternating current) circuits, the current and voltage are either (i) in phase, which implies that
the voltage and current reach maximum point, minimum point or any other point at the same time
(ii) current leading the voltage, or (iii) current lagging the voltage, depending on the elements in the
circuit.
In a purely resistive circuit, in which only resistors are connected, the voltage and the current are said
to be in phase. In an RL circuit, having resistance R and inductance L, the voltage leads the current
while current leads in an RC (having resistance R and capacitance C) circuit. The phase difference
(lead or lag) is 90° in a purely capacitive and purely inductive circuit.
It is known that the angle between the x-axis and y-axis is 90°, so it is possible that if the positive
x-axis is taken to represent the voltage in an RC series circuit, the circuit current can be represented
by the positive y-axis. Similarly, in an RL circuit, the current can be represented by the negative
y-axis while the voltage is kept on the positive x-axis.
Leading by 90° is akin to multiplying a quantity by j while a 90° lagging is similar to multiplying a
number by −j. In RLC circuits, the lagging or leading factors vary; it is however possible to identify
which element is leading or lagging by expressing both quantities in polar form.
The graphical representation of voltages and currents in an AC circuit is known as a phasor diagram,
which is similar to an Argand diagram.
Before we move to examples, it is important to provide us with some useful formulas for AC circuits
analysis as these will be referred.

ZRC = R − jXc − − − for RC circuits (9.1)

for which

1
Xc = (9.2)
2𝝅fC

and

ZRL = R + jXL − − − for RL circuits (9.3)

for which

XL = 2𝝅fL (9.4)

where

● Z = impedance of the circuit ● XC = capacitive reactance

● XL = inductive reactance ● R = resistance
● C = capacitance ● L = inductance
● f = frequency

In general, the impedance in an RLC circuit is given by

Z = R + jX OR Z = R + j (XL − Xc ) (9.5)
Complex Numbers II 319

Let’s try some examples.

Example 6

If Z is the impedance of a series circuit, determine the resistance R and series reactance X. Also
determine the value of inductance or capacitance, given that the operating frequency is 60 Hz.

a) Z = (5 − 7j) Ω b) Z = 20j Ω c) Z = 10∠ − 30° Ω

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Hint

The presence of j indicates a reactance. Positive is for inductive reactance while negative is for
capacitive reactance. Inductive reactance (XL ) and capacitive reactance (Xc ) are two types of
reactance that depend on the presence of inductors and capacitors, respectively.

a) Z = (5 − 7j) Ω
Solution
R = Re (5 − 7j)
=5𝛀
X = Im (5 − 7j)
= − 7j 𝛀
Because the reactive part is negative, it is capacitive, i.e., X = Xc . Thus
1
Xc =
2𝜋fC
Re-arranging the formula, we have
1 1
C= =
2𝜋fXc 2𝜋 (60) (7)
∴ C = 379 𝛍F

b) Z = 20j Ω
Solution
Let’s write this complex number in its standard (or full) format first as:
Z = 20j Ω = (0 + 20j ) Ω
Thus
R = Re (0 + 20j)
= 0𝛀
X = Im (0 + 20j)
= j20 𝛀
320 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Because the reactive part is positive, it is inductive, i.e., X = XL . Thus

XL = 2𝜋fL

Re-arranging the formula, we have

XL 20
L= =
2𝜋f 2𝜋 (60)
∴ L = 53 mH

c) Z = 10∠ − 30° Ω
Solution

10∠ − 30° Ω = 10 cos (−30°) + j10 sin (−30°)

= 8.66 − 5j
R = Re (8.66 − 5j)
= 8.66 𝛀
X = Im (8.66 − 5j)
= − 5j 𝛀

Because the reactive part is negative, it is capacitive, i.e., X = Xc . Thus

1
Xc =
2𝜋fC
Re-arranging the formula, we have

1 1
C= =
2𝜋fXc 2𝝅 (60) (5)
∴ C = 531 𝛍F

Example 7

A current of I = (5 − 3j ) A flows in a series circuit when it is connected to a supply voltage

V = (15 + 18j) V. Determine the:

a) magnitude of its impedance b) phase angle between current and voltage

c) state whether current leads or lags d) resistance
e) reactance f) power consumed
Complex Numbers II 321

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

a) Magnitude of its impedance

Solution
V
Z=
I
15 + 18j 23.43∠50.19°
= =
5 − 3j 5.83∠ − 30.96°
Z = 4.02∠81.15° 𝛀

Therefore, the magnitude of the impedance is 4.02 𝛀

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
We will use rationalising the denominator here

15 + 18j 15 + 18j 5 + 3j
Z= = ×
5 − 3j 5 − 3j 5 + 3j
(15 + 18j) (5 + 3j) 75 + 45j + 90j + 54j2
= =
(5 − 3j) (5 + 3j) 52 − (3j)
2

75 + 135j − 54 21 + 135j
= =
25 + 9 34
21 135
∴Z= + j
34 34
Note
21 135
Z= + j is the same as Z = 4.02∠81.15° Ω if both are expressed in the same format.
34 34

b) Phase angle between current and voltage

Solution

V = 23.43∠50.19°
I = 5.83∠ − 30.96°

Given that the phase angle is 𝜑, then

𝜑 = |50.19° − (−30.96°)|
= |50.19° + 30.96°| = 81.15°
∴ 𝝋 = 81.15°
322 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

c) State whether current leads or lags

Solution
From (b), we can state that current lags the voltage and the lagging angle is 81.15°.

∴ Current lags the voltage

d) Resistance
Solution
Resistance is the active component of the impedance.

Z = 4.02∠81.15°
= 0.618 + 3.97j Ω
Resistance = Re (Z)
= 0.618 𝛀

Alternatively,

Resistance = r cos 𝜃
= 4.02 cos 81.15°
= 0.618 𝛀

e) Reactance
Solution

Reactance = Im (Z)
= 3.97 𝛀

Alternatively,

Resistance = r sin 𝜃
= 4.02 sin 81.15°
= 3.97 𝛀

f) Power consumed
Solution
Power consumed is the power loss in the conductor or the active power, which is

P = I2 R
2
= (5.83) (0.618)
= 21.01 W

Example 8

If one of the three impedances in a delta connection, denoted as Zc , is given by:

Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
Zc =
Z3
Complex Numbers II 323

Determine Zc given that Z1 = (5 + 10j) Ω, Z2 = (3 − 8j) Ω, and Z3 = (7 + 5j) Ω. Express the

answer in rectangular form correct to three significant figures.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Step 1: Let us express the impedances in both polar and rectangular forms.

Z1 = (5 + 10j) Ω = 11.18∠63.43°
Z2 = (3 − 8j) Ω = 8.54∠ − 69.44°
Z3 = (7 + 5j) Ω = 8.60∠35.54°

Step 2: Now let us evaluate the terms in the original expression one by one

Z1 Z2 = (11.18∠63.43°) (8.54∠ − 69.44°)

= 95.48∠ − 6.01° = 94.96 − j10.00
Z2 Z3 = (8.54∠ − 69.44°) (8.60∠35.54°)
= 73.44∠ − 33.90° = 60.96 − j40.96
Z3 Z1 = (8.60∠35.54°) (11.18∠63.43°)
= 96.15∠98.97° = −14.99 + j94.97

Therefore

Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1 = (94.96 − 10.00j) + (60.96 − 40.96j) + (−14.99 + 94.97j)

= 140.93 + 44.01j = 147.64∠17.34°

Step 3: It is now time to put everything together, thus

Z1 Z2 + Z2 Z3 + Z3 Z1
Zc =
Z3
147.64∠17.34°
= = 17.2∠ − 18.2°
8.60∠35.54°
Zc = 16.3 − 5.37j

Example 9

An AC circuit supplies three different loads of impedances Z1 , Z2 , and Z3 . Loads Z2 and Z3 are con-
nected in parallel and the combination is in series with Z1 , with the latter closest to the AC source.
Given that Z1 = (2 − 3j) Ω, Z2 = (3 − 4j) Ω, Z3 = (5 + 2j) Ω, and that the supply current is
I = (2 + j) A, determine the:
324 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

a) magnitude of the supply voltage,

b) magnitude of the supply voltage,
c) phase angle between the current and the voltage and state which one is leading. Comment on this
result.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

a) Magnitude of the supply voltage

Solution
Step 1: Draw the circuit diagram for clarity.

Step 2: Determine the total impedance Z of the circuit.

Z2 Z3
Z = Z1 +
Z2 + Z3
So
Z2 Z3 = (3 − 4j) (5 + 2j) = 15 + 6j − 20j − 8j2
= 15 + 6j − 20j − 8 (−1) = 15 − 14j + 8
= 23 − 14j
Z2 + Z3 = (3 − 4j) + (5 + 2j) = 8 − 2j

Z1
Z2

Z3

FIGURE 9.4 Solution to Example 9.

Complex Numbers II 325

Therefore
Z2 Z3 23 − 14j
Z1 + = (2 − 3j) +
Z2 + Z3 8 − 2j
26.926∠ − 31.33°
= (2 − 3j) +
8.246∠ − 14.04°
= (2 − 3j) + 3.265∠ − 17.29°
= (2 − 3j) + (3.117 − 0.970j)
= 5.117 − 3.970j
= 6.48∠ − 37.81°

Step 3: Determine the source voltage V.

V = IZ

Therefore,

V = (2 + j) × (5.12 − 3.97j)
= (2.236∠26.57° ) (6.479∠ − 37.79°)
= 14.49 ∠ − 11.22°

The magnitude of the supply voltage is the modulus of the complex number above which is 14.5 V.

b) Magnitude of the supply current

Solution
V
I=
Z
14.49 ∠ − 11.22°
=
6.48∠ − 37.81°
= 2.236∠26.59°

c) Phase angle between the current and the voltage and state which one is leading
Solution

V = 14.49 ∠ − 11.22°
I = 2.236∠26.59°

Given that the phase angle is 𝜑, then

𝜑 = |−11.22° − 26.59°|
= |−37.81°|
= 37.81°
∴ 𝝋 = 37.81°

In this case, we can state that current leads the voltage with an angle of 37.81°.
326 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Comment
As the current is leading the voltage, the circuit is effectively capacitive. This is also evident in the
value of the net impedance, i.e. Z = 5.117 − 3.970j. The negative sign in front of X indicates that the
reactance is capacitive in nature.

Let’s try another example.

Example 10

Two impedances Z1 = (8 + 10j) Ω and Z2 = (7 − 5j) Ω are connected in series to an AC power

supply voltage of 240 V.
a) Determine the source current phasor (magnitude and phase angle).
b) If the two impedances were connected in parallel, determine the new source current phasor.
In each case, comment on the phase angle.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) The source current phasor

Solution
Let Zt be the total impedance of the circuit. When connected in series (as shown in Figure 9.5)
Zt = Z1 + Z2 = (8 + 10j) + (7 − 5j)
= 15 + 5j = 15.81∠18.43°
From Ohm’s law, the source current is
V
I=
Zt
240∠0°
=
15.81∠18.43°
= 15.2∠ − 18.43° A
Hence, the current is 15.2 A at 18.43° lagging.

Z1
Z2

240 V

FIGURE 9.5 Solution to Example 10(a).

Complex Numbers II 327

Z1

Z2
240 V

FIGURE 9.6 Solution to Example 10(b).

b) The new source current phasor

Solution
When the impedances are connected in parallel (as shown in Figure 9.6), the total impedance is
Z1 Z2
Zt =
Z1 + Z2
(8 + 10j) (7 − 5j)
=
(8 + 10j) + (7 − 5j)
[12.81∠51.34°] [8.60∠ − 35.54°]
=
15.81∠18.43°
110.17∠15.80°
=
15.81∠18.43°
= 6.97∠ − 2.63°

Again, the circuit current is

V
I=
Zt
240∠0°
=
6.97∠ − 2.63°
= 34.43∠2.63° A

In this parallel connection, the current is 34.43 A at 2.63° leading.

One final example to try.

Example 11

The characteristic impedance (also known as natural impedance) Z0 and the propagation coefficient
𝛾 of a transmission line (lossy) are given by:

R + j𝜔L
Z0 =
√ G + j𝜔C

and

𝛾 = √[(R + j𝜔L) (G + j𝜔C)]

328 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Determine Z0 and 𝛾 for a transmission line with R = 15Ω, L = 10 mH, G = 60 μS, C = 0.5 μF, and
𝜔 = 1500 rad/s. Present the final answer in rectangular form correct to 2 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

Given that the characteristic impedance

R + j𝜔L
Z0 =
√ + j𝜔C
G

Substitute the values of R, L, G, Cand 𝜔 and simplify.

√
√ −3
√ 15 + j (1500) (10 × 10 )
Z0 = √ −6 −6
√ 60 × 10 + j (1500) (0.5 × 10 )
15 + 15j
= −6
√ 10 (60 + 750j)
1 15 + 15j
=
10
−3
√ 60 + 750j
3 21.21∠45°
= 10 √
752.40∠85.43
3
√
= 10 0.02819∠ − 40.43°
1
3
= 10 [0.02819∠ − 40.43°] 2
3
1
−40.43°
= 10 (0.02819) 2 ∠ ( )
2
3
= 10 [0.1679∠ − 20.23°]
= 168∠ − 20.23°
∴ Z0 = 168∠ − 20.23° = 157.6 − 58.09j

Similarly, given that the propagation coefficient 𝛾 of a transmission is

𝛾 = √[(R + j𝜔L) (G + j𝜔C)]

substitute the values of R, L, G, C, and 𝜔 and simplify.

−6
𝛾 = √(21.21∠45°) [(752.40∠85.43) × 10 ]
−3
= 10 √(21.21∠45°) (752.40∠85.43)
−3
= 10 √15958.40∠130.43°
Complex Numbers II 329

1
−3
= 10 [15958.40∠130.43°] 2
1
−3 130.43°
= 10 (15958.40) 2 ∠ ( )
2
−3
= 10 [126.33∠65.22°]
= 0.126∠65.22°
= 0.05 + 0.11j

9.5 DE MOIVRE’S THEOREM

De Moivre’s theorem is used to find the roots and powers of complex numbers. It states that if:

z = r∠𝜽 (9.6)

then
n
zn = [r∠𝜽]

= rn ∠ (n𝜽)

= rn (cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽) (9.7)

This is because if

z = rej𝜽 (9.8)

then
n
zn = [rej𝜽 ]

= rn ej(n𝜽)
= rn ∠ (n𝜽) (9.9)

This theorem is valid for any real value of n (i.e., positive, negative, whole, and fractional numbers).
Let’s try a couple of examples for n.

Example 12

Using De Moivre’s theorem, determine the value of the following in both polar and Cartesian forms:

4 6
a) (3∠28°) b) (2 + j)

The answer should be given in Cartesian form correct to 3 s.f.

330 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

4
a) (3∠28°)
Solution
4
(3∠28°) = [34 ∠ (4 × 28°)]
= [81∠ (112°)]
4
∴ (3∠28°) = 81∠112°

Now in Cartesian form, we have

81∠112° = 81 (cos 112° + j sin 112°)

= 81 cos 112° + j81 sin 112°
∴ 81∠112° = −30.3 + j75.1

6
b) (2 + j)
Solution
We need to convert this to polar form before we can use the theorem. Given z = 2 + j, it follows that

r = √22 + 12
= √5

and
1
𝜃 = tan−1
2
= 26.5651°

Hence

z = 2 + j = √5∠26.5651°

Therefore
6
6
(2 + j) = (√5∠26.5651°)
6
= [(√5) ∠ (6 × 26.5651°)]

= [125∠ (159.39°)]
6
∴ (2 + j) = 125∠159°

Now in Cartesian form, we have

125∠159.39° = 125 (cos 159.39° + j sin 159.39°)

= 125 cos 159.39° + j125 sin 159.39°
∴ 125∠159.39° = −117 + j44.0
Complex Numbers II 331

9.5.1 ROOTS OF COMPLEX NUMBERS

When the square root of a complex number is taken, two complex numbers are produced. These
roots will have the same magnitude |z| = r such that their arguments only differ in sign. If one of
the angles is 𝜃, the other will be [𝜃 + (360°)/2] or (𝜃 + 180°). Hence, the square roots of a complex
number z are |z| ∠𝜃 and |z| ∠ (𝜃 + 180°).
You may wonder why angles 𝜃 and (𝜃 + 180°) are said to be equal but only opposite in sign. Yes,
they are. Note that 180° rotation is equal to j2 , which is in turn equal to −1. In fact, if the two roots
are denoted by z1 and z2 , it follows that:

z1 = |z| ∠𝜽 AND z2 = |z| ∠ − 𝜽 (9.10)

or

z1 = |z| [cos 𝜽 + j sin 𝜽] AND z2 = |z| [cos 𝜽 − j sin 𝜽] (9.11)

Similarly, the cube root of a complex number will have three roots, with the same modulus but
different arguments, such that they are spaced by [(360°)/3] = 120°.
In general, the nth root of a complex number has n roots, each having a magnitude of |z| = r. The
first root has an angle 𝜃 = arg (z) and others are symmetrically spaced from the first root and from
each other by (360°)/n.
Since the nth root has n complex numbers, it is sometimes required to find what is generally referred
to as the principal root. This is the root that is closest to the positive x-axis, which can either be the
first or the last root. If the first and last roots are equidistant from the positive real axis, the first root
is conventionally taken as the principal root.

Let’s try an example.

Example 13

Determine the three cube roots of z = 27(cos 210° + j sin 210°) and state which of them is the
principal root. Also show the roots on a complex plane.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

z = 27(cos 210° + j sin 210°)

= 27∠210°

Therefore
1 1
Z 3 = 27 3 ∠210°/3 = 3∠70°
332 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

For this case, the roots would be spaced at an angle of (360°/3 = 120°). So let 𝛼, 𝛽, and 𝛾 be the
first, second, and third roots, respectively. Thus, the first root is

𝜶 = 3∠70°

and the two other roots are:

𝛽 = 3∠ (70° + 120°)
= 3∠190°
= 3∠ − 170°

𝛾 = 3∠ (190° + 120°)
= 3∠310°
= 3∠ − 50°

or

𝛾 = 3∠ (−170° + 120°)
= 3∠ − 50°

Hence, the principal root (also the closest to the positive x-axis) is

𝜸 = 3∠ − 50°

The complex plane is shown in Figure 9.7.

FIGURE 9.7 Solution to Example 13.

Complex Numbers II 333

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Let the three cube roots of z be denoted as z0 , z1 , and z2 corresponding, respectively, to where
k = 0, 1, and 2. Thus, given that

z = 27(cos 210° + j sin 210°)

Therefore
3 210° 2𝜋 × 0 210° 2𝜋 × 0
z0 = √27 [cos ( + ) + jsin ( + )]
3 3 3 3
= 3 (cos 70° + j sin 70°)
∴ z0 = 3∠70°

3 210° 2𝜋 × 1 210° 2𝜋 × 1
z1 = √27 [cos ( + ) + jsin ( + )]
3 3 3 3
= 3 [cos (70° + 120°) + jsin (70° + 120°)]
= 3 (cos 190° + j sin 190°)
= 3 (cos −170° + j sin −170°)
= 3 (cos 170° − j sin 170°)
∴ z1 = 3∠ − 170°

3 210° 2𝜋 × 2 210° 2𝜋 × 2
z2 = √27 [cos ( + ) + jsin ( + )]
3 3 3 3
= 3 [cos (70° + 240°) + jsin (70° + 240°)]
= 3 (cos 310° + j sin 310°)
= 3 (cos −50° + j sin −50°)
= 3 (cos 50° − j sin 50°)
∴ z2 = 3∠ − 50°

Let’s try another example.

Example 14

Determine the four fourth roots of −81 giving the answers in Cartesian form. Present the final answers
in surd form.
334 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

−81 = − 81 + j0 = r∠𝜃

where

2 0
r = √(−81) + 02 and 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
−81
= √6561 = 81 = tan−1 (−0)
= 180°

We chose 180° because the phasor is in the second-third quadrant. Therefore

−81 + j0 = 81∠180°

Therefore, the fourth root of −81 is:

1 1
180°
(−81 + j0) 4 = 81 4 ∠ ( )
4
= 3∠45°

If z1 , z2 , z3 and z4 are the four roots of −81, then we have:

z1 = 3∠45° z2 = 3∠ (90° + 45°) = 3∠135°

= 3(cos 45° + j sin 45°) = 3(cos 135° + j sin 135°)
√2 √2 √2 √2
=3( +j ) = 3 (− +j )
2 2 2 2
3√2 3√2
= (1 + j) = (−1 + j)
2 2

z3 = 3∠ (90° + 135°) = 3∠225° z4 = 3∠ (90° + 225°) = 3∠315°

= 3(cos 225° + j sin 225°) = 3(cos 315° + j sin 315°)
√2 √2 √2 √2
= 3 (− −j ) =3( −j )
2 2 2 2
3√ 2 3√2
=− (1 + j) = (1 − j)
2 2
Complex Numbers II 335

A final example to try.

Example 15

Determine the five fifth roots of z = 2 + 2j. Give the answers in both polar and exponential forms.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

z = 2 + 2j = r∠𝜃

where

2
r = √22 + 22 and 𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (1)
2
= √8 = 2√2 = 45°
Hence

2 + 2j = 2√2∠45°

Therefore, the fifth root of z

1
1
5 45°
(2 + j2) = (2√2) ∠ (
5 )
5
= 1.231∠9°

Since there are five roots, the spacing angle is

360°
= 72°
5
If z1 , z2 , z3 , z4 , and z5 are the five roots of z, then we have:

z2 = 1.231∠ (9° + 72°) z3 = 1.231∠ (81° + 72°)

z1 = 1.231∠9°
= 1.231∠81° = 1.231∠153°
= 1.231ej0.1571
= 1.231ej1.4137 = 1.231ej2.6704

z4 = 1.231∠ (153° + 72°) z5 = 1.231∠ (225° + 72°)

= 1.231∠225° = 1.231∠297°
= 1.231∠ − 135° = 1.231∠ − 63°
= 1.231e−j2.3562 = 1.231e−j1.0996
336 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

9.5.2 POWERS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS AND MULTIPLE ANGLES

Using De Moivre’s theorem, it is possible to evaluate powers and multiple angles of sine and cosine
functions. We know that

zn = rn (cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽) (9.12)

If r = 1, then

zn = cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽 − − − − − (i)

(9.13)

Similarly,

z−n = cos n𝜽 − j sin n𝜽 − − − − − (ii)

(9.14)

From the last two equations, we can have two distinct results by:

adding zn + z−n = 2 cos n𝜽 − − − − − (iii)

subtracting zn − z−n = j2 sin n𝜽 − − − − − (iv)

(9.15)

When n = 1, we can also have

z + z−1 = 2 cos 𝜽 AND z − z−1 = j2 sin 𝜽 (9.16)

It is also possible to find the values of sin n𝜽 and cos n𝜽 using

n
cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽 = (cos 𝜽 + j sin 𝜽) (9.17)

When the right-hand side of the above equation is expanded (using binomial series) and like terms
are collected together, sin n𝜃 would be equal to the imaginary part and cos n𝜃 equated to the real
part. This is derived from De Moivre’s theorem in conjunction with the rules used to solve complex
number equations.
n
In summary, De Moivre’s theorem is primarily used to determine the values of sin n𝜃, cos n𝜃, sin 𝜃,
and cosn 𝜃.
We can also state that

Z = ej𝜽 = cos 𝜽 + j sin 𝜽 − − − − − − − (v)

(9.18)

Zn = ejn𝜽 = cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽 − − − − − − − (vi)

(9.19)
Complex Numbers II 337

Also
Z−1 = e−j𝜽 = cos 𝜽 − j sin 𝜽 − − − − − − − (vii)
(9.20)

Z−n = e−jn𝜽 = cos n𝜽 − j sin n𝜽 − − − − − − − (viii)

(9.21)
Add equations (v) and (vii), we can have
Z + Z−1 = ej𝜃 + e−j𝜃 = 2 cos 𝜃
which implies that

ej𝜽 + e−j𝜽
cos 𝜽 = − − − − − − − (ix)
2
(9.22)

ejn𝜽 + e−jn𝜽
cos n𝜽 = − − − − − − − (x)
2
(9.23)
Subtract (vii) from (v), we have

Z − Z−1 = ej𝜃 − e−j𝜃 = 2j sin 𝜃

which implies that

ej𝜽 − e−j𝜽
sin 𝜽 = − − − − − − − (xi)
j2
(9.24)

ejn𝜽 − e−jn𝜽
sin n𝜽 = − − − − − − − (xii)
j2
(9.25)
The above can be used to express multiple and power of sine and cosine of angles using Euler-
trigonometric relationship shown below.

Euler–trigonometric relationship
n
n ej𝜃 + e−j𝜃
n
cos 𝜃 = (cos 𝜃) = ( ) − − − − (xiii)
2
(9.26)

n
n n ej𝜃 − e−j𝜃
sin 𝜃 = (sin 𝜃) = ( ) − − − − (xiv)
j2
(9.27)
338 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s try a couple of examples.

Example 16

Apply De Moivre’s theorem to express cos4 𝜃 in terms of cosines of multiples of angle 𝜃.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

We know that
1
z+ = 2 cos 𝜃 − − − − − (i)
z
1
zn + n = 2 cos n𝜃 − − − − − (ii)
z
From equation (i), we have that
4
4 1
(2 cos 𝜃) = (z + ) − − − − − (iii)
z
Expand the RHS of equation (iii)
4
1 1 1 1 1
(z + ) = z4 + 4z3 . + 6z2 . 2 + 4z. 3 + 4
z z z z z
4 2 1 1
= z + 4z + 6 + 4 2 + 4
z z
1 1
= z4 + 4 + 4 (z2 + 2 ) + 6 − − (iv)
z z
Use equation (ii) to express equation (iv) in terms of cos 𝜃
4
1
(z + ) = 2 cos 4𝜃 + 4(2 cos 2𝜃) + 6
z
= 2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6

Based on equation (iii), we can then write that

4
(2 cos 𝜃) = 2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6

this implies that

24 cos4 𝜃 = 2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6

Divide through by 16
1
cos4 𝜃 = (2 cos 4𝜃 + 8 cos 2𝜃 + 6)
16
1
∴ cos4 𝜽 = [(cos 4𝜽 + 4 cos 2𝜽 + 3)]
8
Complex Numbers II 339

Example 17

Expand sin 7𝜃 giving the answer in the simplest form involving only powers of sin 𝜃.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

7
cos 7𝜃 + j sin 7𝜃 = (cos 𝜃 + j sin 𝜃) − − − (i)
Let
cos 𝜃 = a
sin 𝜃 = b
Substitute this in (i)
7 7
(cos 𝜃 + j sin 𝜃) = (a + jb) − − − − − − (ii)
Let us expand the RHS of equation (ii)
7 2 3 4 5 6 7
(a + jb) = a7 + 7a6 (jb) + 21a5 (jb) + 35a4 (jb) + 35a3 (jb) + 21a2 (jb) + 7a(jb) + (jb)
= a7 + j7a6 b − 21a5 b2 − j35a4 b3 + 35a3 b4 + j21a2 b5 − 7ab6 − jb7
= (a7 − 21a5 b2 + 35a3 b4 − 7ab6 ) + j (7a6 b − 35a4 b3 + 21a2 b5 − b7 )
Thus,
7
cos 7𝜃 + j sin 7𝜃 = (cos 𝜃 + j sin 𝜃)
= (a7 − 21a5 b2 + 35a3 b4 − 7ab6 ) + j (7a6 b − 35a4 b3 + 21a2 b5 − b7 ) − − − − − (iii)
For (iii) to be valid, according to our ‘golden’ rules, it follows that the real part on the LHS must be
equal to the real part on the RHS, and the imaginary must be equated to its corresponding imaginary
component. In our current case, we need the imaginary part only as we essentially want to evaluate
sin 7𝜃. Thus, comparing both sides of (iii), we will have
sin 7𝜃 = (7a6 b − 35a4 b3 + 21a2 b5 − b7 ) − (iv)
Now replace the value of a and b back into (iv), so we will have
3 5 7
sin 7𝜃 = 7cos6 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − 35cos4 𝜃sin 𝜃 + 21cos2 𝜃sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
2 3 3 2 2 5 2 7
= 7 sin 𝜃(1 − sin 𝜃) − 35sin 𝜃(1 − sin 𝜃) + 21sin 𝜃 (1 − sin 𝜃) − sin 𝜃
2 4 6 3 2 4
= 7 sin 𝜃 (1 − 3sin 𝜃 + 3sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃) − 35sin 𝜃 (1 − 2sin 𝜃 + sin 𝜃)
5 7 7
+ 21sin 𝜃 − 21sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
3 5 7 3 5 7
= 7 sin 𝜃 − 21sin 𝜃 + 21sin 𝜃 − 7sin 𝜃 − 35sin 𝜃 + 70sin 𝜃 − 35sin 𝜃
5 7 7
+ 21sin 𝜃 − 21sin 𝜃 − sin 𝜃
3 5 7
∴ sin 7𝜽 = 7 sin 𝜽 − 56sin 𝜽 + 112sin 𝜽 − 64sin 𝜽
340 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

9.6 LOGARITHM OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

Sometimes, we need to find the logarithm of a complex number, particularly the natural logarithm,
which is the logarithm of a complex number to the base of e. This is best determined if the complex
number is in exponential form. Let us consider

z = re±j𝜽 (9.28)
Take the natural logarithm of both sides, we have

loge z = loge re±j𝜽 (9.29)

This is usually expressed as:

ln z = ln re±j𝜽

= ln r + ln e±j𝜽
= ln r ± j𝜽 (9.30)
Since r = |z| and 𝜃 = arg z, the natural logarithm of a complex number z can be expressed as:
ln z = ln |z| ± j arg z (9.31)
Let’s try a couple of examples.

Example 18

If z1 = 12 (cos 60° + j sin 60°) and z2 = 5 (cos 300° + j sin 300°), calculate:

a) ln z1 b) ln z2
Present the answer in Cartesian form correct to 3 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 18

a) ln z1
Solution
z1 = 12 (cos 60° + j sin 60°)
= 12∠60°
= rej𝜃
where
r = 12
and
𝜃 = 60° = 1.047 rad
∴ z1 = 12ej1.0472
Complex Numbers II 341

Therefore,

ln z1 = ln 12ej1.0472
= ln 12 + j1.0472
= 2.485 + j1.047

b) ln z2
Solution

z2 = 5 (cos 300° + j sin 300°)

= 5 (cos 60° − j sin 60°)
= 5∠ − 60°
= rej𝜃

where

r=5

and

𝜃 = −60° = −1.047 rad

∴ z2 = 5e−j1.047

Therefore

ln z2 = ln 5e−j1.047
= ln 5 − j1.047
= 1.609 − j1.047

9.7 APPLICATIONS
To finish this chapter, we want to show two areas where complex numbers can be used, namely
geometry and vector analysis. Let’s try some examples to illustrate this.

Example 19

Points P, Q, and R, on a complex plane, represent the complex numbers 2 − 7j, −2 + 5j, and −3 − 2j,
respectively. Represent this on a complex plane and show that triangle PQR is isosceles.
342 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 9.8 Solution to Example 19.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 19

Hint

An isosceles is a type of triangle having two sides of equal lengths.

As shown in the diagram in Figure 9.8, let

P = z1 = 2 − 7j Q = z2 = −2 + 5j R = z3 = −3 − 2j

Also, let PQ, QR, and RP be the lengths of the three sides of the triangle PQR, it follows that

PQ = |z2 − z1 | QR = |z3 − z2 | RP = |z1 − z3 |

= |(−2 + 5j) − (2 − 7j)| = |(−3 − 2j) − (−2 + 5j)| = |(2 − 7j) − (−3 − 2j)|
= |−4 + 12j| = |−1 − 7j| = |5 − 5j|
2 2 2 2 2 2
= √(−4) + 12 = √(−1) + (−7) = √(5) + (−5)
= √160 = √50 = √50
= 4√10 units = 5√2 units = 5√2 units

For triangle PQR, we have shown that QR = RP, therefore triangle PQR is isosceles.
Complex Numbers II 343

Example 20

Three coplanar forces F1 , F2 , and F3 are acting on a point object. Force F1 is 12 N acting eastward,
F2 is 20 N acting at an angle of 150° to force F1 (measured in anti-clockwise direction from the line
of action of F1 ), and F3 is 15 N acting southward. Using complex numbers, determine the magnitude
and direction of the net force on the object.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 20

Hint

This question can be solved using other methods, including parallelogram and Lami’s methods.
However, we want to approach it from the complex number system route.

The three forces (shown in Figure 9.9) can be represented as complex number systems, with east
taken as the reference axis.

Thus,

F1 = 12 + 0j F2 = 20 cos 150° + j20 sin 150° F3 = 15 cos (−90°) + j15 sin (−90°)
= −17.32 + 10j = 0 − 15j

FIGURE 9.9 Solution to Example 20.

344 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let Fn represents the net force, therefore

Fn = F1 + F2 + F3
= (12 + 0j) + (−17.32 + 10j) + (0 − 15j)
= −5.32 − 5j
= 7.30∠ − 136.78° N

Hence, the net force is 7.30 N, which is at an angle of 136.77° measured clockwise from force F1 or
223.23° measured counter-clockwise from the same force.

Let’s try another example.

Example 21

Determine the equation of the locus of a point which moves in a complex plane such that |z − 2| = 4
where z = x + jy.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 21

If z = x + jy, then

z − 2 = x + jy − 2
= x − 2 + jy
mod (z − 2) = |z − 2|
= |x − 2 + jy|
2
= √(x − 2) + y2

Since

|z − 2| = 4

then

2
√(x − 2) + y2 = 4
2
(x − 2) + y2 = 16
x2 − 4x + 4 + y2 = 16

Hence, the equation of the locus, defined by |z − 2| = 4, is

x2 + y2 − 4x − 12 = 0
Complex Numbers II 345

Let’s try another example.

Example 22

2 2
Determine the equation of the locus of points which is given by |z + j| + 2|z − 2| = 0.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 22

If z = x + jy, then

z + j = x + jy + j z − 2 = x − 2 + jy
= x + j (y + 1) = (x − 2) + jy
Also

mod (z + j) = |z + j| mod (z − 2) = |z − 2|
= |x + j (y + 1)| = |(x − 2) + jy|
2 2
= √x2 + (y + 1) = √(x − 2) + y2
= √x2 + y2 + 2y + 1 = √x2 + y2 − 4x + 4
2 2
Given that |z + j2| + 2 |z − 2| = 0, it implies that
2 2
(√x2 + y2 + 2y + 1) + 2(√x2 + y2 − 4x + 4) = 0

Remove the roots, we have

(x2 + y2 + 2y + 1) + 2 (x2 + y2 − 4x + 4) = 0
x2 + y2 + 2y + 1 + 2x2 + 2y2 − 8x + 8 = 0

Thus, the equation is a circle having a value of

3x2 + 3y2 − 8x + 2y + 9 = 0

Let’s try another example.

Example 23

Points A, B, C, and D, on an Argand diagram, represent the complex numbers 9 + j, 4 + 13j, −7 + 8j,
and −3 − 4j, respectively. Show that the quadrilateral formed by points A, B, C, and D is neither a
square nor a rectangle.
346 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 23

Let

A = z1 = 9 + j B = z2 = 4 + j13 C = z3 = −7 + j8 D = z4 = −3 − 4j

Also, let AB, BC, DC, and AD be the lengths of the four sides of the quadrilateral, it follows that

AB = |z2 − z1 |
BC = |z3 − z2 |
= |(4 + 13j) − (9 + j)|
= |(−7 + 8j) − (4 + 13j)|
= |−5 + 12j|
= |−11 − 5j|
2 2
2 2
= √(−5) + 12
= √(−11) + (−5)
= √169
= √146 units
= 13 units
AD = |z4 − z1 |
DC = |z3 − z4 |
= |(−3 − 4j) − (9 + j)|
= |(−7 + 8j) − (−3 − 4j)|
= |−12 − 5j|
= |−4 + 12j|
2 2
2 2
= √(−12) + (−5)
= √(−4) + 12
= √169
= √160 units
= 13 units

One of the conditions for ABCD to be a square is that AB = BC = DC = AD. This is not the case
here, so ABCD is not a square. For ABCD to be a rectangle, two pairs should be equal, i.e. AB = DC
and BC = AD, which is not the case here.

Let’s try another example.

Example 24

Vectors A, B, and C are given by 5∠40°, 7∠135°, and 2∠60°, respectively. Presenting the answers
in Cartesian form, determine the vectors represented by:

a) A + 2B + 2C b) 3A − B − C
Complex Numbers II 347

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 24

First, let us convert the vectors to polar form since it is convenient to carry out addition and
subtraction in this form.

A = 5∠40° B = 7∠135° C = 2∠60°

= 3.83 + 3.21j = −4.95 + 4.95j = 1 + 1.73j
a) A + 2B + 2C
Solution

A + 2B + 2C = (3.83 + 3.21j) + 2 (−4.95 + 4.95j) + 2 (1 + 1.73j )

= (3.83 + 3.21j) + (−9.9 + 9.9j) + (2 + 3.46j )
= (3.83 − 9.9 + 2) + (3.21 + 9.9 + 3.46) j
= −4.07 + 16.57j
∴ A + 2B + 2C = −4.07 + 16.57j

b) 3A − B − C
Solution

3A − B − C = 3 (3.83 + 3.21j) − (−4.95 + 4.95j) − (1 + 1.73j)

= (11.49 + 9.63j) − (−4.95 + 4.95j) − (1 + 1.73j)
= (11.49 + 4.95 − 1) + (9.63 − 4.95 − 1.73) j
∴ 3A − B − C = 15.44 + 2.95j

9.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) An Argand diagram is a geometrical plot of complex numbers on the x–y Cartesian

plane, also known as the complex plane. The x-axis (horizontal axis) represents the
real parts and the y-axis (vertical axis) represents the imaginary parts of complex num-
bers. They are called the real axis and the imaginary axis, respectively.
2) When working with complex number equations, there are two rules to apply:
● If a complex number is equal to zero, both the real part and the imaginary part
must also be equal to zero. In other words, if x + jy = 0, then x = 0 and y = 0.
● If two complex numbers are equal, then their real parts and imaginary parts must
be equal. For instance, given that z1 = x1 + jy1 and z2 = x2 + jy2 such that
z1 = z2 , then x1 = x2 and y1 = y2 .
348 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

3) The graphical representation of voltages and currents in an AC circuit is known as a

phasor diagram, which is like an Argand diagram.
4) A useful set of equations for AC circuits analysis include:

ZRC = R − jXc − − − for RC circuits

for which

1
Xc =
2𝝅fC

and

ZRL = R + jXL − − − for RL circuits

for which

XL = 2𝝅fL

where Z = impedance of the circuit, XC = capacitive reactance, XL = inductive reactance,

R = resistance, C = capacitance, L = inductance, and f = frequency.

5) In general, the impedance in an RLC circuit is given by

Z = R + jX OR Z = R + j (XL − Xc )

6) De Moivre’s theorem is used to find the roots and powers of complex numbers. It states
that if:

z = r∠𝜽

then

n
zn = [r∠𝜽]

= rn ∠ (n𝜽)

= rn (cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽)

This theorem is valid for any real value of n.

7) When the square root of a complex number is taken, two complex numbers are pro-
duced. These roots will have the same magnitude |z| = r, such that their arguments only
differ in sign. If one of the angles is 𝜃, the other will be [𝜃 + (360°)/2] or (𝜃 + 180°).
Hence, the square roots of a complex number z are |z| ∠𝜃 and |z| ∠ (𝜃 + 180°). In fact,
if the two roots are denoted by z1 and z2 , it follows that:

z1 = |z| ∠𝜽 AND z2 = |z| ∠ − 𝜽

or
Complex Numbers II 349

z1 = |z| [cos 𝜽 + j sin 𝜽] AND z2 = |z| [cos 𝜽 − j sin 𝜽]

8) In general, the nth root of a complex number has n roots, each having a magnitude of
|z| = r. The first root has an angle 𝜃 = arg (z) and the others are symmetrically spaced
from the first root and from each other by (360°)/n.
9) Using De Moivre’s theorem, it is possible to evaluate powers and multiple angles of
sine and cosine functions. We know that:

zn = rn (cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽)

If r = 1, then

zn = cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽
n
10) De Moivre’s theorem is primarily used to determine the values of sin n𝜃, cos n𝜃, sin 𝜃
and cosn 𝜃. We can write that:

ej𝜽 = cos 𝜽 + j sin 𝜽

ejn𝜽 = cos n𝜽 + j sin n𝜽

Also

e−j𝜽 = cos 𝜽 − j sin 𝜽

e−jn𝜽 = cos n𝜽 − j sin n𝜽

Hence

ej𝜽 + e−j𝜽 ejn𝜽 + e−jn𝜽

cos 𝜽 = AND cos n𝜽 =
2 2

Similarly

ej𝜽 − e−j𝜽 ejn𝜽 − e−jn𝜽

sin 𝜽 = AND sin n𝜽 =
j2 j2

11) Since r = |z| and 𝜃 = arg z, the natural logarithm of a complex number z can be
expressed as:

ln z = ln |z| ± j arg z

****
350 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

9.9 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 10 Matrices
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Explain the term matrix

● Discuss the types of matrices and their properties
● Perform addition and subtraction of matrices
● Perform scalar multiplication of a matrix
● Perform multiplication of two matrices
● Evaluate the determinant of a matrix
● Evaluate the adjoint of a square matrix
● Evaluate the inverse of a square matrix
● Use matrices to solve simultaneous equations

10.1 INTRODUCTION
Matrix is an essential area of mathematics that we, as human beings, use unknowingly. For example,
the layout of groceries can be represented using a matrix and a particular product can be referenced
using a matrix element. Matrices are effective in solving equations involving several unknown vari-
ables that would otherwise be difficult to solve using conventional methods, such as the substitution
or elimination method. They are widely used in computing and programming. In this chapter, we will
look at this important topic, covering its meaning, types, operations, and some of its applications.

10.2 MATRIX NOTATION

A matrix (plural: matrices) is defined as a rectangular array of numbers (or elements), consisting of
rows and columns generally enclosed in square brackets [] or parentheses (); the use of either is not
required if the matrix is 1 by 1. Examples of matrix include:

1 10 1 2 3
−1 0 2
A = [3] B=[ ] C = [−5 0 ] D = [−5 10 −15]
8 12 5
−7 15 3 6 9

Each number (or term) in the above matrices is called an element of the matrix. Therefore, changing
the position of an element changes the entire matrix. We can say that 3 is an element of matrix A.
Similarly, −1, 0, 2, 8, 12, and 5 are all elements of matrix B. There is no mathematical connection
between the elements of a matrix.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-10 351
352 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

A matrix is generally represented by a bold capital letter and its elements with small letters. An ele-
ment is completely identified by stating its row followed by its column. For example, in matrix C,
−5 is an element in row 2 and column 1. In general, we can write matric C above as:

c11 c12
C = [c21 c22 ]
c31 c32

where c11 = 1, c12 = 10, c21 = −5, c22 = 0, c31 = −7, and c32 = 15.
Similar to how points are identified in coordinate geometry and thus distinguish between its elements
using (x, y), we can equally use a general notation to state the location of an element in a matrix A
as:

aij

where

● i = row number ● j = column number

We should also note the size (order or dimension) of a matrix, identified by stating the row and then
the column, given as:

Size (of a Matrix) = Row × Column = Row by Column

By this, we can say that matrix B is two by three. Alternatively, we can write this as a 2 by 3 matrix
or 2 × 3 matrix. Matrix C is 3 × 2 and matrix D is 3 × 3. Matrix B and C, though have the same
number of elements, are not the same. As such, a matrix of 2 × 3 is not the same as a 3 × 2 matrix.
Hence, the order is to state the number of rows and then the number of columns, the reverse is not
valid.

10.3 TYPES OF MATRICES

Some matrices are important and are specifically identified with special names, as described below.

1) Column matrix

This is a matrix with a single (or one) column. The general dimension is n × 1, where n is the number
of rows. Matrices E and F below are examples of column matrices, with dimensions of 2 × 1 and
3 × 1, respectively.

3
−2
E=[ ] F = [2]
4
5

To save space, matrix F can also be written as {3 2 5} or [3; 2; 5]. Notice that in the first case, we
used curly square brackets { } with a space between each element, and in the second case, we used
[ ] with a semicolon (;) after each element. In general, the semicolon is used to terminate a row and
a comma (or space) is used to separate elements in a row.
Matrices 353

Let’s consider a 3 by 2 matrix shown below.

−1 7
Z = [ 2 4]
−6 3

Matrix Z can be written as [−1, 7; 2, 4; −6, 3]. The use of a comma shows the end of an element
(provided that there is another element after it), and a semicolon at the end of a row (provided that
there is a succeeding row). Let’s imagine that we omit the comma and write Z as [−17; 24; −63],
this will be interpreted as a 3 by 1 matrix (i.e., a column matrix), and will be stored as:

−17
Z = [ 24 ]
−63

To ensure that the above is not the case, one needs to create a space between the elements. Thus
[−1 7; 2 4; −6 3] with a single space or [−1 7; 2 4; −6 3] with a double space between elements
will be correctly interpreted as:

−1 7
[ 2 4]
−6 3

What if one omits the semicolon? Well, this is a tricky one. Let’s first state that the system (or pro-
gram) will only recognise the end of a row by seeing a semicolon, so let’s say we omit the first
semicolon and write [−1, 72, 4; −6, 3]. It will be considered as a matrix with two rows. The first
row has three elements (−1, 72 and 4) and the second row has two elements (−6 and 3). This is
inconsistent! Hence an error message will be displayed!

2) Row matrix

This is a matrix with a single (or one) row. It is also called a line matrix, and is the inverse of the
column matrix. The general dimension is 1 × n, where n is the number of columns. Matrices S and
R shown below are examples of row matrices.

S = [−2 4] R = [3 2 5]

3) Square matrix

This is a matrix with an equal number of rows and columns. Examples of square matrices are:

2 × 2 square matrix 3 × 3 square matrix 4 × 4 square matrix

1 0 1 4
1 3 0 ⎡ ⎤
−1 −3 ⎢3 0 2 1⎥
A=[ ] B = [2 0 9] C=⎢
2 4 ⎢2 5 1 2⎥⎥
4 5 −6
⎣7 6 0 5⎦

Square matrices are very important and central to many calculations in this topic. The determinant
cannot be obtained except if a matrix is square.
354 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

4) Single (element) matrix

This is a matrix of a dimension 1 × 1, i.e., it has one element, one row, and one column. Examples
include:

A = [2] B = [−3] C = [1.2]

5) Diagonal matrix

This is a type of square matrix where all the elements are zeros except the one on the diagonal line,
generally called the leading diagonal (or principal diagonal). The diagonal matrix consists of all
elements with aii , starting with a11 on the top left (or ‘north-west’) to aii on the bottom right (or
‘south-east’), which can be covered with a backward slash (\). An example of a diagonal matrix is
given below.

1 0 0
A = [0 3 0]
0 0 7

The sum of the elements of the leading diagonal is called the trace of the same matrix and is denoted
by tr (A), if the matrix is given as A. For the above example, we have that
n
tr (A) = ∑ aii = 1 + 3 + 7 = 11
i=1

Note that the trace of matrix only exists for square matrices (of which a diagonal matrix is a member),
and the value can be any real number including zero.
Multiplying a diagonal matrix by another dimensionally compatible diagonal matrix results in a new
diagonal matrix. An example for 3 by 3 matrices is such that if:

a11 0 0 b11 0 0
A=[ 0 a22 0] B=[ 0 b22 0]
0 0 a33 0 0 b33

Then

a11 0 0 b11 0 0 a11 × b11 0 0

AB = [ 0 a22 0 ]×[ 0 b22 0 ]=[ 0 a22 × b22 0 ]
0 0 a33 0 0 b33 0 0 a33× b33

If only the elements below the leading diagonal are zero, this is called an upper triangular matrix,
such as matrix C below. On the other hand, if the zero elements are the ones above the principal
diagonal, the matrix is termed a lower triangular matrix, such as matrix D below.

a11 a12 a13 b11 0 0

C=[ 0 a22 a23 ] D = [b21 b22 0]
0 0 a33 b31 b32 b33
Matrices 355

6) Unit (or identity) matrix

This is a diagonal matrix in which the elements along the diagonal line are ones (1). Examples of
2 × 2, 3 × 3, and 4 × 4 matrices are given below.

1 0 0 0
1 0 0 ⎡ ⎤
1 0 ⎢0 1 0 0⎥
A=[ ] B = [0 1 0] C=⎢
0 1 ⎢0 0 1 0⎥⎥
0 0 1
⎣0 0 0 1⎦

An identity matrix is generally denoted with symbol I. You may also find that it’s given as In , where
n stands for the order of the matrix. For example, I2 and I5 denote a 2 by 2 and a 5 by 5 identity
matrices, respectively. Thus, matrix A, B, and C can be written as I2 , I3 , and I4 respectively.
Unit matrices act like digit one (1) such that a matrix remains unchanged if it is multiplied (pre- or
post-) by a similar identity matrix. That is, given matrices A, B, and C for example, we can write:

A × I = I × A = A, B × I = I × B = B, and C × I = I × C = C

Furthermore, when an identity matrix is multiplied by itself it gives the same result, I × I = I, similar
to multiplying one by one, i.e., 1 × 1 = 1. This (i.e., I × I = I) will also be valid if the elements in
the leading diagonal are −1 instead of 1, as in the case of matrix D shown below.

−1 0 0
D=[0 −1 0]
0 0 −1

7) Zero or null matrix

This is a matrix in which all the elements are zero; it is denoted by 0. Examples are given below for
a 2 × 2, 3 × 4, and 4 × 4 matrix.

0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 ⎡ ⎤
0 0 ⎢0 0 0 0⎥
A=[ ] B = [0 0 0 0 ] C=⎢
0 0 ⎢0 0 0 0⎥⎥
0 0 0 0
⎣0 0 0 0⎦

Although A, B, and C are null matrices, nevertheless, they are not equal, i.e., A ≠ B ≠ C, because
they are dimensionally unequal. Pre- and post-multiplication of a matrix by a null matrix results in
a null matrix, provided they are compatible for multiplication. This is like multiplying a number
by digit zero. However, unlike in arithmetic, two non-zero matrices can be multiplied to get a zero
matrix. Although unusual, we will see an example of this later in the worked examples.

8) Equal matrices

Two or more matrices are said to be equal if:

a) they have the same order, and

b) all their corresponding elements are equal.

For example, given matrices A and B such that A = (4,6; 2,9) and B = (4,6; 2,9), then we can say
that A = B.
356 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

9) Singular matrix

This is a matrix whose determinant is zero. We will shortly discuss how to find the determinant of
a matrix, but for now, it suffices to know that when the determinant of a matrix is zero it is called a
singular matrix.

10) Transpose matrix

The transpose of a matrix is formed when the rows have been converted to respective columns and
vice versa (i.e., rows and columns are interchanged). In this case, given a matrix A with a dimension
of m×n, the transpose of this is another matrix B with a dimension of n×m. As matrix B is connected
to A, it is written as:

B = AT OR B = A′ OR B = Ã (10.1)

It can be shown that:

T
(A ± B) = AT ± BT (10.2)

In other words, when two matrices are added/subtracted and then transposed or transposed and
then added/subtracted, the resulting matrix will be the same. The principle is also the same for
multiplication as shown below.
T
(AB) = BT AT (10.3)

It is important to note that the order of multiplication is interchanged in the above. We will prove
these identities in the worked examples.
If a square matrix is equal to its transpose, the matrix is symmetric.

A=A
T
OR aij = aji (10.4)

Examples include:

7 4 7 4
A=[ ] AND AT = [ ]
4 −5 4 −5
3 6 −7 3 6 −7
B=[6 −4 8] AND BT = [ 6 −4 8]
−7 8 5 −7 8 5

The principal diagonal acts as the line of symmetry or mirror line. On the other hand, if a square
matrix is equal to its transpose multiplied by k = −1, the matrix is called a skew-symmetric matrix.

A = −A
T
OR aij = −aji (10.5)

Matrices F and G below are examples of skew-symmetric matrices.

0 5 7 0
0 −6 −2 ⎡ ⎤
⎢−5 0 1 9⎥
F = [6 0 −5] and G = ⎢
⎢−7 −1 0 3⎥⎥
2 5 0
⎣0 −9 −3 0⎦
Matrices 357

Let’s pause here and try some examples.

Example 1

Write the transpose of the following matrices.

2.5 0.3 −1.2 2 4 −6

−2
a) A = [ ] b) B = [−1.6] c) C = [−0.6 0.5 ] d) D = [ 3 5 7 ]
5
3.7 2.1 −0.7 −4 9 −16

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

a) AT = [−2 5] b) BT = [2.5 −1.6 3.7]

2 3 −4
0.3 −0.6 2.1
c) CT = [ ] d) DT = [ 4 5 9 ]
−1.2 0.5 −0.7
−6 7 −16

10.4 MATRIX OPERATION

In this section, we will look at the basic operation of matrices, which includes addition, subtraction,
and multiplication. The division of a matrix with a scalar is the same as multiplying with a fraction
(or a reciprocal of the scalar). As for dividing a matrix with another matrix, this is not something that
is explicitly carried out, but its concept is used in inverse matrices and when solving simultaneous
equations, which will be covered later in this chapter.

10.4.1 ADDITION
Addition of two or more matrices is carried out by adding their corresponding elements, provided
that their dimensions are the same, otherwise the operation is impossible. Notice that addition is both
commutative and associative (i.e., the order of the operation is irrelevant) as shown below:

A+B=B+A AND (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) (10.6)

Let’s try some examples here.

Example 2

Matrices A, B, and C are given as:

1 3 7 −5
A=[ ] B=[ ] C = [7 −6]
−2 6 0 1
358 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Determine:

a) A + B b) A + C c) B + C

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

a) A + B
Solution
1 3 7 −5
A+B=[ ]+[ ]
−2 6 0 1
1+7 3−5
=[ ]
−2 + 0 6 + 1
8 −2
∴A+B=[ ]
−2 7

b) A + C
Solution
1 3
A+C=[ ] + [7 −6]
−2 6
= Impossible because the dimensions are different

c) B + C
Solution
7 −5
B+C=[ ] + [7 −6]
0 1

= Impossible because the dimensions are not the same

The last two examples are ‘impossible’ because the dimensions of the matrices are not the same. In
other words, the matrices are not similar.

Another example to try.

Example 3

Matrices A and B are given as:

−3 0 10 −5
A=[ ] B=[ ]
2 −1 0 7
T
show that (A + B) = AT + BT .
Matrices 359

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Solution
Left-hand side
−3 0 10 −5
A+B=[ ]+[ ]
2 −1 0 7
−3 + 10 0−5 7 −5
=[ ]= [ ]
2+0 −1 + 7 2 6
T 7 2
∴ (A + B) = [ ]
−5 6
Right-hand side
−3 2
AT = [ ]
0 −1
10 0
BT = [ ]
−5 7
−3 2 10 0
AT + BT = [ ]+[ ]
0 −1 −5 7
−3 + 10 2+0
=[ ]
0−5 −1 + 7
7 2
∴ AT + BT = [ ]
−5 6
Thus
T
(A + B) = AT + BT

10.4.2 SUBTRACTION
Same as addition, a matrix can only be subtracted from another if they have the same dimension.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 4

Matrices A, B, and C are given as:

2 −5 4 2 9 −7 5 1
A=[ ] B=[ ] C=[ ]
−10 0 8 0 12 4 3 2
Determine:

a) B − A b) A − C c) B − B
360 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

a) B − A
Solution
2 9 2 −5 4
B−A=[ ]−[ ]
0 12 −10 0 8
= Impossible
This is because they have different dimensions.

b) A − C
Solution
2 −5 4 −7 5 1
A−C=[ ]−[ ]
−10 0 8 4 3 2
2 − (−7) −5 − 5 4 − 1
=[ ]
−10 − 4 0 − 3 8 − 2
9 −10 3
∴A−C=[ ]
−14 −3 6

c) B − B
Solution
2 9 2 9
B−B=[ ]−[ ]
0 12 0 12
2−2 9−9
=[ ]
0−0 12 − 12
0 0
∴B−B=[ ]
0 0
This is a zero or null matrix.

10.4.3 SCALAR-MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, each element is multiplied by this scalar factor. For example,
given a 3 by 4 matrix A:
a11 a12 a13 a14
A = [a21 a22 a23 a24 ]
a31 a32 a33 a34
If A is multiplied by a scalar factor k, where k is any real number, the operation can be written as:
a11 a12 a13 a14 ka11 ka12 ka13 ka14
k [a21 a22 a23 a24 ] = [ka21 ka22 ka23 ka24 ]
a31 a32 a33 a34 ka31 ka32 ka33 ka34
Matrices 361

The above operation is like ‘expanding the brackets’, and can be written in a short format as:
k [aij ] = [kaij ]
The reverse process can be performed. In other words, if there is a common factor among elements
in a matrix, this can be taken out or ‘factorised’.
[kaij ] = k [aij ]

ka11 ka12 ka13 ka14 a11 a12 a13 a14

[ka21 ka22 ka23 ka24 ] = k [a21 a22 a23 a24 ]
ka31 ka32 ka33 ka34 a31 a32 a33 a34
Let’s try some examples.

Example 5

A 3 by 4 matrix A is given as:

3 −2 5 −1
[1 0 2 4]
0 7 6 8
Determine the following:

a) 3A b) −0.5A c) 2𝜋A

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

In this example, we’ve tried to use parentheses () instead of square brackets [], as either can be
used to express matrices.

a) 3A
Solution
3 −2 5 −1
3A = 3 (1 0 2 4 )
0 7 6 8
3 × 3 3 × −2 3 × 5 3 × −1
= (3 × 1 3 × 0 3 × 2 3 × 4 )
3×0 3×7 3×6 3×8
9 −6 15 −3
∴ 3A = (3 0 6 12 )
0 21 18 24
362 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) −0.5A
Solution

3 −2 5 −1
−0.5A = −0.5 [1 0 2 4 ]
0 7 6 8
−0.5 × 3 −0.5 × −2 −0.5 × 5 −0.5 × −1
= [−0.5 × 1 −0.5 × 0 −0.5 × 2 −0.5 × 4 ]
−0.5 × 0 −0.5 × 7 −0.5 × 6 −0.5 × 8
−1.5 1 −2.5 0.5
∴ − 0.5A = (−0.5 0 −1 −2 )
0 −3.5 −3 −4

c) 2𝜋A
Solution

3 −2 5 −1
2𝜋A = 2𝜋 (1 0 2 4 )
0 7 6 8
2𝜋 × 3 2𝜋 × −2 2𝜋 × 5 2𝜋 × −1
= (2𝜋 × 1 2𝜋 × 0 2𝜋 × 2 2𝜋 × 4 )
2𝜋 × 0 2𝜋 × 7 2𝜋 × 6 2𝜋 × 8
6𝝅 −4𝝅 10𝝅 −2𝝅
∴ 2𝝅A = (2𝝅 0 4𝝅 8𝝅 )
0 14𝝅 12𝝅 16𝝅

Another example to try.

Example 6

A 3 by 2 matrix B is given as:

4 −3
[1 0]
−6 10

Express matrix B in the form of k [aij ], where k = 2 and [aij ] is a 3 by 2 matrix.

Matrices 363

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

4 3
⎡ 2 − ⎤
2
4 −3 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 1 0 ⎥
B=[1 0 ] = 2⎢
2 2 ⎥
−6 10 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 6 10 ⎥
−
⎣ 2 2 ⎦

2 −1.5
∴ B = 2 [0.5 0 ]
−3 5

One final example to try in this section.

Example 7

Matrices A, B, and C are given as:

2 1 0 1 0 0 1 3 5
A = [−3 −2 −1] B = [−1 2 0] C = [ 0 1 7]
2 0 4 −3 −2 3 −5 0 9

Determine 3A + 2B − 5C.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Let’s evaluate each term separately first, thus we have

2 1 0
3A = 3 [−3 −2 −1]
2 0 4
2×3 1×3 0×3
= [−3 × 3 −2 × 3 −1 × 3]
2×3 0×3 4×3
6 3 0
= [−9 −6 −3]
6 0 12
364 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1 0 0
2B = 2 [−1 2 0]
−3 −2 3
1×2 0×2 0×2
= [−1 × 2 2 × 2 0 × 2]
−3 × 2 −2 × 2 3 × 2
2 0 0
= [−2 4 0]
−6 −4 6
1 3 5
5C = 5 [ 0 1 7]
−5 0 9
1×5 3×5 5×5
= [ 0 × 5 1 × 5 7 × 5]
−5 × 5 0 × 5 9 × 5
5 15 25
=[ 0 5 35]
−25 0 45
Therefore
2 1 0 1 0 0 1 3 5
3A + 2B − 5C = 3 [−3 −2 −1] + 2 [−1 2 0 ] − 5 [ 0 1 7]
2 0 4 −3 −2 3 −5 0 9
6 3 0 2 0 0 5 15 25
= [−9 −6 −3] + [−2 4 0] − [ 0 5 35]
6 0 12 −6 −4 6 −25 0 45
(6 + 2 − 5) (3 + 0 − 15) (0 + 0 − 25)
= [(−9 − 2 − 0) (−6 + 4 − 5) (−3 + 0 − 35)]
(6 − 6 + 25) (0 − 4 − 0) (12 + 6 − 45)
3 −12 −25
= [−11 −7 −38]
25 −4 −27
3 −12 −25
∴ 3A + 2B − 5C = [−11 −7 −38]
25 −4 −27

10.4.4 MATRIX-MATRIX MULTIPLICATION

Multiplying a matrix with another matrix has certain characteristics or ‘compatibility requirements’
that need to be noted and fulfilled. Let’s say we want to multiply a matrix A by matrix B. If A is an
m × n matrix and B is a p × q matrix, then we say:

Note 1 A × B is not the same as B × A (i.e., A × B ≠ B × A). In other words, multiplication is not
commutative.
Matrices 365

Note 2 In A × B, we say A pre-multiply B (or it is the first in the sequence) while B is said to
post-multiply A. It is therefore important to know which one comes first.
Note 3 For the operation A × B to be possible, we must have n = p. This means that the number of
columns in matrix A must be equal to the number of rows in matrix B. Alternatively, we
can say that the inner dimensions must be the same for both.
Note 4 Operation A × B will result in a new matrix with a dimension of m × q.
Note 5 If both A × B and B × A are possible, it does not imply that A × B = B × A. In fact, this is
a rare occurrence. Matrices A and B are said to commute if their product is commutative,
i.e., AB = BA.
Note 6 For the operation B × A to be possible, then q = m. In other words, the number of columns
in matrix B must be equal to the number of rows in matrix A. Operation B × A will result in
a new matrix with a dimension p × n.

In summary, order is essential in multiplication. Provided the operation is valid, the following
identities can be used in multiplication:

Identity 1 Associative

A (BC) = (AB) C (10.7)

Identity 2 Distributive

A (B + C) = AB + AC AND (A + B) (C + D) = AC + AD + BC + BD (10.8)

Before we proceed to examples, let’s provide a few generic examples:

1) A compatible row matrix with a column matrix

c
[a b] × [ ] = [ac + bd]
d
d
[a b c] × [e] = [ad + be + cf]
f

2) A compatible row matrix with a square matrix

c d c d
[a b] × [ ] = [[a b] [ ] [a b] [ ]]
e f e f
= [ac + be ad + bf]

d1 d2 d1 d2
[a b c] × [e1 e2 ] = [[a b c] [e1 ] [a b c] [e2 ]]
f1 f2 f1 f2
= [ad1 + be1 + cf1 ad2 + be2 + cf2 ]
366 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

3) A 2 by 2 matrix with another 2 by 2 matrix

p r
⎡[a b] [ ] [a b] [ ]⎤
a b p r ⎢ s t ⎥
[ ]×[ ]=⎢ ⎥
c d s t p r
⎢[c d] [ ] [c d] [ ]⎥
⎣ s t ⎦
ap + bs ar + bt
=[ ]
cp + ds cr + dt

That’s not a straightforward operation, right? It requires more practice than addition and subtraction
for one to get used to it. We will now look at a few examples.

Example 8

Two matrices A and B are given below:

2 1 −4
A=[ ] B= [ ]
3 5 6

a) Determine AB b) Determine BA
c) Given that I is a 2 by 2 matrix, show that AI = IA = A.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) AB
Solution
A is 2 × 2 and B is 2 × 1. Hence, the number of columns in A is equal to the number of rows in B,
so the operation is possible. The resulting matrix will be 2 × 1.
2 1 −4 (2 × −4) + (1 × 6)
AB = [ ]×[ ]=[ ]
3 5 6 (3 × −4) + (5 × 6)
(−8) + (6)
=[ ]
(−12) + (30)
−2
∴ AB = [ ]
18

b) BA
Solution
−4 2 1
BA = [ ] × [ ]
6 3 5
The number of columns in matrix B is not equal to the number of rows in A. Therefore, the operation
BA is not possible.
Matrices 367

c) AI = IA = A
Solution
2 by 2 identity matrix is

1 0
[ ]
0 1

Thus:

2 1 1 0
AI = [ ]×[ ]
3 5 0 1
(2 × 1) + (1 × 0) (2 × 0) + (1 × 1)
=[ ]
(3 × 1) + (5 × 0) (3 × 0) + (5 × 1)
2+0 0+1
=[ ]
3+0 0+5
2 1
=[ ]=A
3 5

Similarly,

1 0 2 1
IA = [ ]×[ ]
0 1 3 5
(1 × 2) + (0 × 3) (1 × 1) + (0 × 5)
=[ ]
(0 × 2) + (1 × 3) (0 × 1) + (1 × 5)
2+0 1+0
=[ ]
0+3 0+5
2 1
=[ ]=A
3 5

Therefore,

AI = IA = A

Another example to try.

Example 9

Matrices A and B are given as:

−3 0 10 −5
A=[ ], B = [ ]
2 −1 0 7
T
show that (AB) = BT AT .
368 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Left-hand side
−3 0 10 −5
AB = [ ][ ]
2 −1 0 7
(−3 × 10 + 0 × 0) (−3 × −5 + 0 × 7)
=[ ]
(2 × 10 + −1 × 0) (2 × −5 + − 1 × 7)
−30 + 0 15 + 0 −30 15
= [ ] =[ ]
20 + 0 −10 − 7 20 −17
T −30 20
∴ (AB) = [ ]
15 −17
Right-hand side
−3 2
AT = [ ]
0 −1
10 0
BT = [ ]
−5 7
10 0 −3 2
BT AT = [ ][ ]
−5 7 0 −1
(10 × −3 + 0 × 0) (10 × 2 + 0 × −1)
=[ ]
(−5 × −3 + 7 × 0) (−5 × 2 + 7 × −1)
−30 + 0 20 + 0 −30 20
= [ ]=[ ]
15 + 0 −10 − 7 15 −17
−30 20
∴ BT AT = [ ]
15 −17
Thus
T
(AB) = BT AT

Another example to try.

Example 10

Two matrices C, 3 × 2, and D, 2 × 3, are:

1 −2
−1 0 2
C = [−3 0 ], D = [ ]
5 3 0
0 4
Determine:

a) CD b) DC
Matrices 369

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) CD
Solution
C is 3 × 2 and D is 2 × 3. Hence the number of columns in C is equal to the number of rows in D, so
the operation is possible. The resulting matrix will be 3 by 3.

1 −2
−1 0 2
CD = [−3 0 ]×[ ]
5 3 0
0 4
{(1 × −1) + (−2 × 5)} {(1 × 0) + (−2 × 3)} {(1 × 2) + (−2 × 0)}
= [{(−3 × −1) + (0 × 5)} {(−3 × 0) + (0 × 3)} {(−3 × 2) + (0 × 0)}]
{(0 × −1) + (4 × 5)} {(0 × 0) + (4 × 3)} {(0 × 2) + (4 × 0)}
{(−1) + (−10)} {(0) + (−6)} {(2) + (0)}
= [ {(3) + (0)} {(0) + (0)} {(−6) + (0)}]
{(0) + (20)} {(0) + (12)} {(0) + (0)}
−11 −6 2
∴ CD = [ 3 0 −6]
20 12 0

b) DC
Solution
The number of columns in matrix D is equal to the number of rows in C. The operation DC is
therefore possible. The resulting matrix will be 2 by 2.

1 −2
−1 0 2
DC = [ ] × [−3 0]
5 3 0
0 4
{(−1 × 1) + (0 × −3) + (2 × 0)} {(−1 × −2) + (0 × 0) + (2 × 4)}
=[ ]
{(5 × 1) + (3 × −3) + (0 × 0)} {(5 × −2) + (3 × 0) + (0 × 4)}
{(−1) + (0) + (0)} {(2) + (0) + (8)}
=[ ]
{(5) + (−9) + (0)} {(−10) + (0) + (0)}
(−1 + 0 + 0) (2 + 0 + 8)
=[ ]
(5 − 9 + 0) (−10 + 0 + 0)
−1 10
∴ DC = [ ]
−4 −10

In this example, both options are possible, but the resulting matrices have different dimensions: 3 by
3 and 2 by 2.
370 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s try another example.

Example 11

Two 2 × 2 matrices, E and F, are given below:

−4 2 1 0
E=[ ] F= [ ]
3 −1 −3 2

Determine:

a) EF b) FE

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

a) EF
Solution
E is 2 × 2 and F is 2 × 2. Hence the number of columns in E is equal to the number of rows in F, so
the operation is possible. The resulting matrix will be 2 × 2.

−4 2 1 0
EF = [ ]×[ ]
3 −1 −3 2
{(−4 × 1) + (2 × −3)} {(−4 × 0) + (2 × 2)}
=[ ]
{(3 × 1) + (−1 × −3)} {(3 × 0) + (−1 × 2)}
{(−4) + (−6)} {(0) + (4)} −4 − 6 0 + 4
=[ ]=[ ]
{(3) + (3)} {(0) + (−2)} 3+3 0−2
−10 4
∴ EF = [ ]
6 −2

b) FE
Solution
The number of columns in matrix F is equal to the number of rows in E. The operation FE is therefore
possible. The resulting matrix will be 2 × 2.

1 0 −4 2
FE = [ ]×[ ]
−3 2 3 −1
{(1 × −4) + (0 × 3)} {(1 × 2) + (0 × −1)}
=[ ]
{(−3 × −4) + (2 × 3)} {(−3 × 2) + (2 × −1)}
{(−4) + (0)} {(2) + (0)} −4 + 0 2+0
=[ ]=[ ]
{(12) + (6)} {(−6) + (−2)} 12 + 6 −6 − 2
−4 2
∴ FE = [ ]
18 −8
Matrices 371

Again, in this example, both options are possible, and the resulting matrices have the same size (2
by 2) but not the same elements, i.e., F × E ≠ E × F.

Example 12

Determine A × B, such that:

3 6 2 2
A = [0 5 1 ] , B = [−1]
7 0 −4 3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

3 6 2 2
A × B = [0 5 1 ] × [−1]
7 0 −4 3
(3 × 2) + (6 × −1) + (2 × 3)
= [ (0 × 2) + (5 × −1) + (1 × 3) ]
(7 × 2) + (0 × −1) + (−4 × 3)
(6) + (−6) + (6)
= [ (0) + (−5) + (3) ]
(14) + (0) + (−12)
6
= [−2]
2
6
∴ A × B = [−2]
2

One final example.

Example 13

Three matrices A, B, and C are such that when A pre-multiply B, the result is C. Determine the value
of elements x and y given that A, B, and C are:

1 2 x −3
A=[ ] B= [ ] C= [ ]
3 −1 y 5
372 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

The matrix equation is

AB = C

But
1 2 x
AB = [ ]×[ ]
3 −1 y
(1 × x) + (2 × y)
=[ ]
(3 × x) + (−1 × y)
x + 2y
=[ ]
3x − y
Therefore
x + 2y −3
[ ]=[ ]
3x − y 5
In this case, the corresponding element must be equal

x + 2y = −3 − − − − − (i)

and

3x − y = 5 − − − − − (ii)

Solving these equations simultaneously, we have

x = 1, y = −2

10.5 DETERMINANT AND ITS PROPERTIES

The determinant of a matrix A, denoted as |A| (or ∆), is a number (scalar) that is calculated using
the elements of A. This can only be computed for a square matrix.
Let’s look at three categories of evaluating determinants.

10.5.1 SINGLE MATRIX (1 BY 1)

The determinant of a single matrix, which can be regarded as a 1 by 1 square matrix, is the same as
its single element. For example, determinants of the following matrices:

A = [−2] , B = [3] , C = [0.6]

are

|A| = −2, |B| = 3, |C| = 0.6

Matrices 373

10.5.2 TWO-BY-TWO MATRIX

The determinant of a 2 by 2 (or second-order) matrix is the product of the two elements on the lead-
ing diagonal minus the product of the two elements on the other diagonal. This is better illustrated
as follows, using matrix A such that:

a a12
A = [ 11 ]
a21 a22

The determinant of A is:

∴ |A| = (a11 × a22 ) − (a12 × a21 )

Let’s look at a few examples.

Example 14

Using the following matrices:

10 20 3 −5 0.5 1.2 j −j
A=[ ], B = [ ], C = [ ], D = [ ],
15 5 7 −6 0.8 2.2 j−x x

⎡3∠ ( 1 𝜋) 1
5∠ (− 𝜋) ⎤
⎢ 2 3 ⎥
E= ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 5
√2∠ (− 𝜋)⎥
1
2∠ ( 𝜋)
⎣ 6 2 ⎦
compute the determinant of:

a) A b) B c) C d) D e) E

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) |A|
Solution
|10 20|
|A| = | |
|15 5|
= (10 × 5) − (20 × 15)
= 50 − 300
∴ |A| = −250
374 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) |B|
Solution
|3 −5|
|B| = | |
|7 −6|
= (3 × −6) − (−5 × 7)
= −18 − (−35)
∴ |B| = 17

c) |C|
Solution
|0.5 1.2|
|C| = | |
|0.8 2.2|
= (0.5 × 2.2) − (1.2 × 0.8)
= 1.1 − 0.96
∴ |C| = 0.14

d) |D|
Solution
| j −j|
|D| = | |
|j − x x|
= (j × x) − (−j) (j − x)
= jx + j (j − x)
= jx + j2 − jx
= j2 = −1
∴ |D| = −1

e) |E|
Solution

|3∠ ( 1 𝜋) 5∠ (− 1 𝜋) |
| 2 3 |
|E| = | |
|2∠ ( 𝜋) √2∠ (− 𝜋)|
5 1
| 6 2 |
1 𝜋 1 5
= (3∠ ( 𝜋)) (√2∠ (− )) − (5∠ (− 𝜋)) (2∠ ( 𝜋))
2 2 3 6
1 1 1 5
= (3 × √2) ∠ ( 𝜋 − 𝜋) − (5 × 2) ∠ (− 𝜋 + 𝜋)
2 2 3 6
1
= (3√2) ∠ (0) − (10) ∠ ( 𝜋)
2
√
= 3 2 − j10
∴ |E| = 3√2 − j10
Matrices 375

10.5.3 THREE-BY-THREE MATRIX

Obtaining the determinant of a 3 by 3 and other higher square matrices is not as straightforward as
that of a 2 by 2. To find the determinant of a 3 by 3, we need to follow these steps. Let’s illustrate
this using matrix A, given as:

a11 a12 a13

A = [a21 a22 a23 ]
a31 a32 a33

Step 1: Starting from the first element in the first row, assign positive (or +1) and then negative (or
−1) and alternate this as you move across the first row. Continue this pattern to row 2 and
then row 3. This is called the place value, and is illustrated below.

+a11 −a12 +a13

A = [−a21 +a22 −a23 ]
+a31 −a32 +a33

Step 2: Choose any row or column as your reference. It is customary to choose the first row. We
will therefore choose row 1.

Step 3: Start with the first (or the very far left) element of the chosen row (i.e., row 1). Cross out all
the elements in the column and row containing the first chosen element, and do the same
for the two other elements in the same column or row. This is illustrated below:

Step 4: Once crossed out, there should be four elements left. This will give a nice 2 by 2 matrix,
which is called the minor of the chosen element.

|a a23 | |a a23 | |a a22 |

|A| = a11 | 22 | − a12 | 21 | + a13 | 21 |
|a32 a33 | |a31 a33 | |a31 a32 |

Step 5: Find the determinant of this matrix. Multiply each element by the place sign/value and com-
pute the determinant of the newly formed 2 by 2 matrices. We have explained how to find
the determinant of a 2 by 2 matrix above.

|A| = a11 (a22 a33 − a23 a32 ) − a12 (a21 a33 − a23 a31 ) + a13 (a21 a32 − a22 a31 )

Step 6: Find the summation of these, which gives the determinant of the 3 by 3 matrix.
376 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We’ve chosen row 1 to illustrate the determinant. Let’s do the same with column 1 and summarise
the steps quickly as:

|a a23 | |a a13 | |a a13 |

|A| = a11 | 22 | − a21 | 12 | + a31 | 12 |
|a32 a33 | |a32 a33 | |a22 a23 |

|A| = a11 (a22 a33 − a23 a32 ) − a21 (a12 a33 − a13 a32 ) + a31 (a12 a23 − a13 a22 )
With 3 by 3’s, it means that there are six possible manipulation options. We have only illustrated two
using the first row and first column. Others are second and third rows, and second and third columns,
and they will be shown in the worked examples.
That’s all about 3 by 3 determinant. Let’s illustrate with examples.

Example 15

A matrix A is given as:

2 −5 3
A = [1 −3 0]
0 4 −7
Find the determinant of A using all the six possible options.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

a) Using the first row

Solution

|−3 0| |1 0| |1 −3|
|A| = 2 | | + 5| | + 3| |
|4 −7| |0 −7| |0 4|
|A| = 2 {(−3 × −7) − (0 × 4)} + 5 {(1 × −7) − (0 × 0)} + 3 {(1 × 4) − (−3 × 0)}
|A| = 2 (21 − 0) + 5 (−7 − 0) + 3 (4 − 0)
|A| = 2 (21) + 5 (−7) + 3 (4)
= 42 − 35 + 12
|A| = 19
Matrices 377

b) Using the first column

Solution

|−3 0| |−5 3| |−5 3|

|A| = 2 | | − 1| | + 0| |
|4 −7| |4 −7| |−3 0|
|A| = 2 {(−3 × −7) − (0 × 4)} − 1 {(−5 × −7) − (3 × 4)} + 0 {(−5 × 0) − (3 × −3)}
|A| = 2 (21 − 0) − 1 (35 − 12) + 0 (0 + 9)
|A| = 2 (21) − 1 (23) + 0 (9)
= 42 − 23 + 0
∴ |A| = 19

c) Using the second row

Solution

|−5 3| |2 3| |2 −5|
|A| = −1 | | − 3| | − 0| |
|4 −7| |0 −7| |0 4|
|A| = −1 {(−5 × −7) − (3 × 4)} − 3 {(2 × −7) − (3 × 0)} − 0 {(2 × 4) − (−5 × 0)}
|A| = −1 (35 − 12) − 3 (−14 − 0) − 0 (8 − 0)
|A| = −1 (23) − 3 (−14) − 0 (8)
= −23 + 42 − 0
∴ |A| = 19

d) Using the second column

Solution

|1 0| |2 3| |2 3|
|A| = 5 | | − 3| | − 4| |
|0 −7| |0 −7| |1 0|
|A| = 5 {(1 × −7) − (0 × 0)} − 3 {(2 × −7) − (3 × 0)} − 4 {(2 × 0) − (3 × 1)}
|A| = 5 (−7 − 0) − 3 (−14 − 0) − 4 (0 − 3)
|A| = 5 (−7) − 3 (−14) − 4 (−3)
= −35 + 42 + 12
∴ |A| = 19
378 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

e) Using the third row

Solution

|−5 3| |2 3| |2 −5|
|A| = 0 | | − 4| | − 7| |
|−3 0| |1 0| |1 −3|
|A| = 0 {(−5 × 0) − (3 × −3)} − 4 {(2 × 0) − (3 × 1)} − 7 {(2 × −3) − (−5 × 1)}
|A| = 0 (0 + 9) − 4 (0 − 3) − 7 (−6 + 5)
|A| = 0 (9) − 4 (−3) − 7 (−1)
= 0 + 12 + 7
∴ |A| = 19

f) Using the third column

Solution

|1 −3| |2 −5| |2 −5|

|A| = 3 | | − 0| | − 7| |
|0 4| |0 4| |1 −3|
|A| = 3 {(1 × 4) − (−3 × 0)} − 0 {(2 × 4) − (−5 × 0)} − 7 {(2 × −3) − (−5 × 1)}
|A| = 3 (4 − 0) − 0 (8 − 0) − 7 (−6 + 5)
|A| = 3 (4) − 0 (8) − 7 (−1)
= 12 − 0 + 7
∴ |A| = 19

10.5.4 DETERMINANTS OF A HIGHER-ORDER MATRIX

For higher-size matrices (i.e., 4 by 4 or higher), it is obvious that the process will be cumbersome,
and this will be better computed using software. However, let’s illustrate this for a 4 by 4 matrix B,
and this is the furthest we can attempt here in this chapter. Given a matrix B as:
b b12 b13 b14
⎡ 11 ⎤
⎢b b22 b23 b24 ⎥
B = ⎢ 21 ⎥
⎢b31 b32 b33 b34 ⎥
⎣b41 b42 b43 b44 ⎦
We will follow the steps highlighted for a 3 by 3 above. Let’s assign place value or sign.
+b −b12 +b13 −b14
⎡ 11 ⎤
⎢−b +b22 −b23 +b24 ⎥
B = ⎢ 21 ⎥
⎢+b31 −b32 +b33 −b34 ⎥
⎣−b41 +b42 −b43 +b44 ⎦
Matrices 379

Notice that the ‘signing’ process looks different. We started the first row with a positive sign, the
second with a negative and the next row with a positive sign, this continues to alternate. Choosing
the first row (step 2), we can show step 3 as:

|b22 b23 b24 | |b21 b23 b24 | |b21 b22 b24 | |b21 b22 b23 |
| | | | | | | |
|B| = b11 |b32 b33 b34 | −b12 |b31 b33 b34 | +b13 |b31 b32 b34 | −b14 |b31 b32 b33 |
| | | | | | | |
|b42 b43 b44 | |b41 b43 b44 | |b41 b42 b44 | |b41 b42 b43 |

It is obvious before applying step 5 that we need to repeat steps 1 to 3 to evaluate the determinant of
the newly formed 3 by 3. This will be a long-winded process, but it’s possible.

10.5.5 PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

To finish this section, it is important to look at the key properties of a determinant, which will allow
us to simplify complex matrix-based problems easily and efficiently. These include:

Property 1 If all the elements in a particular row or column are zeros, then the determinant of the
matrix is zero. For example, the determinants of the following are zero.

5 15 −10 25
0 0 0 0.1 −0.2 0 ⎡ ⎤
0 12 ⎢0 0 0 0⎥
A=[ ] B = [ 11 −15 17] C = [ 1.8 1.5 0] D=⎢ ⎥
0 13
−10 40 20 −0.8 4 0 ⎢−6 12 −8 4 ⎥
⎣ 21 11 9 7⎦

Property 2 Given k to be a real number, if the elements of any row or column are k multiple of cor-
responding elements in another row or column, the determinant will be zero. Matrices
D, E, and F below exhibit that property and therefore have zero determinants.

−2.5 1.5 0.7 2.5

10 −6 18 ⎡ ⎤
−2 3 ⎢ 0.2 0.5 1.2 −0.2⎥
D=[ ] , E = [−14 8 12] , F = ⎢
4 −6 ⎢−0.4 1.4 −0.8 0.4 ⎥
⎥
5 −3 9
⎣−1.4 1.1 0.9 −1.4⎦

● In D, column 2 is −1.5 of column 1, i.e., k = −1.5.

● In E, row 1 is double of row 3.
● In F, column 4 is −1 of column 1.
380 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

An extension to this is that if elements in any row (or column) are related to corresponding elements
in another row (or column), the determinant will be zero. An example:

4 0 8
G=[7 3 11 ]
−5 2 −12

In the above example, matrix G is such that the elements in column 3 are formed by first doubling the
corresponding elements in column 1 and then subtracting the corresponding elements in column 2.

Property 3 If two rows (or columns) are identical, the determinant is zero. Example:

|2 −5 7|
| |
|−6 3 8| = 0
| |
|2 −5 7|

This is a special case of the second property where k = 1.

Property 4 The determinant of a matrix is equal to the determinant of its transpose.

|A| = |AT |

In the example below, |A| = |B| because B is the transpose of A and vice versa.

1 2 3 1 4 7
A = [4 5 6 ] , B = [2 5 8]
7 8 9 3 6 9

It is important to add that the determinant of the product of two matrices, A and B, is equal to the prod-
uct of their individual determinant, provided A and B are square matrices with the same dimension.
In other words,

|AB| = |A| |B| = |B| |A| (10.9)

Property 5 If two rows (or columns) are swap, the sign of the determinant will change from positive
to negative and vice versa. Example:

|1 4 7| |2 5 8| |4 1 7|
| | | | | |
|2 5 8| = − |1 4 7| = − |5 2 8|
| | | | | |
|3 6 9| |3 6 9| |6 3 9|

Property 6 If all the element of a particular row (or column) is multiplied by a factor, the determinant
is multiplied by the same factor. Example:

|−3 12| |−1 4| |−1 12|

| | = 3| | = 3| |
|6 0| | 6 0| |2 0|
Matrices 381

10.6 INVERSE OF A SQUARE MATRIX AND ITS PROPERTIES

The inverse of a matrix A is written as A−1 and pronounced as ‘inverse A’ or ‘inverse of A’ and
not ‘A power −1’ or ‘per A’. In general, when a matrix is pre- or post-multiplied by its inverse, the
product is an identity matrix of the same size. In other words,

−1
AA = A−1 A = I (10.10)

The following identities are also valid:

Identity 1 The transpose of an inverse matrix is equal to the inverse of its transpose.

T −1
(A−1 ) = (AT ) (10.11)

To perform inversion and transposition on a particular matrix, the sequence is not essential, i.e.,
inverse and then transpose or transpose and then inverse the matrix.

Identity 2 The inverse of the product of matrices is equal to the product of the matrices, but in
reverse order.

−1
(ABC) = C−1 B−1 A−1 (10.12)

Identity 3 The determinant of an inverse matrix is equal to the inverse of its determinant.

|A−1 | = |A|−1 (10.13)

Note that inverse matrix can only be determined for square and non-singular matrices; that is,
non-square matrices have no inverses. Here, we will discuss two types, namely 2 × 2 and 3 × 3.

10.6.1 INVERSE OF A 2 × 2 MATRIX

There is a special formula for finding the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix. Let us consider a matrix A, which
is 2 × 2 as:

a b
[ ] (10.14)
c d

The inverse of A, written as A−1 , is given as:

1 d −b
A−1 = [ ] (10.15)
ad − bc −c a
382 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The above shows that to find the inverse of a 2 × 2 matrix, we need the following steps:

Step 1: Interchange the two elements in the leading diagonal.

Step 2: Change the sign of the other elements.
Step 3: Write the new matrix formed by the modification in steps 1 and 2. These two steps can be
remembered as ‘Swap Sign’.
Step 4: Find the determinant of the original matrix.
Step 5: Divide the modified matrix by the determinant of the original matrix.
Step 6: The resulting matrix from step 5 is the inverse of the original 2 × 2 matrix.

Let’s try some examples.

Example 16

Using the following matrices:

1 −3 4 2
A=[ ] B= [ ]
−2 5 6 3

a) Find the inverse of A or A−1 b) Find B−1

T −1
c) Show that A−1 A = AA−1 = I d) Show that (A−1 ) = (AT )

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

a) A−1
Solution
|1 −3|
|A| = | |
|−2 5|
= (1 × 5) − (−3 × −2)
=5−6
∴ |A| = −1

Therefore,

5 3
[ ]
2 1
A−1 =
−1
5 3 −5 −3
∴ A−1 = −[ ]=[ ]
2 1 −2 −1
Matrices 383

b) B−1
Solution
|4 2|
|B| = | |
|6 3|
= (4 × 3) − (2 × 6)
= 12 − 12
∴ |B| = 0

Therefore,

3 −2
[ ]
−6 4
B−1 =
0
= No inverse

A matrix with a zero determinant is called a singular matrix; they do not have an inverse. Obviously,
1
this is because is infinity.
0

c) A−1 A = AA−1 = I
Solution
2 by 2 identity matrix is

1 0
[ ]
0 1

1 −3 −5 −3
AA−1 = [ ]×[ ]
−2 5 −2 −1
(1 × −5) + (−3 × −2) (1 × −3) + (−3 × −1)
=[ ]
(−2 × −5) + (5 × −2) (−2 × −3) + (5 × −1)
−5 + 6 −3 + 3
=[ ]
10 − 10 6 − 5
1 0
=[ ]=I
0 1

Similarly,

−5 −3 1 −3
A−1 A = [ ]×[ ]
−2 −1 −2 5
(−5 × 1) + (−3 × −2) (−5 × −3) + (−3 × 5)
=[ ]
(−2 × 1) + (−1 × −2) (−2 × −3) + (−1 × 5)
−5 + 6 15 − 15
=[ ]
−2 + 2 6−5
1 0
=[ ]=I
0 1
384 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Therefore,

A−1 A = AA−1 = I

T −1
d) (A−1 ) = (AT )
Solution
−5 −3
A−1 = [ ]
−2 −1
T −5 −2
∴ (A−1 ) = [ ]
−3 −1

Also
1 −3
A=[ ]
−2 5
1 −2
AT = [ ]
−3 5
|1 −2|
|AT | = | |
|−3 5|
= (1 × 5) − (−2 × −3) = 5 − 6
= −1

In fact

|AT | = |A| = −1

Therefore
5 2
[ ]
3 1
T −1
(A ) =
−1
5 2 −5 −3
= −[ ]=[ ]
3 1 −2 −1

Hence,
T −1
|A−1 | = |A−T |

10.6.2 INVERSE OF ANY SQUARE MATRIX

Finding the inverse of higher-order matrices is similar to what was done when finding their determi-
nants. We shall illustrate this using a 3 by 3 matrix. To proceed, we need to introduce and define a
few terms using a 3 by 3 matrix A below.

3 −2 1
A=[0 5 4]
−1 7 2
Matrices 385

1) Minor

In matrix A, each element has a minor associated with it. The minor of each element is the deter-
minant of the matrix that can be formed when the row and the column of the chosen element are
crossed out. Remember that this is the element in question. Let’s do this for element a22 , which is 5.

Step 1: Cross out the row and column belonging to a22 = 5.

Step 2: Form a matrix from the left-over and let this be called M.
3 1
∴M=[ ]
−1 2
Step 3: Find the determinant of M.
|M| = (3 × 2) − (1 × −1) = 6 + 1
=7
Step 4: Hence the minor of element a22 is 7.

2) Signed minor

A signed minor, known as a cofactor, is a minor that has been given a place sign value (which is
either positive or negative) or has been multiplied by its place sign. There are two ways to get this:

Option 1 Work out the determinant of matrix A by adding the sign value, starting from the top left
element as shown below. The sign is shown in brackets.
(+)3 (−) − 2 (+)1
A = [ (−)0 (+)5 (−)4]
(+) − 1 (−)7 (+)2

It is obvious that the sign value of a22 = 5 is positive; therefore, its minor remains unchanged as 7
and the cofactor of a22 = 5.
i+j
Option 2 In this case, multiply the minor by the sign value (−1) , where i and j denotes its row
and column number, respectively. Since i = 2 and j = 2 for element 5, thus its signed
minor is
2+2 4
(−1) × 7 = (−1) × 7 = 7

We can conclude that if i + j equals an even number, then the signed minor is the same as minor,
otherwise change the sign of the minor to get the signed minor.

3) Adjoint

It is written as Adj(A) for matrix A, which is obtained by replacing each of the elements in A with
its signed minor (or cofactor), and then transpose the new matrix. The transpose matrix is the adjoint
matrix of A.
386 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Having known the above terms and how to compute them, we can now state the steps for finding the
inverse of any higher-order matrix as follows:

Step 1: Find the determinant of the original matrix.

Step 2: Find the minors of all the elements of the original matrix.
Step 3: Compute their signed minors and replace each by its signed minor.
Step 4: Transpose the signed minors matrix to form the Adjoint matrix.
Step 5: Divide the Adjoint matrix by the determinant (provided it is not singular). The result is the
inverse matrix of the original.

1
A−1 = [Adj (A)] (10.16)
|A|

It is a long process, but let’s try an example.

Example 17

A 3 by 3 matrix is given as:

3 −2 1
A=[0 5 4]
−1 7 2

a) Determine the inverse of matrix A. b) Show that A−1 A = I.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

a) A−1
Solution
Step 1: Find the determinant of A

|5 4| | 0 4| | 0 5|
|A| = 3 | | + 2| | + 1| |
|7 2| |−1 2| |−1 7|
|A| = 3 {(5 × 2) − (4 × 7)} + 2 {(0 × 2) − (4 × −1)} + 1 {(0 × 7) − (5 × −1)}
|A| = 3 (10 − 28) + 2 (0 + 4) + 1 (0 + 5)
|A| = 3 (−18) + 2 (4) + (5) = −54 + 8 + 5
|A| = −41
Step 2: Find the signed minor of each element.
a11 = 3
Matrices 387

i+j |5 4| 1+1
(−1) | | = (−1) {(5 × 2) − (4 × 7)}
|7 2|
2
= (−1) (10 − 28)
= −18

a12 = −2

i+j | 0 4| 1+2
(−1) | | = (−1) {(0 × 2) − (4 × −1)}
|−1 2|
3
= (−1) (0 + 4)
= −4

a13 = 1

i+j | 0 5| 1+3
(−1) | | = (−1) {(0 × 7) − (5 × −1)}
|−1 7|
4
= (−1) (0 + 5)
=5

a21 = 0

i+j |−2 1| 2+1

(−1) | | = (−1) {(−2 × 2) − (1 × 7)}
| 7 2|
3
= (−1) (−4 − 7)
= 11

a22 = 5

i+j | 3 1| 2+2
(−1) | | = (−1) {(3 × 2) − (1 × −1)}
|−1 2|
4
= (−1) (6 + 1)
=7
388 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

a23 = 4

i+j |3 −2| 2+3

(−1) | | = (−1) {(3 × 7) − (−2 × −1)}
|−1 7|
5
= (−1) (21 − 2)
= −19

a31 = −1

i+j |−2 1| 3+1

(−1) | | = (−1) {(−2 × 4) − (1 × 5)}
| 5 4|
4
= (−1) (−8 − 5)
= −13

a32 = 7

i+j |3 1| 3+2
(−1) | | = (−1) {(3 × 4) − (1 × 0)}
|0 4|
5
= (−1) (12 − 0)
= −12

a33 = 2

i+j |3 −2| 3+3

(−1) | | = (−1) {(3 × 5) − (−2 × 0)}
|0 5|
6
= (−1) (15 − 0)
= 15

Step 3: Form the matrix of the signed minors

−18 −4 5
[ 11 7 −19]
−13 −12 15
Matrices 389

Step 4: Transpose the matrix of the signed minors to obtain Adjoint matrix

−18 11 −13
Adjoint = [ −4 7 −12]
5 −19 15

Step 5: Form the inverse matrix by dividing the Adjoint by the determinant

−18 11 −13
1
A−1 = [ −4 7 −12]
−41
5 −19 15
18 −11 13
1
= [4 −7 12 ]
41
−5 19 −15
0.4390 −0.2683 0.3171
= [ 0.0976 −0.1707 0.2927 ]
− 0.1220 0.4634 −0.3659

b) A−1 A = I
Solution
18 −11 13 3 −2 1
1
A−1 A = [4 −7 12 ] × [ 0 5 4]
41
−5 19 −15 −1 7 2
{(54) + (0) + (−13)} {(−36) + (−55) + (91)} {(18) + (−44) + (26)}
1
= [{(12) + (0) + (−12)} {(−8) + (−35) + (84)} {(4) + (−28) + (24)} ]
41
{(−15) + (0) + (15)} {(10) + (95) + (−105)} {(−5) + (76) + (−30)}

41 0 0
1
= [ 0 41 0]
41
0 0 41
41
⎡ 41 0 0⎤
⎢ 41 ⎥
=⎢0 0⎥
⎢ 41 ⎥
⎢ 41 ⎥
0 0
⎣ 41 ⎦

1 0 0
= [0 1 0] = I
0 0 1
∴ A−1 A = I

10.7 SOLVING A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

Substitution and elimination are well known methods of solving simultaneous equations. However,
matrices provide a more robust and versatile approach, especially when the equations involve three or
390 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

more unknown variables. In this section, we will limit ourselves to two and three equations involving
two and three unknown variables, respectively. This can be extended and applied to any number of
equations, provided there are as many equations as there are unknown variables, and the equations
are linear and consistent.

10.7.1 CRAMER’S RULE

This is a useful rule for solving simultaneous equations and we will use it here for two and three
equations, but it is valid for any number of equations.

10.7.1.1 Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns

Let’s say we have two equations as shown below:

a1 x + b1 y = c1 (i)
a2 x + b2 y = c2 (ii)

where a1 and a2 are the coefficients of the first variable, b1 and b2 the coefficients of the second
unknown, and c1 and c2 are the constant terms.
There are a few ways to show this rule; we shall show two options here.

Option 1 Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x and y

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above, i.e. equations (i) and (ii).
Step 2: Form a 2 by 2 matrix of coefficients of the unknown as seen in the equations. Let’s call this
matrix A for ease of reference.
a1 b1
A=[ ]
a2 b2

Step 3: Find the determinant of A, and let’s denote this as ∆. Thus:

|a b1 |
∆=| 1 | = a1 b2 − a2 b1
|a2 b2 |

Step 4: Replace the coefficients of x in A with the constant terms. Find the determinant of this and
let’s denote it as ∆x . Thus:

|c b1 |
∆x = | 1 | = c1 b2 − c2 b1
|c2 b2 |

Step 5: Repeat step 4 for y and let’s denote it as ∆y . Thus:

|a c1 |
∆y = | 1 | = a1 c2 − a2 c1
|a2 c2 |

Step 6: To find the unknown variables x and y, use:

∆x ∆y
x= , y=
∆ ∆
Matrices 391

This is generally known as Cramer’s rule.

Option 2 Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x and y

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above.
Step 2: Form a 2 by 2 matrix using the coefficients of the unknown as seen in the equations. Let’s
call this matrix A for ease of reference.
a1 b1
A=[ ]
a2 b2

Step 3: Find the determinant of A and let’s denote this as ∆. So:

|a b1 |
∆=| 1 | = a1 b2 − a2 b1
|a2 b2 |

Step 4: Cross out the column containing x and form a matrix of the coefficients and constant terms
in the order seen. Find the determinant of this and let’s denote it as ∆x .

a1 x + b1 y = c1 (i)
a2 x + b2 y = c2 (ii)

|b c1 |
∆x = | 1 | = b1 c2 − b2 c1
|b2 c2 |

Step 5: Repeat step 4 for y and let’s denote it as ∆y .

|a c1 |
∆y = | 1 | = a1 c2 − a2 c1
|a2 c2 |

Step 6: To find the unknown variables x and y, use

∆x ∆y
x=− , y=
∆ ∆

Note the negative sign when finding the value of x value. We can combine them as:
x y 1
− = =
∆x ∆y ∆

In another version of this second option, the equations will be arranged as

a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 (i)
a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 (ii)

before proceeding as above, but the result will be

x y 1
=− =
∆x ∆y ∆

Notice the change in the position of the negative sign. So in the first instance of this option, we have
(−, +, +) but in the revised version we have (+, −, +). Take note of the sequence.
392 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s look at an example using Option 1 above.

Example 18

Using Cramer’s rule, solve the simultaneous equations below.

x − 3y = −11 (i)
4x + 2y = 5 (ii)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 18

|1 −3|
∆ =| | = (1 × 2) − (4 × −3) = 2 + 12 = 14
|4 2|
|−11 −3|
∆x = | | = (−11 × 2) − (5 × −3) = −22 + 15 = −7
| 5 2|
|1 −11|
∆y = | | = (1 × 5) − (4 × −11) = 5 + 44 = 49
|4 5 |

Therefore
∆x −7
x= =
∆ 14
∴ x = −0.5

and
∆y 49
y= =
∆ 14
∴ y = 3.5

Another example to try option 2.

Example 19

Solve the simultaneous equations below using Option 2.

2x − 5y − 9 = 0 (i)
3x + 7y + 1 = 0 (ii)
Matrices 393

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 19

Remember to present the equation in the right format first. Re-arrange the equations as this:

2x − 5y = 9 (i)
3x + 7y = −1 (ii)

Thus
|2 −5|
∆ =| | = (2 × 7) − (3 × −5) = 14 + 15 = 29
|3 7|
|−5 9|
∆x = | | = (−5 × −1) − (7 × 9) = 5 − 63 = −58
|7 −1|
|2 9|
∆y = | | = (2 × −1) − (3 × 9) = −2 − 27 = −29
|3 −1|

Therefore
∆x −58
x=− =−
∆ 29
∴x=2

and
∆y −29
y= =
∆ 29
∴ y = −1

10.7.1.2 Simultaneous Equations in Three Unknowns

This is similar to the two equations covered above, except that we have one additional equation. Let’s
consider:

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 (i)
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 (ii)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 (iii)

where a1 , a2 , and a3 are the coefficients of the first variable, b1 , b2 , and b3 the coefficients of the sec-
ond unknown, c1 , c2 , and c3 the coefficients of the third unknown and d1 , d2 , and d3 are the constant
terms.
394 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Option 1 Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x, y, and z.

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above.
Step 2: Form a 3 by 3 matrix using the coefficients of the unknown as seen in the equations. Let’s
call this matrix C for ease of reference.

a1 b1 c1
C = [a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 b3 c3

Step 3: Find the determinant of C and let’s denote this as ∆. Thus:

|a1 b1 c1 |
| | |b c2 | |a c2 | |a b2 |
∆ = |a2 b2 c2 | = a1 | 2 | − b1 | 2 | + c1 | 2 |
| | |b3 c3 | |a3 c3 | |a3 b3 |
|a3 b3 c3 |
= a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − b1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2 ) + c1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )

Step 4: Replace the coefficients of x in C with the constant terms. Find the determinant of this and
let’s denote it as ∆x . Thus:

|d1 b1 c1 |
| | |b c2 | |d c2 | |d b2 |
∆x = |d2 b2 c2 | = d1 | 2 | − b1 | 2 | + c1 | 2 |
| | |b3 c3 | |d3 c3 | |d3 b3 |
|d3 b3 c3 |
= d1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − b1 (d2 c3 − d3 c2 ) + c1 (d2 b3 − d3 b2 )

Step 5: Repeat step 4 for y and let’s denote it as ∆y . Thus:

|a1 d1 c1 |
| | |d c2 | |a c2 | |a d2 |
∆y = |a2 d2 c2 | = a1 | 2 | − d1 | 2 | + c1 | 2 |
| | |d3 c3 | |a3 c3 | |a3 d3 |
|a3 d3 c3 |
= a1 (d2 c3 − d3 c2 ) − d1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2 ) + c1 (a2 d3 − a3 d2 )

Step 6: Repeat step 4 for z and let’s denote it as ∆z .Thus:

|a1 b1 d1 |
| | |b d2 | |a d2 | |a b2 |
∆z = |a2 b2 d2 | = a1 | 2 | − b1 | 2 | + d1 | 2 |
| | |b3 d3 | |a3 d3 | |a3 b3 |
|a3 b3 d3 |
= a1 (b2 d3 − b3 d2 ) − b1 (a2 d3 − a3 d2 ) + d1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )

Step 7: To find the unknown variables x, y, and z, use:

∆x ∆y ∆
x= , y= , z= z
∆ ∆ ∆

Option 2 Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x, y, and z.

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above.
Step 2: Form a 3 by 3 matrix using the coefficients of the unknown as seen in the equations. Let’s
call this matrix C for ease of reference.
Matrices 395

a1 b1 c1
C = [a2 b2 c2 ]
a3 b3 c3

Step 3: Find the determinant of C and let’s denote this as ∆. Thus:

|a1 b1 c1 |
| | |b c2 | |a c2 | |a b2 |
∆ = |a2 b2 c2 | = a1 | 2 | − b1 | 2 | + c1 | 2 |
| | |b3 c3 | |a3 c3 | |a3 b3 |
|a3 b3 c3 |
= a1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 ) − b1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2 ) + c1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )
Step 4: Cross out the column containing x and form a matrix of the coefficients and constant terms
in the order seen. Find the determinant of this and let’s denote it as ∆x .

|b1 c1 d1 |
| | |c d2 | |b d2 | |b c2 |
∆x = |b2 c2 d2 | = b1 | 2 | − c1 | 2 | + d1 | 2 |
| | |c3 d3 | |b3 d3 | |b3 c3 |
|b3 c3 d3 |
= b1 (c2 d3 − c3 d2 ) − c1 (b2 d3 − b3 d2 ) + d1 (b2 c3 − b3 c2 )
Step 5: Repeat step 4 for y and let’s denote it as ∆y .

|a1 c1 d1 |
| | |c d2 | |a d2 | |a c2 |
∆y = |a2 c2 d2 | = a1 | 2 | − c1 | 2 | + d1 | 2 |
| | |c3 d3 | |a3 d3 | |a3 c3 |
|a3 c3 d3 |
= a1 (c2 d3 − c3 d2 ) − c1 (a2 d3 − a3 d2 ) + d1 (a2 c3 − a3 c2 )
Step 6: Repeat step 4 for z and let’s denote it as ∆z .
|a1 b1 d1 |
| | |b d2 | |a d2 | |a b2 |
∆z = |a2 b2 d2 | = a1 | 2 | − b1 | 2 | + d1 | 2 |
| | |b3 d3 | |a3 d3 | |a3 b3 |
|a3 b3 d3 |
= a1 (b2 d3 − b3 d2 ) − b1 (a2 d3 − a3 d2 ) + d1 (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )
Step 7: To find the unknown variables x, y and z, use
∆x ∆y ∆
x= , y=− , z= z
∆ ∆ ∆
Note the negative sign when finding y values. We can combine them as:
x y z 1
=− = =
∆x ∆y ∆z ∆
Again, we can arrange the equations as
a1 x + b1 y + c1 z + d1 = 0 (i)
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z + d2 = 0 (ii)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 = 0 (iii)
396 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

before proceeding as above, but the result will be

x y z 1
=− = =−
∆x ∆y ∆z ∆

Notice the change in the positions of the negative sign.

Let’s look at an example using Option 1 above.

Example 20

Using Cramer’s rule, solve the simultaneous equations below.

7x − 2z = 1 (i)
3x + 5y + z = −4 (ii)
4x + y = 2 (iii)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 20

Re-write the equations as this:

7x + 0y − 2z = 1 (i)
3x + 5y + z = −4 (ii)
4x + y + 0z = 2 (iii)
|7 0 −2|
| | |5 1| |3 1| |3 5|
∆ = |3 5 1 | = 7| | − 0| | − 2| |
| | |1 0| |4 0| |4 1|
|4 1 0|
= 7 (5 × 0 − 1 × 1) − 0 (3 × 0 − 4 × 1) − 2 (3 × 1 − 4 × 5)
= 7 (−1) − 0 (−4) − 2 (−17) = −7 − 0 + 34 = 27
|1 0 −2|
| | |5 1| |−4 1| |−4 5|
∆x = |−4 5 1 | = 1| | − 0| | − 2| |
| | |1 0| | 2 0| | 2 1|
|2 1 0|
= 1 (5 × 0 − 1 × 1) − 0 (−4 × 0 − 2 × 1) − 2 (−4 × 1 − 2 × 5)
= 1 (−1) − 0 (−2) − 2 (−14) = −1 − 0 + 28 = 27
|7 1 −2|
| | |−4 1| |3 1| |3 −4|
∆y = |3 −4 1 | = 7| | − 1| | − 2| |
| | | 2 0| |4 0| |4 2|
|4 2 0|
= 7 (−4 × 0 − 2 × 1) − 1 (3 × 0 − 4 × 1) − 2 (3 × 2 − 4 × −4)
= 7 (−2) − 1 (−4) − 2 (22) = −14 + 4 − 44 = −54
Matrices 397

|7 0 1|
| | |5 −4| |3 −4| |3 5|
∆z = |3 5 −4| = 7 | | − 0| | + 1| |
| | |1 2| |4 2| |4 1|
|4 1 2|
= 7 (5 × 2 − 1 × −4) − 0 (3 × 2 − 4 × −4) + 1 (3 × 1 − 4 × 5)
= 7 (14) − 0 (22) + 1 (−17) = 98 − 0 − 17 = 81

Therefore
∆x 27
x= =
∆ 27
∴x=1
∆y −54
y= =
∆ 27
∴ y = −2

and
∆z 81
z= =
∆ 27
∴z=3

Hence, we have

x = 1, y = −2, z = 3

To round up on this method, one more example using Option 2.

Example 21

Solve the simultaneous equations below using Option 2.

y−x−2=0 (i)
z + 2x + 5 = 0 (ii)
7x + 9y − 3z = 0 (iii)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 21

Re-write the equations as this:

− x + y + 0z = 2 (i)
2x + 0y + z = −5 (ii)
7x + 9y − 3z = 0 (iii)
398 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

|−1 1 0|
| | |0 1| |2 1| |2 0|
∆ =|2 0 1 | = −1 | | − 1| | + 0| |
| | |9 −3| |7 −3| |7 9|
|7 9 −3|
= −1 (0 × −3 − 9 × 1) − 1 (2 × −3 − 7 × 1) + 0 (2 × 9 − 7 × 0)
= −1 (−9) − 1 (−13) + 0 (18) = 9 + 13 + 0 = 22
|1 0 2|
| | |1 −5| |0 −5| |0 1|
∆x = |0 1 −5| = 1 | | − 0| | + 2| |
| | |−3 0| |9 0| |9 −3|
|9 −3 0|
= 1 (1 × 0 − (−3) × −5) − 0 (0 × 0 − 9 × −5) + 2 (0 × −3 − 9 × 1)
= 1 (−15) − 0 (45) + 2 (−9) = −15 − 0 − 18 = −33
|−1 0 2|
| | |1 −5| |2 −5| |2 1|
∆y = | 2 1 −5| = −1 | | − 0| | + 2| |
| | |−3 0| |7 0| |7 −3|
|7 −3 0|
= −1 (1 × 0 − (−3) × −5) − 0 (2 × 0 − 7 × −5) + 2 (2 × −3 − 7 × 1)
= −1 (−15) − 0 (35) + 2 (−13) = 15 − 26 = −11
|−1 1 2|
| | |0 −5| |2 −5| |2 0|
∆z = | 2 0 −5| = −1 | | − 1| | + 2| |
| | |9 0| |7 0| |7 9|
|7 9 0|
= −1 (0 × 0 − 9 × −5) − 1 (2 × 0 − 7 × −5) + 2 (2 × 9 − 7 × 0)
= −1 (45) − 1 (35) − 2 (18) = −45 − 35 + 36 = −44

Therefore
∆x −33
x= =
∆ 22
∴ x = −1.5
∆y −11
y=− =−
∆ 22
∴ y = 0.5

and
∆z −44
z= =
∆ 22
∴ z = −2

Hence, we have

x = −1.5, y = 0.5, z = −2

10.7.2 MATRIX FORM

This method is based on two main principles that we have discussed before, which are:

1) if two matrices are equal, they must be of the same order and their corresponding elements must
be equal, and
Matrices 399

2) when a matrix is pre- or post-multiplied by its inverse, the result is an identity matrix.

The general expression for solving simultaneous equations using matrix form is:

X = A−1 . b (10.17)

where A is the matrix formed from the coefficients of the variables in the equations, X is the matrix
of the unknown and b the matrix of the constant terms, all arranged in a uniform order.
The above expression comes from the fact that if:

A.X = b

we can pre-multiply both sides by A−1 to have

A−1 A .X = A−1 .b

which implies that

I .X = A−1 .b
X = A−1 .b

Because

A−1 A = AA−1 = I

If you ever have to post-multiply both sides, remember that there is a compatibility requirement for
multiplication which will not be satisfied by the RHS. That is to say, b.A−1 may not be possible.
Let’s look at two cases here, but the method can be applied to any set of linear equations.

10.7.2.1 Simultaneous Equations in Two Unknowns

Let’s consider these equations

a1 x + b1 y = c1 (i)
a2 x + b2 y = c2 (ii)

where a1 and a2 are the coefficients of the first variable, b1 and b2 the coefficients of the second
unknown, and c1 and c2 are the constant terms.
Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x and y.

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above.
Step 2: Form a matrix equation as shown below.

a1 b1 x c
[ ] [ ] = [ 1]
a2 b2 y c2
400 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 3: Pre-multiply both sides by the matrix of coefficients.

−1 −1
a b1 a b1 x a b1 c
[ 1 ] .[ 1 ][ ] = [ 1 ] . [ 1]
a2 b2 a2 b2 y a2 b2 c2
−1
x a b1 c
I. [ ] = [ 1 ] . [ 1]
y a2 b2 c2
−1
x a b1 c
[ ]=[ 1 ] . [ 1]
y a2 b2 c2

The first two lines are not needed since we know that it will be a unity matrix.

Step 4: Find the inverse of the matrix of coefficients (we’ve shown this on page 256). Pre-multiply
it with the matrix of constant terms. This should give you a column matrix of 2 by 1.
Step 5: Equate the left- and right-hand sides to obtain x and y.

An example will be useful at this stage; let’s go for it.

Example 22

Using matrices, solve the simultaneous equations below.

3x + 4y − 13 = 0 (i)
6x − 7y + 7 = 0 (ii)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 22

Remember to present the equation in the right format first. Re-arrange the equations as this:

3x + 4y = 13 (i)
6x − 7y = −7 (ii)

Write this in matrix form

3 4 x 13
[ ][ ] = [ ]
6 −7 y −7

Thus
−1
x 3 4 13
[ ]=[ ] [ ]
y 6 −7 −7
Let
3 4
A=[ ]
6 −7
Matrices 401

|3 4|
|A| = | | = (3 × −7) − (6 × 4) = −21 − 24
|6 −7|
= −45
1 −7 −4
A−1 = − [ ]
45 −6 3
Now
−1
3 4 13 1 −7 −4 13
[ ] [ ]=− [ ][ ]
6 −7 −7 45 −6 3 −7
1 (−7 × 13) + (−4 × −7) 1 −91 + 28
=− [ ]=− [ ]
45 (−6 × 13) + (3 × −7) 45 −78 − 21
1 −63 63/45 1.4
=− [ ]=[ ]=[ ]
45 −99 99/45 2.2

Thus
x 1.4
[ ]=[ ]
y 2.2
∴ x = 1.4, y = 2.2

10.7.2.2 Simultaneous Equations in Three Unknowns

Let’s consider these equations:

a1 x + b1 y + c1 z = d1 (i)
a2 x + b2 y + c2 z = d2 (ii)
a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 (iii)

where a1 , a2 , and a3 are the coefficients of the first variable, b1 , b2 , and b3 the coefficients of the sec-
ond unknown, c1 , c2 , and c3 the coefficients of the third unknown and d1 , d2 , and d3 are the constant
terms.
Follow these steps to determine the unknown variables x, y, and z.

Step 1: Ensure that the equations are written in the format above.
Step 2: Form a matrix equation as shown below.

a1 b1 c1 x d1
[a2 b2 c2 ] [y] = [d2 ]
a3 b3 c3 z d3

Step 3: Pre-multiply both sides by the inverse of the matrix of coefficients.

−1 −1
a1 b1 c1 a1 b1 c1 x a1 b1 c1 d1
[a 2 b2 c2 ] . [a2 b2 c2 ] [y] = [a2 b2 c2 ] . [d2 ]
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3 z a3 b3 c3 d3
402 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

−1
x a1 b1 c1 d1
I. [y] = [a2 b2 c2 ] . [d2 ]
z a3 b3 c3 d3
−1
x a1 b1 c1 d1
[y] = [a2 b2 c2 ] . [d2 ]
z a3 b3 c3 d3

Again, the first two lines are not needed since we know that it will be a unity matrix.

Step 4: Find the inverse of the matrix of coefficients (we’ve shown this on page 385). Pre-multiply
it with the matrix of constant terms. This should give you a column matrix of 3 by 1.
Step 5: Equate the left- and right-hand sides to obtain x, y and z.

Again, an example will be useful here; let’s go for it.

Example 23

Using matrices, solve the simultaneous equations below.

x + 2y − z = 0 (i)
3z − 7y + 4x + 1 = 0 (ii)
5x − 3z + 4 = 0 (iii)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 23

Remember to present the equation in the right format first. Re-arrange the equations as this:

x + 2y − z = 0 (i)
4x − 7y + 3z = −1 (ii)
5x + 0y − 3z = −4 (iii)

Write this in matrix form

1 2 −1 x 0
[4 −7 3 ] [y] = [−1 ]
5 0 −3 z −4

Thus
−1
x 1 2 −1 0
[y] = [4 −7 3] [−1 ]
z 5 0 −3 −4
Matrices 403

To find the inverse

1 2 −1
A = [4 −7 3]
5 0 −3
Step 1: Find the determinant of A.

|1 2 −1|
| | |−7 3| |4 3| |4 −7|
|A| = |4 −7 3 | = 1| | − 2| | − 1| |
| | |0 −3| |5 −3| |5 0|
|5 0 −3|
|A| = 1 {(−7 × −3) − (0 × 3)} − 2 {(4 × −3) − (5 × 3)} − 1 {(4 × 0) − (5 × −7)}
|A| = 1 (21 − 0) − 2 (−12 − 15) − 1 (0 + 35)
|A| = 1 (21) − 2 (−27) − 1 (35) = 21 + 54 − 35
|A| = 40

Step 2: Find the signed minor of each element.

● a11 = 1

|1 2 −1|
| |
|4 −7 3|
| |
|5 0 −3|
i+j |−7 3| 1+1
(−1) | | = (−1) {(−7 × −3) − (0 × 3)}
|0 −3|
2
= (−1) (21 − 0)
= 21

● a12 = 2

i+j |4 3| 1+2
(−1) | | = (−1) {(4 × −3) − (5 × 3)}
|5 −3|
3
= (−1) (−12 − 15)
= 27

● a13 = −1

i+j |4 −7| 1+3

(−1) | | = (−1) {(4 × 0) − (5 × −7)}
|5 0|
4
= (−1) (0 + 35)
= 35

● a21 = 4

i+j |2 −1| 2+1

(−1) | | = (−1) {(2 × −3) − (0 × −1)}
|0 −3|
3
= (−1) (−6 − 0)
=6
404 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● a22 = −7

i+j |1 −1| 2+2

(−1) | | = (−1) {(1 × −3) − (5 × −1)}
|5 −3|
4
= (−1) (−3 + 5)
=2

● a23 = 3

i+j |1 2| 2+3
(−1) | | = (−1) {(1 × 0) − (5 × 2)}
|5 0|
5
= (−1) (0 − 10)
= 10

● a31 = 5

i+j |2 −1| 3+1

(−1) | | = (−1) {(2 × 3) − (−7 × −1)}
|−7 3|
4
= (−1) (6 − 7)
= −1

● a32 = 0

i+j |1 −1| 3+2

(−1) | | = (−1) {(1 × 3) − (4 × −1)}
|4 3|
5
= (−1) (3 + 4)
= −7

● a33 = −3

i+j |1 2| 3+3
(−1) | | = (−1) {(1 × −7) − (4 × 2)}
|4 −7|
6
= (−1) (−7 − 8)
= −15

Step 3: Form the matrix of the signed minors

21 27 35
[6 2 10 ]
−1 −7 −15

Step 4: Transpose the matrix of the signed minor to obtain Adjoint matrix

21 6 −1
Adjoint = [27 2 −7 ]
35 10 −15
Matrices 405

Step 5: Form the inverse matrix by dividing the Adjoint by the determinant

21 6 −1
1
A−1 = [27 2 −7 ]
40
35 10 −15
Now
−1
1 2 −1 0 21 6 −1 0
1
[4 −7 3] [−1 ] = [27 2 −7 ] [−1 ]
40
5 0 −3 −4 35 10 −15 −4
(21 × 0) + (6 × −1) + (−1 × −4) 0−6+4
1 1
= [ (27 × 0) + (2 × −1) + (−7 × −4) ] = [ 0 − 2 + 28 ]
40 40
(35 × 0) + (10 × −1) + (−15 × −4) 0 − 10 + 60
−2 −2/40 −0.05
1
= [26 ] = [26/40 ] = [ 0.65 ]
40
50 50/40 1.25

Thus
x −0.05
[y] = [ 0.65 ]
z 1.25

∴ x = −0.05, y = 0.65, z = 1.25

10.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) A matrix (plural: matrices) is defined as an array of numbers (or elements), which con-
sists of rows and columns enclosed in square brackets [] or parentheses ().
2) Each number in a matrix is called an element of the matrix. Therefore, changing the
position of an element changes the entire matrix.
3) A matrix is generally represented by a bold capital letter and its elements with small
letters.
4) An element is completely identified by stating its row followed by its column.
5) A general notation for stating the location of an element in a matrix A as:

aij

where i is the row number and j the column number.

6) Some common types of matrix are:
● Column matrix: This is a matrix with a single (or one) column. The general
dimension is n × 1, where n is the number of rows.
● Row matrix: This is a matrix with a single (or one) row. It is also called a line
matrix and is the inverse of the column matrix. The general dimension is 1 × n,
where n is the number of columns.
406 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● Square matrix: This is a matrix where the number of rows is the same as that of
the columns i.e. n × n matrix.
● Single (element) matrix: This is a matrix of a dimension 1 × 1, i.e., it has one
element, one row, and one column.
● Diagonal matrix: This is a type of square matrix where all elements are zeros,
except the one on the diagonal line, generally called the leading diagonal. The
diagonal consists of all elements with aii , starting with a11 on the top left to aii
on the bottom right.
● Unit (or identity) matrix: This is a diagonal matrix in which the elements along
the diagonal line are ones (1).
● Zero or null matrix: This is a matrix in which all the elements are zeros; it is
denoted by 0.
● Singular matrix: This is a matrix whose determinant is zero.
● Transpose matrix: Transpose of a matrix is formed when the rows have been
converted to respective columns and vice versa (i.e., rows and columns are inter-
changed).
7) Two or more matrices are said to be equal if:
● they have the same order, and
● all their corresponding elements are equal.
8) Given a matrix A with a dimension of m × n, the transpose of this is another matrix B
with a dimension of n × m. As matrix B is connected to A, it is written as:

B = AT OR B = A′ OR B = Ã

It can be shown that:

T
(A + B) = AT + BT
T
(AB) = BT AT

9) If a square matrix is equal to its transpose, the matrix is symmetric.

OR aij = aji
T
A=A

10) If a square matrix is equal to its transpose multiplied by k = −1, the matrix is said to
be or called skew-symmetric.

OR aij = −aji
T
A = −A

11) Addition of two or more matrices is carried out by adding their corresponding elements,
provided that their dimensions are the same, otherwise the operation is impossible. Sub-
traction of one matrix from another is carried out in a similar way.
12) Addition is both commutative and associative (i.e., the order of the operation is
irrelevant).

A + B = B + A AND (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)
Matrices 407

13) When a matrix is multiplied by a scalar, each element is multiplied by this scalar factor.
14) Multiplication of a matrix by another matrix has certain ‘compatibility requirements’
that need to be noted and fulfilled.
15) A × B is not the same as B × A (i.e., A × B ≠ B × A). In other words, multiplication is
not commutative.
16) The determinant of a matrix A, denoted as |A|, is a number (scalar) that is calculated
using the elements of A. This can only be computed for a square matrix.
17) The determinant of a 2 by 2 (or second-order) matrix is the product of the two elements
on the leading diagonal minus the product of the two elements on the other diagonal.
18) The inverse of a 2 by 2 matrix A, written as A−1 , is given by:

1 d −b
A−1 = [ ]
ad − bc −c a

where A is

a b
[ ]
c d

19) The inverse of a matrix A, denoted as A−1 , is given by:

1
A−1 = [Adj (A)]
|A|

20) The general expression for solving simultaneous equations using matrix form is:

X = A−1 .b

****

10.9 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 11 Vectors
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Discuss scalar and vector quantities

● Represent vector quantities using different notations
● Carry out basic operations involving vectors
● Explain the unit vectors in x-, y-, and z-directions
● Use Cartesian coordinates in two and three dimensions
● Use scalar and dot products of two vectors
● Understand the equation of a line in vector form
● Use vector analysis and techniques to solve problems in geometry
● Use vector equations to determine the intersection and angle
between two lines

11.1 INTRODUCTION
Physical quantities are part of our daily activities. They include height, weight, time, speed, amount
of substance, pressure, volume, and power among others. These quantities can be grouped using dif-
ferent criteria, and one such classification will be considered here in this chapter, as we discuss the
meaning of a vector, its types, operations, and some applications.

11.2 SCALAR AND VECTOR

Physical quantities (simply referred to as quantities) can be divided into scalar and vector quanti-
ties. Scalar is any quantity that is completely identified or described by its magnitude (also known
as amount or size) and associated units only. Examples include time, speed, height, temperature,
pressure, power, money, and population. For these quantities, the knowledge about their size gives
a full ‘picture’ of what the quantity means and their (potential) effect. Every physical quantity has
this feature.
On the other hand, a vector quantity (or simply a vector) is a quantity which is completely identified
by both its magnitude and direction (and associated units). Examples include velocity, displacement,
force, electric current, stress, and momentum. We can say that velocity is speed in a particular direc-
tion and displacement is distance in a specific direction. Describing a scalar quantity with direction
makes no sense; for example, a temperature of 2 degrees Celsius ‘acting east’ is not palatable to hear.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-11 408
Vectors 409

This classification is essential because adding and subtracting a scalar quantity follows the arithmetic
principles that we all know, but the same is not true for a vector quantity. For example, if we have
time t1 = 2s and t2 = 2s, adding these will give 4s and subtracting one from the other equals 0 and
nothing else. On the other hand, if we have forces F1 = 2N and F2 = 2N, adding these two forces
will give a value between −4N and 4N (or 0N and 4N if we strictly mean addition). The precise
answer depends on the exact direction of each of the two forces. How to determine this is what we
are set to delve into.

11.3 FREE VECTOR

For analytical purposes, vectors are considered as free and referred to as ‘free vectors’. This implies
that they can be anywhere such that the point of application is irrelevant. A vector applied at a point
on a table in Figure 11.1 can be diagrammatically represented as though it is applied at a different
point on the same table, provided that the direction remains unchanged.
Furthermore, a vector applied at one edge of a rectangle, say AB, is the same or can be considered
as though is applied at the other edge (CD) of the same rectangle, as illustrated in Figure 11.2.

FIGURE 11.1 Free vector illustrated (I).

FIGURE 11.2 Free vector illustrated (II).

410 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 11.3 Vector representation.

11.4 VECTOR NOTATION

The common notations used for a vector include:

a This is a lowercase bold letter used to differentiate a vector from a scalar.

a This is a lowercase letter with an underlined bar (or sometimes an underlined wavy bar
is used).
a This is a lowercase letter with an overbar.
⃗
AB This is a 2-letter notation with an arrow pointing in the direction of the vector, starting
from the point of application.
AB This is a 2-letter notation starting from the point of application (or sometimes the bar is
below AB).

The first notation is primarily used in print, but others are used both in print and in writing.
Graphically, a vector is represented by a line. The length, based on a chosen scale, denotes the mag-
nitude and the direction is indicated by an arrowhead, which is generally placed at the end of the line
or middle, as shown in Figure 11.3.

11.5 COLLINEARITY
Three or more points are said to be collinear if they all lie on the same straight line. It can be shown
⃗ BC,
that if vectors AB, ⃗ C⃗D, etc., are parallel, then points A, B, C, D, etc., are collinear.

11.6 ZERO VECTOR

A Zero vector (also called a Null vector) is a vector whose magnitude is zero. For example, given
two electric currents I1 = 2 mA and I2 = 2 mA that are flowing along the same branch of a circuit,
subtracting I2 from I1 gives a zero vector of 0 mA, because the magnitude is zero. This simply means
that there is no current flow in the circuit. We can therefore say that a Zero vector is a representation
of the absence of a vector.

11.7 NEGATIVE VECTOR

The negation of a vector is a way of emphasising the direction feature of a vector. Given a vector
a, the negative vector of this is a vector that has the same magnitude as a but points in an opposite
direction (i.e., 180° or say anti-phase). We indicate this with a sign change (ideally negative) or by
flipping the direction of the arrow (Figure 11.4). In this case, the negative of a is given as −a.
Vectors 411

B
B

A
A

FIGURE 11.4 Negative vector illustrated.

Unlike in scalar arithmetic, a negative vector does not imply deficiency. In other words, a vector a
can represent that which starts from the origin and points eastward while its negative −a is the one
pointing westward, also starting from the same origin. The reverse is also valid and possible.
Additionally, if the result of vector addition is negative (or a negative vector), it simply implies that
it is a vector that acts in an opposite direction. For example, if a resultant force is obtained to be
F = −5N when we have taken North as a positive reference, then this means that the resultant is 5N
pointing southward. In this context, we can write that AB ⃗ + BA ⃗ = 0. This is because both have the
same magnitude but different directions.

11.8 EQUALITY OF VECTORS

Two or more vectors are said to be equal if they all have the same magnitude and direction. If the lines
in Figure 11.5 are equal and parallel, then the three vectors they represent are equal, i.e., a = b = c
⃗ = YB
or XA ⃗ = ZC.⃗

For non-zero, non-parallel vectors a and b, if 𝛼a + 𝛽b = 𝜆a + 𝜇b then 𝛼 = 𝜆 and 𝛽 = 𝜇. This is

because:
𝛼a + 𝛽b = 𝜆a + 𝜇b
which implies that
𝛼a − 𝜆a = 𝜇b − 𝛽b
(𝛼 − 𝜆) a = (𝜇 − 𝛽) b
It follows that if a and b are not parallel and non-zero, then their coefficients must be zero for the
equality to be valid. We thus have:

𝛼−𝜆=0∴𝛼=𝜆 and 𝜇−𝛽 =0∴𝜇=𝛽

A
B
C

Y
Z

FIGURE 11.5 Equality of vectors illustrated.

412 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Therefore

𝛼=𝜆 𝜇=𝛽

If two vectors a and b are parallel, one can be written in terms of the other as:

a = 𝜇b OR b = 𝜆a (11.1)

where 𝜆 and 𝜇 are non-zero scalars.

Let’s illustrate the equality of vectors with an example.

Example 1

5u + (2x − 3y) v = (2x + y) u − 3v such that u and v are non-zero, non-parallel vectors. Calculate
the values of the scalars x and y.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Given that

5u + (2x − 3y) v = (2x + y) u − 3v

We will equate the coefficient of vector u on the LHS with that on the RHS. The same will be applied
to vector v. Therefore, we have:

2x + y = 5 − − − − (i)
2x − 3y = −3 − − − − (ii)

equation (i) – equation (ii), we have

4y = 8
8
y= =2
4
Substitute the value of y in equation (i), we have

2x + 2 = 5
2x = 5 − 2
2x = 3
3
x=
2
∴ x = 1.5, y=2
Vectors 413

11.9 UNIT VECTOR

A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity, that is, equal to 1. For example, given two forces
F1 = 3 N and F2 = 2 N, if these forces act on the same line, subtracting F2 from F1 gives a unity
vector of 1 N because the magnitude is unity. It will still be unity if the operation gives −1 N (i.e.,
when we reverse the subtrahend).
Follow these steps to find a unit vector in a particular direction.

Step 1: If not already given, determine the vector that acts in the stated direction. Let’s say the vector
is a.
Step 2: Determine the modulus of vector a, which is |a|.
Step 3: Divide vector a by its modulus |a|. The resulting vector, denoted as a,̂ is a unit vector in the
direction of a.

In general, a unit vector in the direction of a, written as ‘hat’ a, is given as:

a
â = (11.2)
|a|

11.10 CARTESIAN REPRESENTATION OF VECTORS

We have standard unit vectors parallel to (or in the positive direction of) x, y, and z axes. These
vectors are at right angles to each other, commonly described as mutually perpendicular, and are
denoted by ı,̂ ȷ,̂ and k,̂ respectively, though the ‘hat’ is often omitted for these special unit vectors.
For example, a vector of 3ı ̂ is a vector that is 3 units in length in the positive x-axis while −5ȷ ̂ is a
vector that is 5 units in length in the negative y-axis. Similarly, 7k̂ is a vector that is 7 units in length
in the positive z-axis.
Consider a vector r, which is entirely in 2D plane surface (Figure 11.6), the vector can be defined in
terms of unit vectors as:

r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂

If vector r lies in space, then it is completely defined as:

r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂ (11.3)

FIGURE 11.6 Cartesian representation of vectors illustrated.

414 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The column vector or matrix equivalents are:

x
x
r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ = ( ) AND r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂ = (y) (11.4)
y
z

where x, y, and z are numerical values representing the magnitude of r in each direction.
Note that a vector that lies entirely on the x-axis, y-axis, or z-axis can be represented as:

x 0 0
(0) , (y) , (0) (11.5)
0 0 z

As we will need this here too, remember that the coordinates of a point in two and three dimensions
are, respectively, specified as:

(x, y) AND (x, y, z) (11.6)

11.11 MAGNITUDE OF A VECTOR

The magnitude of a vector (also known as modulus) is denoted using double vertical lines ||, and it
represents the size of a vector when the direction is not considered. Using the various notations for
a vector (see page 410), the magnitude of a vector can thus be represented as: |a|, |a|, |a⃗|, and ||AB
⃗ ||.

A vector and its negative have the same magnitude as:

|a| = |−a| (11.7)

This is the same as taking the absolute value of numbers; for example, |5| = |−5| = 5. And
|5 mA| = |−5 mA| = 5 mA. In other words, magnitude is always a positive scalar.
Follow these steps to find the modulus of a vector

Step 1: Square the values of x, y, and z (i.e. the coefficients of i, j, and k).
Step 2: Add the squares of x, y, and z, i.e., x2 + y2 + z2 .
Step 3: Take the square root of the answer in step 2.

In general, the magnitude is given by:

|r| = |xı ̂ + yȷ|̂ = √x2 + y2 AND |r| = ||xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂|| = √x2 + y2 + z2 (11.8)

Using Pythagoras’ theorem will give us the magnitude in a two-dimension expression, and using the
theorem twice will give us the three-dimension expression.
We’ve now covered important facts about vectors; let’s try some examples.
Vectors 415

FIGURE 11.7 Example 2.

Example 2

⃗ and OB,
a and b are vectors given by OA ⃗ as shown in the x–y plane (Figure 11.7). Write a and b in
Cartesian and matrix (or column) forms.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

a = 4ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂
4
=( )
3
b = 3ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂
3
=( )
−2
416 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Example 3

Determine the exact magnitude of the following vectors:

√21
a) a = ı ̂ − √3ȷ ̂ b) b = 3 (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 3k)̂ c) c = ( )
−2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

a) a = ı ̂ − √3ȷ ̂
Solution
2
|ı ̂ − √3ȷ|̂ = (1)2 + (−√3)
| | √
= √1 + 3
= √4
∴a=2

b) b = 3 (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 3k)̂
Solution

||3 (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 3k)̂ || = 3 ||2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 3k̂||

2 2 2
= 3 (√(2) + (−6) + (−3) )

= 3 (√4 + 36 + 9)

= 3√49
∴ b = 21
Vectors 417

√21
c) c = ( )
−2
Solution

| √21 | 2
2
|( )| = √(√21) + (−2)
| −2 |
= √21 + 4
= √25
∴c=5

Example 4

Determine a unit vector in the direction of the following vectors:

a) p = 3ı ̂ − 4ȷ ̂
b) q = 2ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 5k̂

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

a) p = 3ı ̂ − 4ȷ ̂
Solution

2 2
|p| = √(3) + (−4)
= √9 + 16 = 5

p
p̂ =
|p|
3i ̂ − 4j ̂
=
5
1
= (3i ̂ − 4j)̂
5
3 4
∴ p̂ = ı ̂ − ȷ ̂
5 5
418 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) q = 2ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 5k̂
Solution

2 2 2
|q| = √(2) + (−3) + (5)
= √4 + 9 + 25
= √38
q
q̂ =
|q|
2ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 5k̂
=
√38
1
= (2ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 5k)̂
√38
2 3 5
∴ q̂ = ı̂ − ȷ̂ + k̂
√38 √38 √38

11.12 POSITION VECTORS

Position vectors are used to specify the position of a point relative to a fixed reference, in two or
three dimensions. If point O in Figure 11.8 is chosen as the reference point or origin, then OA⃗ is the
⃗
position vector of point A relative to O and OB is the position vector of B relative to the same point.
Since the reference is known and common to all, the above position vectors are written as a and b,
respectively. This is because it is customary to name a position vector with the finish point since the
origin is common to all. In Cartesian notation, the origin is (0, 0) for 2D and (0, 0, 0) for 3D.
⃗ in Figure 11.8 is the position vector of B relative to A, and can be written in terms of a
Vector AB
and b using the triangle law as:

⃗ = AO
AB ⃗ + OB ⃗ + OB
⃗ = (−OA) ⃗

which implies that

⃗ = −a + b = b − a
AB

⃗ is the difference of the two position vectors.

In other words, AB

A B

FIGURE 11.8 Position vectors illustrated.

Vectors 419

Let’s try some examples.

Example 5

The position vector of a point P relative to the origin O is −ı− ̂ k.̂ Determine the distance between
̂ ȷ−3
point P and the origin. Present your answer correct to 1 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Hint

Distance here is the length from the origin to point P, i.e. the magnitude of length OP.

||−ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ − 3k̂|| = √(−1)2 + (−1)2 + (−3)2

= √1 + 1 + 9 = √11
= 3.3

Example 6

a and b are position vectors of points A and B with respect to the origin O, as shown on the x–y plane
below (Figure 11.9).

FIGURE 11.9 Example 6.

420 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

⃗ in Cartesian form.
a) Determine vector AB
⃗ in matrix (or column) form.
b) Determine vector BA

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

⃗
a) Vector AB
Solution

⃗ = OB
AB ⃗ =b−a
⃗ − OA
= (3ı ̂ − 2ȷ)̂ − (4ı ̂ + 3ȷ)̂
= −ı ̂ − 5ȷ ̂

⃗
b) Vector BA
Solution

⃗ = OA
BA ⃗ − OB
⃗ =a−b
4 3
=( )−( )
3 −2
1
=( )
5

Note

⃗ = AB
BA ⃗ = − (−i − 5j) = (i + 5j)

Example 7

Points A and B have coordinates (1, −3, 2) and (2, 4, −3), respectively, with respect to the origin O.
Find the following vectors in Cartesian and column matrix notation:
⃗
a) OA
⃗
b) OB
⃗
c) AB
Vectors 421

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

In this example, what we need is the coordinate (x, y, z), and this should be translated to a vector
x
equivalent in matrix form as (y) or Cartesian form as xi + yj + zk.
z

⃗
a) OA
Solution

⃗ = ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 2k̂
OA
1
⃗ = (−3)
∴ OA
2

⃗
b) OB
Solution

⃗ = 2ı ̂ + 4ȷ ̂ − 3k̂
OB
2
⃗
∴ OB = ( 4 )
−3

⃗
c) AB
Solution

Method 1 Cartesian form Method 2 Matrix form

⃗ = OB
AB ⃗ − OA⃗
2 1
⃗ = OB
AB ⃗ − OA ⃗ = ( 4 ) − (−3)
= (2ı ̂ + 4ȷ ̂ − 3k)̂ − (ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 2k)̂ −3 2
⃗ = ı ̂ + 7ȷ ̂ − 5k̂
∴ AB 1
⃗ =(7)
∴ AB
−5

11.13 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

Vectors can be added and subtracted either analytically or by graphical method. Here, we will con-
sider addition and subtraction of two vectors, but the principles can be used for any number of
vectors.
422 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

11.13.1 ADDITION OF VECTORS

In Figure 11.10, there are two vectors: a = AB⃗ and b = BC. ⃗ These are called components. If we
⃗
are to add these vectors together, we will have a + b = AC. Vector AC ⃗ is called the resultant of
⃗
vectors a and b. Notice that we use double arrows for resultant AC. This is conventional, and it helps
to differentiate it from component vectors.
Hence, we can write

⃗ = AB
AC ⃗
⃗ + BC (11.9)

⃗ = c, we can also write

If AC

c=a+b (11.10)

The above is called the ‘triangle law’ of vector addition. This law can be used repeatedly to find the
resultant of any number of vectors in a polygon, for example.
Generally, a resultant is the shortest distance between the start and end point. The arrow of the com-
ponents is such that the head of one will be followed by the tail of the next component in the same
direction. The direction of the resultant is always to counterbalance the components. For example,
if components follow a clockwise direction, the resultant will be anti-clockwise and vice versa, and
this applies to any number of vectors.
In adding vectors, there are two laws that need to be considered and applied, namely:

1) Commutative Law

The law states that:

a+b=b+a

In other words, the order of adding two vectors is irrelevant.

This can be proved using a rectangle, square, parallelogram, or rhombus as shown in Figure 11.11.
The diagram for parallelogram (bottom right) is also called parallelogram law.

FIGURE 11.10 Addition of vectors illustrated.

Vectors 423

FIGURE 11.11 Commutative law of vectors illustrated.

FIGURE 11.12 Associative law of vectors illustrated.

2) Associative Law

⃗ BC,
Let’s consider a trapezium ABCD (Figure 11.12) with AB, ⃗ and C
⃗D being the components while
⃗
AD the resultant.
To find the resultant, we use the triangle law twice. First, we take the triangle ABC and obtain a
⃗ = AB
resultant AC ⃗ + BC⃗ = a + b. Now using triangle ACD, AD ⃗ = AC ⃗ +C ⃗ ⃗ + BC)
D = (AB ⃗ +C ⃗ D.
⃗
Thus, the resultant AD is

⃗ = (a + b) + c
AD

For the above case, we could have used triangle BCD and then ABD. This will result in

⃗ = a + (b + c)
AD

Thus

(a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

The above is known as the Associative Law of vector addition, which shows that the order of adding
three vectors is irrelevant.

11.13.2 SUBTRACTION OF VECTORS

In Figure 11.13(a), we have two vectors added together to obtain AC⃗ = a + b as before. Recall that a
negative vector is when the direction is rotated 180 degrees, but the magnitude remains unchanged.
Let’s create a negative vector of b by rotation to produce −b as shown in Figure 11.13(b). Our
⃗ = AB
resultant is now AC ⃗ + BC⃗ = a + (−b) = a − b.
424 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

C C

B a b B

A A

FIGURE 11.13 Subtraction of vectors illustrated.

We can therefore say that subtraction of vector b from vector a is the same as (or equivalent to)
addition of a and negative b. It should be further noted that when going against the direction of the
arrowhead on a vector, it means subtraction of that vector.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 8

Three vectors on a plane are given as a = 2ı ̂ + 3ȷ,̂ b = ı ̂ − 2ȷ,̂ and c = −6ı ̂ + ȷ.̂

a) Write vectors a, b, and c in column (or matrix) form.

b) Determine a − 3b + c.
c) Determine the magnitude of a − 3b + c.
d) Determine a unit vector in the direction of the vector in (b).

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) Column form
Solution

a = 2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ b = ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ c = −6ı ̂ + ȷ ̂
2 1 −6
=( ) =( ) =( )
3 −2 1
Vectors 425

b) a − 3b + c
Solution

2 1 −6
a − 3b + c = ( ) − 3 ( ) + ( )
3 −2 1
2 3 −6
=( )−( )+( )
3 −6 1
2−3−6
=( )
3+6+1
−7
∴ a − 3b + c = ( )
10

c) Magnitude
Solution

2 2
|a − 3b + c| = √(−7) + (10)
= √49 + 100
= √149

d) Unit vector
Solution
Let this be d̂
a − 3b + c
d̂ =
|a − 3b + c|
−7ı ̂ + 10ȷ ̂
=
√149

This can also be written as

1
d̂ = − (7ı ̂ − 10ȷ)̂
√149

Let’s try another example.

Example 9

if a = 𝛼ı ̂ + 2ȷ ̂ + 4k̂ and b = 4ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 3k.̂ Determine the possible values of 𝛼 such that |a + 2b| = 15.
426 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Given that

|a + 2b| = 15

We have
𝛼 4
a + 2b = ( 2 ) + 2 (−6)
4 −3
𝛼 8
= ( 2 ) + (−12)
4 −6
𝛼+8
= ( −10 )
−2
Now let’s find the modulus of the above vector as:
2 2 2
|a + 2b| = √(𝛼 + 8) + (−10) + (−2) = 15
2
√(𝛼 + 8) + 104 = 15
2
(𝛼 + 8) + 104 = 225
2
(𝛼 + 8) = 121
𝛼 + 8 = ±11
𝛼 = −8 ± 11

Thus

𝛼 = −8 + 11 OR 𝛼 = −8 − 11
𝛼=3 𝛼 = −19
∴ 𝜶 = 3 or − 19

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

2
(𝛼 + 8) = 121
𝛼2 + 16𝛼 + 64 = 121
𝛼2 + 16𝛼 − 57 = 0
(𝛼 − 3) (𝛼 + 19) = 0
∴ 𝜶 = 3 or − 19
Vectors 427

FIGURE 11.14 Example 10.

Another example to try.

Example 10

The diagram shown in Figure 11.14 shows three free vectors a, b, and c. Using a graphical method,
find the resultant of these vectors.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

If the resultant is denoted by r, then (Figure 11.15)

r=a+b+c

Note
This is only one option in many possible diagrams that can be formed using the vectors.

Another example to try.

Example 11

Calculate the resultant of the polygon vector shown in Figure 11.16.

FIGURE 11.15 Solution to Example 10.

428 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

C B

A
D

FIGURE 11.16 Example 11.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

⃗ + BC
AB ⃗ +C
⃗ ⃗
⃗ = AE
D + DE

Thus

a + b + c + d = −e

This implies that

a+b+c+d+e=0

Note
Because the figure is closed and all the vectors follow the same direction, the resultant is zero.

A final example to try.

Example 12

Calculate the magnitude of the resultant of vectors u = −2ı ̂ + 5ȷ,̂ v = 7ı ̂ − ȷ,̂ and w = ı ̂ + 2ȷ.̂

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

u + v + w = (−2ı ̂ + 5ȷ)̂ + (7ı ̂ − ȷ)̂ + (ı ̂ + 2ȷ)̂

= 6ı ̂ + 6ȷ ̂
|u + v + w| = √62 + 62
= 6√2
Vectors 429

FIGURE 11.17 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar illustrated.

11.14 MULTIPLICATION
11.14.1 MULTIPLICATION BY A SCALAR
A vector can be multiplied by a scalar (or number). When a non-zero scalar k is used to multiply a
vector b, the new vector will be kb and will have a magnitude equal to k |b| as shown in Figure 11.17.
The two vectors will be parallel to each other but with different sizes. If k is positive, kb will be in
the same direction as b but if k is negative, kb will act in the opposite direction.
In other words, in the first case, we simply multiply a vector by a number. The second is when a
vector multiplies another similar vector, and this is divided into two sub-divisions.

● kb is obtained from b by multiplying the latter by k where k > 1.

● −kb is obtained from kb by inversion, i.e. multiplying with k = −1.

If k > 1 the size of the vector will be bigger, but if 0 < k < 1 the magnitude of the resulting vector
will be smaller than the original vector. In general, we can say that if vectors are scalar multiples of
each other then they are parallel and vice versa.
Let’s try an example.

Example 13

Show whether 2a + 6b and 3a + 9b are parallel or not.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

2a + 6b and 3a + 9b

2a + 6b = 2 (a + 3b)

Also

3a + 9b = 3 (a + 3b)
430 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Therefore
2
2a + 6b = (3a + 9b )
3
OR
3
3a + 9b = (2a + 6b )
2
Therefore, the two vectors are

Parallel

11.14.2 SCALAR (OR DOT) PRODUCT

Given two vectors a and b, their scalar product (also called dot product) is denoted as a.b and is
expressed as:

a.b = |a| |b| cos 𝜽 (11.11)

𝜃 is the acute or obtuse angle between the two vectors when they are both pointing away from the
origin or reference point, such that 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 180°. In other words, when the tails of the two vectors
meet at the origin.
a.b is read as ‘a dot b’ or ‘a scalar b’. It is a ‘dot’ product because of the presence of the dot (and this
must not be omitted) and it is ‘scalar’ because the result you obtain is always a scalar. This is true
for vectors in two dimensions as well as three dimensions (Figure 11.18).
Since it is valid to write |a| |b| cos 𝜽 as |b| |a| cos 𝜽, it follows that if |a| |b| cos 𝜽 = a.b then
|b| |a| cos 𝜽 = b.a. Consequently, a.b = b.a, which implies that the dot product of two vectors is
commutative. By re-arranging the formula above, we can determine the angle 𝜃 between two known
vectors as:

a.b
cos 𝜽 = (11.12)
|a| |b|

Following from Equation 11.11, there are two conditions of interest.

A A
b
a
O B B O

B
O

FIGURE 11.18 Dot product of vectors illustrated.

Vectors 431

Condition 1 Vectors are perpendicular

This is when 𝜽 = 90°. Since cos 90° = 0 we have

a.b = |a| |b| cos 𝜽

= |a| |b| × 0 (11.13)
=0

In other words, the scalar product of two perpendicular (or orthogonal, as sometimes called) vectors
is zero. It is also true that either |a|, |b|, or both are zero. One of the consequences of this is:

ı.̂ ȷ ̂ = ȷ.̂ ı ̂ = |ı|̂ |ȷ|̂ × 0 = 0 ı.̂ k̂ = k.̂ ı ̂ = |ı|̂ ||k̂|| × 0 = 0 ȷ.̂ k̂ = k.̂ ȷ ̂ = |ȷ|̂ |k| × 0 = 0 (11.14)

Condition 2 Vectors are parallel

This is when

● 𝜽 = 0 (or when the vectors point in the same direction), and

● 𝜽 = 180° (or when the vectors point in opposite directions).

Since cos 0° = 1 and cos 180° = −1, we have

a.b = |a| |b| for 𝜽 = 0 a.b = − |a| |b| for 𝜽 = 180° (11.15)

In other words, the scalar product of two parallel vectors is equal to the product of their magnitude.
It is interesting that we are able to find the scalar product of parallel lines when they do not even
intersect. This is because we are able to associate an angle to this. A particular case is when the
2
vectors are parallel and equal, then we have |a| |a| cos 𝜽 = |a| |a| × 1 = |a| . Consequently, we have

2 2
ı.̂ ı ̂ = |ı|̂ |ı|̂ × 1 = |ı|̂ = 1 ȷ.̂ ȷ ̂ = ȷ.̂ ȷ ̂ = |ȷ|̂ |ȷ|̂ × 1 = |ȷ|̂ = 1
2
k.̂ k̂ = k.̂ k̂ = ||k̂|| |k| × 1 = ||k̂|| = 1 (11.16)

We can use the above facts to derive a general formula for scalar products of two vectors, which can
be used when the angle between them is unknown.

● Two-Dimensional Vectors

Let a = a1 ı ̂ + a2 ȷ ̂ and b = b1 ı ̂ + b2 ȷ,̂ then

a.b = (a1 ı ̂ + a2 ȷ ̂ ) (b1 ı ̂ + b2 ȷ)̂

= (a1 ı)̂ . (b1 ı)̂ + (a1 ı)̂ . (b2 ȷ)̂ + (a2 ȷ)̂ . (b1 ı)̂ + (a2 ȷ)̂ . (b2 ȷ)̂
= a1 b1 ı.̂ ı ̂ + a1 b2 ı.̂ ȷ ̂ + a2 b1 ı.̂ ȷ ̂ + a2 b2 ȷ.̂ ȷ ̂
= a1 b1 × 1 + a1 b2 × 0 + a2 b1 × 0 + a2 b2 × 1
= a1 b1 + 0 + 0 + a2 b2
∴ a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 (11.17)
432 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

a b
In column or matrix form, if a = ( 1 ) and b = ( 1 ), then
a2 b2

a1 b1
a.b = ( ) (11.18)
a2 b2

● Three-Dimensional Vectors

Let a = a1 ı ̂ + a2 ȷ ̂ + a3 k̂ and b = b1 ı ̂ + b2 ȷ ̂ + b3 k,̂ then

a.b = (a1 ı ̂ + a2 ȷ ̂ + a3 k)̂ (b1 ı ̂ + b2 ȷ ̂ + b3 k)̂

= (a1 ı)̂ . (b1 ı)̂ + (a1 ı)̂ . (b2 ȷ)̂ + (a1 ı)̂ . (b3 k)̂ + (a2 ȷ)̂ . (b1 ı)̂ + (a2 ȷ)̂ . (b2 ȷ)̂ + (a2 ȷ)̂ . (b3 k)̂
+ (a3 k)̂ . (b1 ı)̂ + (a3 k)̂ . (b2 ȷ)̂ + (a3 k)̂ . (b3 k)̂
= a1 b1 ı.̂ ı ̂ + a1 b2 ı.̂ ȷ ̂ + a1 b3 ı.̂ k̂ + a2 b1 ı.̂ ȷ ̂ + a2 b2 ȷ.̂ ȷ ̂ + a2 b3 ȷ.̂ k̂ + a3 b1 ı.̂ k̂ + a3 b2 ȷ.̂ k̂ + a3 b3 k.̂ k̂
= a1 b1 × 1 + a1 b2 × 0 + a1 b3 × 0 + a2 b1 × 0 + a2 b2 × 1 + a2 b3 × 0 + a3 b1 × 0 + a3 b2 × 0
+ a3 b3 × 1
a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (11.19)

a1 b1
In column or matrix form if, a = (a2 ) and b = (b2 ) then
a3 b3

a1 b1
a.b = (a2 b2 ) (11.20)
a3 b3

The above short-hand formulas are very useful when computing scalar product where the angle is
not given or not required.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 14

Simplify the following:

a) (2ı)̂ . (k)̂ + (5ȷ)̂ . (3ȷ)̂ − (4k)̂ . (10ı)̂

b) (2ı)̂ . (3ı)̂ + (4ı)̂ . (−5ȷ)̂ − (4ȷ)̂ . (7k)̂ + (−4k)̂ . (3k)̂
Vectors 433

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) (2ı)̂ . (k)̂ + (5j) . (3j) − (4k)̂ . (10ı)̂

Solution

(2ı)̂ . (k)̂ + (5ȷ)̂ . (3ȷ)̂ − (4k)̂ . (10ı)̂

= (2 × 1 × cos 90°) + (5 × 3 × cos 0) − (4 × 10 × cos 90°)
= (0) + (15) − (0)
= 15

b) (2ı)̂ . (3ı)̂ + (4ı)̂ . (−5ȷ)̂ − (4ȷ)̂ . (7k)̂ + (−4k)̂ . (3k)̂

Solution

(2ı)̂ . (3ı)̂ + (4ı)̂ . (−5ȷ)̂ − (4ȷ)̂ . (7k)̂ + (−4k)̂ . (3k)̂

= (2 × 3 × cos 0) − (4 × 5 × cos 90°) − (4 × 7 × cos 90°) − (4 × 3 × cos 0)
= (6) − (0) − (0) − (12)
= −6

Example 15

if a = 3ı ̂ + 2ȷ ̂ and b = ı ̂ − 3ȷ.̂ Determine:

a) a.b
b) the angle between the two vectors. Present the answer correct to 1 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

a) a.b
Solution

a.b = (3 × 1) + (2 × −3)
= (3) − (6)
∴ a.b = −3
434 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) The angle
Solution

2 2
|a| = √(3) + (2)
= √13
2 2
|b| = √(1) + (−3)
= √10

a.b = |a| |b| cos 𝜽

a.b −3
cos 𝜃 = =
|a| |b| (√13) (√10 )

−3
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
(√13) (√10 )
∴ 𝜽 = 105.3°

Example 16

Given that c = −3ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 3k̂ and d = −5ı ̂ + 6ȷ ̂ − k,̂ determine the following:

a) c.d b) the angle between the two vectors.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

a) c.d
Solution

c.d = (−3 × −5) + (−2 × 6) + (3 × −1)

= (15) + (−12) + (−3)
∴ c.d = 0

b) The angle
Solution
Because the scalar product is zero, it implies that the vectors are perpendicular.

∴ 𝜽 = 90°
Vectors 435

But let’s check this analytically as:

2 2 2
|c| = √(−3) + (−2) + (3)
= √22
2 2 2
|d| = √(−5) + (6) + (−1)
= √62
c.d = |c| |d| cos 𝜽
c.d 0
cos 𝜃 = =
|c| |d| (√22) (√62 )

0
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
(√22) (√62 )
∴ 𝜽 = 90°

Example 17

Given that a = 3ı ̂ + kȷ ̂ and b = 2ȷ ̂ + k,̂ determine two possible values of k if the angle between the
two vectors is 45°.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

Solution
Given a = 3ı ̂ + kȷ ̂ and b = 2ȷ ̂ + k,̂ we have:

2 2
|a| = √(3) + (k)
= √9 + k2
2 2
|b| = √(2) + (1)
= √5

Also

3 0
a.b = (k) . (2) = 2k
0 1
1
cos 𝜃 = cos 45° =
√2
436 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We have

a.b = |a| |b| cos 𝜽

1
2k = (√9 + k2 ) (√5)
√2
2√2k = (√9 + k2 ) (√5)

Square both sides

2√2k = (√9 + k2 ) (√5)

8k2 = 5 (9 + k2 )
8k2 = 45 + 5k2
3k2 = 45
k2 = 15
k = ±√15
∴ k = ±√15

Another example to try.

Example 18

Figure 11.19 shows two vectors a and b, which represent forces of magnitude of 3 N and 5 N,
respectively, in the direction shown by their arrow. Find the scalar product of these forces.

FIGURE 11.19 Example 18.

Vectors 437

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 18

Solution

a.b = |a| |b| cos 30°

= 3 × 5 × cos 30°
√3
= 15 ×
2
15√3
∴ a.b =
2

Another example to try.

Example 19

The diagram in Figure 11.20 shows two vectors p and q which represent velocities of magnitude
of 12 ms−1 and 7 ms−1 , respectively, in the direction shown by their arrow. Determine the scalar
product of these velocities.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 19

The correct angle to use is the angle 𝜃 when the two vectors are pointing away from the common
reference point O, which is shown in the re-drawn diagram in Figure 11.21. Therefore

p.q. = |p| |q| cos 𝜃

= 12 × 7 × cos (180° − 120°)
= 12 × 7 × cos 60°
∴ a.b = 42

FIGURE 11.20 Example 19.

438 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 11.21 Solution to Example 19.

Another example to try.

Example 20

Determine the value of 𝛽 if vector a = ı ̂ + 𝛽 ȷ ̂ is parallel to vector b = 2ı ̂ − ȷ.̂

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 20

a.b = (1 × 2) + (𝛽 × −1)
=2−𝛽
2 2
|a| = √(1) + (𝛽)
= √1 + 𝛽 2
2 2
|b| = √(2) + (−1)
= √5

If the vectors are parallel, then

a.b = |a| |b|

which implies that

2 − 𝛽 = (√1 + 𝛽 2 ) (√5)
2
(2 − 𝛽) = 5 (1 + 𝛽 2 )
4 − 4𝛽 + 𝛽 2 = 5 + 5𝛽2
4𝛽2 + 4𝛽 + 1 = 0
(2𝛽 + 1) (2𝛽 + 1) = 0
1
∴ 𝜷 = − (twice)
2
Vectors 439

Let’s try another set of examples

Example 21

Given that a = ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 5k,̂ b = 2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ + 4k,̂ and c = −2ı ̂ − √6ȷ ̂ + k,̂ show that:

2 2 2
a) a.a = |a| b) b.b = |b| c) c.c = |c|

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 21

2
a) a.a = |a|
Solution

a.a = (1 × 1) + (−3 × −3) + (5 × 5)

= (1) + (9) + (25) = 35

Also
2 2 2
|a| = √(1) + (−3) + (5)
= √1 + 9 + 25 = √35

Thus
2
2
|a| = (√35) = 35

2
∴ a.a = |a|

2
b) b.b = |b|
Solution

b.b = (2 × 2) + (3 × 3) + (4 × 4)
= (4) + (9) + (16) = 29

Also
2 2 2
|b| = √(2) + (3) + (4)
= √4 + 9 + 16 = √29

Thus
2
2
|b| = (√29) = 29

2
∴ b.b = |b|
440 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
c) c.c = |c|
Solution

c.c = (−2 × −2) + (−√6 × −√6) + (1 × 1)

= (4) + (6) + (1) = 11

Also
2
2 2
|c| = √(−2) + (−√6) + (1)

= √4 + 6 + 1 = √11

Thus
2
2
|c| = (√11) = 11

2
∴ c.c = |c|

From the above worked example, we can conclude that for any given vector r in xy plane or xyz space,
it follows that
2
r.r = |r| (11.21)

Let’s try another example.

Example 22

Two vectors are given by a = ı ̂ − xȷ ̂ + 3k̂ and b = −2ı ̂ + 5ȷ ̂ − xk.̂ Determine the value of x if a.b = 14.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 22

a.b = (ı ̂ − xȷ ̂ + 3k̂ ) . (−2ı ̂ + 5ȷ ̂ − xk)̂

= (1) (−2) + (−x) (5) + (3) (−x)
= −2 − 5x − 3x
= −2 − 8x

But

a.b = 14
Vectors 441

Thus

−2 − 8x = 14
−8x = 16
x = −2

Let’s try one more example.

Example 23

Given that a = 3ı ̂ + 4ȷ ̂ − 5k̂ and b = ı ̂ − 3ȷ ̂ + 4k,̂ find two possible vectors that are perpendicular to
both a and b.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 23

Let a perpendicular vector to a and b be c, such that

c = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂

Thus, we have the three-column vectors as

3 1 x
a = ( 4 ) , b = (−3) , c = (y)
−5 4 z

Since c is perpendicular to both a and b, we have

a.c = 0
3 x
( 4 ) . (y) = 0
−5 z

That’s

3x + 4y − 5z = 0 − − − − (i)

Similarly,

b.c = 0
1 x
(−3) . (y) = 0
4 z

That’s

x − 3y + 4z = 0 − − − − (ii)
442 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

For three unknowns, we need three equations, but we can assume that z = 1 for this case. Therefore
we have from (i) that

3x + 4y − 5 × 1 = 0
3x + 4y = 5 − − − − (iii)

And from (ii), we have

x − 3y + 4 × 1 = 0
x − 3y = −4 − − − − (iv)

From (iv), we have

x = 3y − 4 − − − − (v)

Substitute (v) in (iii), we have

3 (3y − 4) + 4y = 5
9y − 12 + 4y = 5
13y = 17
17
∴y=
13
From (v), we have
17
x = 3()−4
13
1
∴x=−
13
Hence
1 17
c=− ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + k̂
13 13
Let the other perpendicular vector to a and b be d. Since c and d must be parallel, it follows that

d = kc

where k is any real number.

Let k = 13, then

d = 13c
1 17
= 13 (− ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + k)̂
13 13
= −ı ̂ + 17ȷ ̂ + 13k̂

The two perpendicular vectors are

1 17
c=− ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + k̂
13 13
d = −ı ̂ + 17ȷ ̂ + 13k̂
Vectors 443

Thus, we have the three-column vectors as

1
⎛− 13 ⎞ −1
c = ⎜⎜ 17 ⎟⎟ , d = ( 17 )
⎜ 13 ⎟ 13
⎝ 1 ⎠
Note
There are an infinite number of perpendicular vectors to both a and b since k is any real number.

11.15 VECTOR EQUATION OF A LINE

The vector equation of a straight line, say AR (Figure 11.22), passing through point A and parallel to
vector b is given by

r = a + tb (11.22)

where

● r is the position vector of a point on line AR

● a is the position vector of a fixed-point A
⃗ = tb
● b is the vector (called direction vector) that is parallel to the line AR, such that AR
● t is a variable scalar, which varies depending on the point on the line. Other letters, including
s, 𝜆, and 𝜇, can also be used.

The above is very similar to a Cartesian equation of a line y = mx + c and can be used to find
the vector equation. In this case, the y-intercept c can be used to determine a, and the gradient m is
used to find b, or vice versa. The above is true for both 2D and 3D, except that the former has two
components and the latter has three components.
Let’s try a couple of examples.

Example 24

Determine the vector equation of a straight line which passes through point P, with a position vector
3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + 2k̂ and parallel to vector ı ̂ − 5ȷ.̂ Give the answer in both Cartesian and column notations.

FIGURE 11.22 Vector equation of a straight passing through points A and parallel to vector b illustrated.
444 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 24

Method 1 Cartesian form Method 2 Matrix form

r = a + tb r = a + tb
= (3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + 2k)̂ + t (ı ̂ − 5ȷ)̂ 3 1
= 3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + 2k̂ + tı ̂ − 5tȷ ̂ = (−1) + t (−5)
= 3ı ̂ + tı ̂ − ȷ ̂ − 5tȷ ̂ + 2k̂ 2 0
= (3 + t) ı ̂ − (1 + 5t) ȷ ̂ + 2k̂ 3 t
= (−1) + (−5t)
2 0
3+t
= (−1 − 5t)
2

Example 25

y = 2x − 3 is the Cartesian equation of a straight line l. Write the vector equation of the line.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 25

r = a + tb
y = mx + c
0
c = −3 = ( )
−3
0
∴a=( )
−3
m=2
1
∴b=( )
2

Therefore,

0 1
r=( ) + t( )
−3 2
Vectors 445

(a) (b)

FIGURE 11.23 Vector equation of a straight line passing through points C and D illustrated.

If we know two points along a line, as shown in Figure 11.23(a), such that c is the position vector of
point C and d is the position vector of point D, then the vector equation of the line is given as:

⃗
r = c + tC D = c + t (d − c) (11.23)

⃗
where c is the position vector and C D = d − c is the direction vector.
⃗
If we flip the vector direction as shown in Figure 11.23(b), the direction vector becomes D C = c−d
and we will have
r = c + t (c − d) (11.24)
Note that we can replace the position vector with d in the above two equations. The above equations
will give different vector equations for the same line.

Let’s try a few examples.

Example 26

5ı ̂ − 7ȷ ̂ and −ı ̂ + 2ȷ ̂ are the position vectors of points P and Q, respectively.

a) Determine the vector equation of a line connecting P and Q.
b) Determine the Cartesian equation of the line through P and Q in the form ax + by + c = 0.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 26

a) Vector equation
Solution
r = p + t (q − p)
= (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)̂ + t [(−ı ̂ + 2ȷ)̂ − (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)]
̂
= (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)̂ + t [−ı ̂ + 2ȷ ̂ − 5ı ̂ + 7ȷ]̂
= (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)̂ + t [−6ı ̂ + 9ȷ]̂
∴ r = (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)̂ + t (−6ı ̂ + 9ȷ)̂
446 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) Cartesian equation
Solution

r = (5ı ̂ − 7ȷ)̂ + t (−6ı ̂ + 9ȷ)̂

5 −6
= ( ) + t( )
−7 9
9 3
m=− =−
6 2
y = mx + c

5
A point on the line is ( ) which then has coordinates of (5, −7). Thus
−7

Method 1 Method 2

y − y1 = m (x − x1 )
y = mx + c 3
c = y − mx y + 7 = − (x − 5)
2
3 1 2y + 14 = −3x + 15
= −7 − (− ) (5) =
2 2
3x + 2y − 1 = 0
Therefore
3 1
y=− x+
2 2
2y = −3x + 1
3x + 2y − 1 = 0

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
y-intercept has coordinates of (0, c). Hence,

0 5 6 5 + 6t
( ) = ( ) + t( ) = ( )
c −7 −9 −7 − 9t

Equating the ı ̂ component

0 = 5 + 6t
5
t=−
6
Equating the ȷ ̂ component

c = −7 − 9t
5 45
c = −7 − 9 (− ) = −7 +
6 6
1
c=
2
Vectors 447

Hence

y = mx + c
3 1
y=− x+
2 2
2y = −3x + 1
3x + 2y − 1 = 0

Example 27

3 1
r = (1) + 𝜆 (−1)is a vector equation of a straight-line AB. Show whether or not point C (4, 0, 3)
5 −2
lies on AB.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 27

3 1
r = (1) + 𝜆 (−1)
5 −2
3+𝜆
=(1−𝜆)
5 − 2𝜆
For C(4, 0, 3) to be on the line, it implies that
3+𝜆 4
( 1 − 𝜆 ) = (0)
5 − 2𝜆 3
Equating ı ̂ component
3+𝜆=4
𝜆=1
Equating j ̂ component
1−𝜆=0
𝜆=1
Equating k̂ component
5 − 2𝜆 = 3
𝜆=1
The value of 𝜆 is the same in all cases so point C lies on the line AB.
448 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

One final example to try.

Example 28

(a, 1, −1) are the coordinates of a point R which lies on r = (3ı ̂ − 2k)̂ + 𝜇 (5ı ̂ − bȷ ̂ − k).
̂ Determine
the values of a and b.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 28

r = (3ı ̂ − 2k)̂ + 𝜇 (5ı ̂ − bȷ ̂ − k)̂

3 5
= ( 0 ) + 𝜇 (−b)
−2 −1
3 + 5𝜇
= ( −𝜇b )
−2 − 𝜇

For (a, 1, −1) to be on the line, it implies that

3 + 5𝜇 a
( −𝜇b ) = ( 1 )
−2 − 𝜇 −1

Equating k̂ component

−2 − 𝜇 = −1
𝜇 = −1

Equating j ̂ component

−𝜇b = 1
1
b= =1
−𝜇

Equating i ̂ component

3 + 5𝜇 = a
a = 3 − 5 = −2

Thus

a = −2, b = 1
Vectors 449

11.16 INTERSECTION OF TWO LINES

When two or more lines lie in the 2D (x − y, x − z, or y − z) plane or 3D space, one of these may
happen:

Case 1 The lines are parallel and never meet no matter how long they are (drawn or extended), such
that the distance between them at all points remains the same. This can be demonstrated by
showing that the vector equation of one is a scalar multiple of the other. For example, if two
lines with vector equations r = a + tb and r = c + sd are parallel, then vector b must be a
multiple of vector d.
Case 2 They intersect or cross each other at a single point. This condition can be demonstrated by
equating the vector equations of the lines and showing that there is consistency. For example,
if two lines with vector equations r = a + 𝜆b and r = c + 𝜇d intersect, then a + 𝜆b = c + 𝜇d
for a given value of 𝜇 and 𝜆. Equate the x components and y components on both sides to
find 𝜇 and 𝜆. The coordinates of the point of intersection can be obtained by substituting 𝝁
or 𝝀 in either equation, which should give the same answer.
Case 3 They are neither parallel nor do they intersect. The lines in this case are called skew. This
condition can be demonstrated by showing that the lines are neither parallel nor intersecting.

Cases 1 and 2 are common to both 2D and 3D, but case 3 only occurs in xyz space. As a result, if
two lines are in the same plane and not intersecting then they must be parallel, but this is not true if
the same lines are in 3D space.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 29

Two lines L1 and L2 are, respectively, defined by vector equations r = (ı ̂ − 3ȷ)̂ + t (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂ and
r = (−2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ − 5k)̂ + s (3ı ̂ − 9ȷ ̂ − 6k).
̂ Show whether these lines are parallel.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 29

The general expression for vector equation is:

r = a + tb

The vector equations for the lines are

L1 ∶ r = (ı ̂ − 3ȷ)̂ + t (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂ L2 ∶ r = (−2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ − 5k)̂ + s (3ı ̂ − 9ȷ ̂ − 6k)̂

1 2 −2 3
= (−3) + t (−6) = ( 1 ) + s (−9)
0 −4 −5 −6
For parallel lines, the direction vector of one line must be the scalar multiple of the other. If b1 and
b2 are direction vectors for L1 and L2 , respectively, then
450 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b1 = (2ı ̂ − 6ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂ b2 = (3ı ̂ − 9ȷ ̂ − 6k)̂

2 3
= (−6) = (−9)
−4 −6
It can be shown that
3 −9 −6
= = = 1.5
2 −6 −4
Thus

b2 = 1.5b1

Hence, L1 and L2 are parallel.

Example 30

The vector equations of two lines are given as r = 2 (4ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + 3k)̂ + 𝜆 (−4ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 10k)̂ and
r = 2 (6ı ̂ + 2ȷ ̂ − 3k)̂ + 𝜇 (2ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ − 4k).
̂

a) Show that these lines intersect.

b) Find the coordinates of their point of intersection.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 30

a) Show that these lines intersect.

Solution
Let’s write the vectors in matrix form as:

r = (8ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 6k)̂ + 𝜆 (−4ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 10k)̂

8 −4 8 − 4𝜆
= (−2) + 𝜆 (−2) = (−2 − 2𝜆)
6 10 6 + 10𝜆
Also

r = (12ı ̂ + 4ȷ ̂ − 6k)̂ + 𝜇 (2ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂

12 2 12 + 2𝜇
= ( 4 ) + 𝜇 (−1) = ( 4 − 𝜇 )
−6 −4 −6 − 4𝜇
If the two lines intersect, then
8 − 4𝜆 12 + 2𝜇
(−2 − 2𝜆) = ( 4 − 𝜇 )
6 + 10𝜆 −6 − 4𝜇
Vectors 451

Equating x components

8 − 4𝜆 = 12 + 2𝜇
8 − 12 = 4𝜆 + 2𝜇
4𝜆 + 2𝜇 = −4
2𝜆 + 𝜇 = −2 − − − − − (i)

Equating y components

−2 − 2𝜆 = 4 − 𝜇
−2 − 4 = 2𝜆 − 𝜇
2𝜆 − 𝜇 = −6 − − − − − (ii)

Let’s solve the above two above equations. Add (i) and (ii)

4𝜆 = −8
𝝀 = −2

From (i)

𝜇 = −2 − 2𝜆
𝝁=2

Now we need to validate this on z components. Equating z components

6 + 10𝜆 = −6 − 4𝜇

This must be equal if the lines intersect

LHS = 6 + 10𝜆 = 6 + 10 (−2)

= −14
RHS = −6 − 4𝜇 = −6 − 4 (2)
= −14

Since LHS equals RHS, then the two lines intersect.

b) Find the coordinates of their point of intersection.

Solution
To find the point of intersection, substitute in either equation.

● First equation

8 − 4𝜆 8 − 4 (−2)
(−2 − 2𝜆) = (−2 − 2 (−2))
6 + 10𝜆 6 + 10 (−2)
16
=( 2 )
−14
452 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● Second equation

12 + 2𝜇 12 + 2 (2)
( 4 − 𝜇 ) = ( 4 − (2) )
−6 − 4𝜇 −6 − 4 (2)
16
=( 2 )
−14

A final example.

Example 31

The vector equations of two lines L1 and L2 are r = (−ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 5k)̂ + t (2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + 7k)̂ and r =
(2ı ̂ − 3k)̂ + s (−2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ − k).
̂ Show that these lines can only be in 3D space.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 31

If these lines can only be in 3D space, it implies that they are skew, i.e., neither parallel nor
intersecting. The general expression for vector equation is

r = a + tb

● Parallel?

The vector equations for the lines in matrix form are

L1 ∶ r = (−ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 5k)̂ + t (2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + 7k)̂

−1 2
= (−2) + t (1)
5 7

L2 ∶ r = (2ı ̂ − 3k)̂ + s (−2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ − k)̂

2 −2
= ( 0 ) + s( 3 )
−3 −1
Vectors 453

For parallel lines, the direction vector of one line must be the scalar multiple of the other. If b1 and
b2 are direction vectors for L1 and L2 , respectively, then

b1 = (2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + 7k)̂
2
= (1)
7
b2 = (−2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ − k)̂
−2
=(3)
−1

It can be shown that

−2 3 −1
≠− ≠−
2 1 7
Thus, L1 and L2 are not parallel, since b1 is not a scalar multiple of b2 .

● Intersecting?

L1 ∶ r = (−ı ̂ − 2ȷ ̂ + 5k)̂ + t (2ı ̂ + ȷ ̂ + 7k)̂

−1 2 −1 + 2t
= (−2) + t (1) = ( −2 + t )
5 7 5 + 7t

L2 ∶ r = (2ı ̂ − 3k)̂ + s (−2ı ̂ + 3ȷ ̂ − k)̂

2 −2 2 − 2s
= ( 0 ) + s ( 3 ) = ( 3s )
−3 −1 −3 − s

If the two lines intersect, then

−1 + 2t 2 − 2s
( −2 + t ) = ( 3s )
5 + 7t −3 − s

Equating x components

−1 + 2t = 2 − 2s
2t + 2s = 2 + 1
2t + 2s = 3 − − − − − (i)

Equating y components

−2 + t = 3s
t − 3s = 2 − − − − − (ii)
454 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Solving the above equations:

● (ii) × 2, we have

2t − 6s = 4 − − − − − (iii)

● (i)-(iii), we have

8s = −1
1
s=−
8
From (ii)

t = 2 + 3s
13
t=
8
Now we need to validate this on z components. Equating z components

5 + 7t = −3 − s

This must be equal if the lines intersect

13
LHS = 5 + 7t = 5 + 7 ( )
8
131
=
8
1
RHS = −3 − s = −3 − (− )
8
23
=−
8
LHS is not equal to RHS, then the two vector equations do not intersect. Therefore, the lines are
skew since they are neither parallel nor intersect.

11.17 ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES

We can find the acute or obtuse angle 𝜃 between two lines from their vector equations. Let’s say the
vector equations of lines L1 and L1 are r1 = a1 + 𝜆b1 and r2 = a2 + 𝜇b2 , respectively. Since lines L1
and L1 are not parallel, the angle 𝜃 between their direction vectors b1 and b2 is given by:

b1 .b2
cos 𝜽 = (11.25)
|b1 | |b2 |

Note that the angle here (Figure 11.24) is when the two direction vectors are pointing away from the
common origin.
Like what was previously shown when dealing with the scalar product of two vectors, it can also
be shown that two lines L1 and L1 are perpendicular (Figure 11.25) if the product of their direction
vectors is zero, that is:
Vectors 455

FIGURE 11.24 Angle between two lines illustrated (1).

FIGURE 11.25 Angle between two lines illustrated (2).

b1 .b2 = 0 (11.26)

This is because for two perpendicular lines, 𝜃 = 90° and cos 90° = 0, therefore:
b1 .b2
cos 𝜃 =
|b1 | |b2 |
b .b
0= 1 2
|b1 | |b2 |
0 = b1 .b2

Also, when they are parallel then

b1 .b2 = |b1 | |b2 |

though the approach previously shown to check parallelism seems easier.

Let’s try a few examples to finish this chapter.

Example 32

A pair of vector equations represent two lines L1 and L2 . Show whether these lines are parallel,
perpendicular, or neither.

3 −2 7 5
a) r1 = ( 2 ) + s ( 3 ) and r2 = (−1) + t (2)
−11 4 10 1
b) r1 = (j ̂ − 9k)̂ + 𝜆 (ı ̂ − 5ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂ and r2 = (2ı ̂ − k)̂ + 𝜇 (3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + k)̂
c) If they are neither, determine the angle between them. Present the answer correct to 1 d.p.
456 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 32

3 −2 7 5
a) r1 = ( 2 ) + s ( 3 ) and r2 = (−1) + t (2)
−11 4 10 1
Solution
−2 5
b1 = ( 3 ) and b2 = (2)
4 1

−2 5
b1 .b2 = ( 3 ) . (2)
4 1
= (−2) (5) + (3) (2) + (4) (1)
= −10 + 6 + 4
=0

Hence, the lines are perpendicular.

b) r1 = (j ̂ − 9k)̂ + 𝜆 (ı ̂ − 5ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂ and r2 = (2ı ̂ − k)̂ + 𝜇 (3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + k)̂

Solution

r1 = (j ̂ − 9k)̂ + 𝜆 (ı ̂ − 5ȷ ̂ − 4k)̂
1
b1 = ı ̂ − 5ȷ ̂ − 4k̂ = (−5)
−4

and
3
b2 = 3ı ̂ − ȷ ̂ + k̂ = (−1)
1
1 3
b1 .b2 = (−5) . (−1)
−4 1
= (1) (3) + (−5) (−1) + (−4) (1)
=3+5−4
=4

Hence, the lines are not perpendicular. Now let’s check for parallelism.
Method 1
It can be shown that
3 −1 1
≠ ≠
1 −5 −4
Vectors 457

b2 is not a scalar multiple of b1 , thus L1 and L2 are not parallel.

Method 2
For parallel lines

b1 .b2 = |b1 | |b2 |

b1 .b2 = 4
2 2 2
|b1 | |b2 | = (√12 + (−5) + (−4) ) (√32 + (−1) + 12 )

= (√1 + 25 + 16) (√9 + 1 + 1) = √462

But

√462 ≠ 4
b1 .b2 ≠ |b1 | |b2 |

Thus, the lines are not parallel either.

c) Angle
Solution
b1 .b2
cos 𝜃 =
|b1 | |b2 |
4
=
√462
4
𝜃 = cos−1 ( )
√462
∴ 𝜃 = 79.3°

11.18 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Physical quantities (simply referred to as quantities) can be divided into scalar and vec-
tor quantities.
2) A scalar quantity is any quantity that is completely identified or described by its mag-
nitude (also known as amount or size) and associated units only. Examples include
time, speed, height, temperature, pressure and power.
3) A vector quantity (or simply a vector) is a quantity which is completely identified
by both its magnitude and direction (and associated units). Examples include velocity,
displacement, force, electric current, stress, and momentum.
4) For analytical purposes, vectors are considered as free and referred to as ‘free vectors’.
This implies that they can be anywhere in space and so the point of application is irrel-
evant.
458 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5) Three or more points are said to be collinear if they all lie on the same straight line. It
⃗ BC,
can be shown that if vectors AB, ⃗ C ⃗ D, etc., are parallel then points A, B, C, D, etc.,
are collinear.
6) A Zero vector (also called a Null vector) is a vector whose magnitude is zero.
7) The negation of a vector is a way of emphasising the direction feature of a vector. Given
a vector a, the negative vector of this is a vector that has the same magnitude as a but
points in an opposite direction (i.e., 180° or say anti-phase). We indicate this with a
sign change (ideally negative) or by flipping the direction of the arrow.
8) Two or more vectors are said to be equal if they all have the same magnitude and direc-
tion.
9) A unit vector is a vector whose magnitude is unity. In general, a unit vector in the direc-
tion of a is given as:

a
â =
|a|

10) Consider a vector r, which is entirely in 2D plane surface, the vector can be defined in
terms of unit vectors as:

r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂

If vector r lies in space, then it is completely defined as:

r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂

The column vector or matrix equivalents are:

x
x
r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ = ( ) AND r = xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂ = (y)
y
z

11) A vector that lies entirely on the x-axis, y-axis, or z-axis can be represented as:

x 0 0
(0) , (y) , (0)
0 0 z

12) A vector and its negative have the same magnitude.

|a| = |−a|
Vectors 459

13) In general, the magnitude is given by:

|r| = |xı ̂ + yȷ|̂ = √x2 + y2 AND |r| = ||xı ̂ + yȷ ̂ + zk̂|| = √x2 + y2 + z2

14) Given two vectors a and b, their scalar product (also called dot product) is denoted as
a.b and is expressed as:

a.b = |a| |b| cos 𝜽

By re-arranging the formula above, we can determine the angle 𝜃 between two known
vectors as:

a.b
cos 𝜽 =
|a| |b|

a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 AND a.b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

Or

a1 b1
a1 b1
a.b = ( ) OR a.b = (a2 b2 )
a2 b2
a3 b3

15) For any given vector r in xy plane or xyz space, it can be shown that

2
r.r = |r|

16) The vector equation of a straight line, say RS, passing through point A and parallel to
vector b is given by

r = a + tb

where
● r is the position vector of a point on line RS
● a is the position vector of a fixed-point A
● b is the vector that is parallel to the line RS
● t is a variable scalar, which varies depending on the point on the line. Other let-
ters, including s, 𝜆, and 𝜇, can also be used.
460 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

17) When we have two or more lines lie in 2D (x − y, x − z or y − z) plane or 3D space, one
of these may happen:
● The lines are parallel and never meet no matter how long they are (drawn) such
that the distance between them at all points remains the same.
● They intersect or cross each other at a single point.
● They are neither parallel nor do they intersect. The lines in this case are called
skew.

****

11.19 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 12 Fundamentals
Differentiation
of

Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Discuss the concept of the gradient of a curve

● Determine the approximate gradient of the curve at a given point
● Use different notations of differentiation
● Determine differential coefficients of power and polynomial
functions
● Find the derivative at a particular point on a curve
● Determine higher-order derivatives
● Find the derivative of trigonometric functions
● Differentiate exponential and logarithmic functions

12.1 INTRODUCTION
Calculus is a branch of mathematics with two distinctive parts, namely differentiation (or differential
calculus) and integration (or integral calculus). Its application and relevance go beyond solving prac-
tical science and engineering problems, but also cover other sectors including business and medicine.
As such, it is a very useful branch and shall be the last theme of this book. We will start this chapter
with differentiation, covering the limits of functions, differentiation from the first principles, standard
derivatives, and higher-order differentiation.

12.2 WHAT IS DIFFERENTIATION?

To put it in a very simple way, differentiation is a measure of the ‘rate of change’. In other words,
it is a technique that is used to determine the size of change in one physical quantity (e.g., volume,
distance, mass) when compared to an equivalent change in another physical quantity (e.g., time).
dy
We have a few ways to denote differentiation, but (reads ‘dee y dee x’) seems very popular. The
dx
variables y and x represent the two quantities (scalar or vector) being compared. For example, one
may be interested in measuring how the volume of the water in a tank is changing over time. This is
dV
represented as (reads ‘dee V dee t’), where V and t are volume and time, respectively. The same
dt
dv
can be said about , which is the ‘rate of change of velocity (v) with respect to time (t)’. Notice
dt
the difference in V (capital letter) for volume and v (small letter) for velocity. You will soon find out

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-12 461
462 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

that we typically shorten ‘with respect to’ as ‘wrt’. This is the brief about the journey that we are set
to begin, let’s get on.

12.3 LIMITS
Limit (pl. limits) is linguistically understood to mean boundary or the greatest possible end, and it is
a term that occurs frequently in science and engineering. This is the first time to encounter it in this
book, and it is essential that we cover this concept as it is the basis upon which calculus is premised.
The limit is the boundary, and thus the limit of a function is the boundary of that function. For
example, if a function of x is denoted as f (x), then the limit of this function is represented as:

lim f (x)

This is read as ‘limit of f function of x’. A more useful version is

lim f (x)
x→∞

This is the ‘limit of f function of x as x → ∞’. The sign → is read as ‘tends to’ and technically
implies that the left-hand variable x approaches the right-hand variable or number. Table 12.1 shows
further examples of the use of the limits.
Let’s go back to our lim f (x). What this means is that we are evaluating (or interested in knowing) the
x→∞
value of f (x) as the independent variable x becomes very large or infinite. We may also be interested
in the limit of the function as the value of independent variable tends to other values, including zero.
To make this clear, let’s say f (x) = x2 + x−5 and we are interested in knowing the value of this func-
tion when the value of x approaches 3, i.e., x → 3. The evaluation process is shown in Table 12.2. In
(a), the values of x are close to but less than 3. It can be said that x approaches 3 from the left; this
is denoted as x → 3− . Similarly, in (b), the values of x are greater than but close to 3. It can be said
that x approaches 3 from the right and is denoted as x → 3+ .
In both cases, (a) and (b), the value of the function f (x) is approaching a particular value, which is 9
(correct to 1 s.f.). We can therefore write that:

lim [f (x)] = lim− [f (x)] = lim+ [f (x)] = 9

x→3 x→3 x→3

In our case, we will often be interested in either x → ∞ or x → 0, but the example is to show the
concept in general. The limit is the approximation of the function, as the value of x is very close to

TABLE 12.1
The Use of the Limit Sign Illustrated

Example Read as Explanation

x→2 x tends to 2 The value of the variable x approaches a numerical value of 2.

x→n x tends to n The value of the variable x approaches a variable n.

n→0 n tends to 0 The value of the variable n approaches 0.

Fundamentals of Differentiation 463

TABLE 12.2
The Limit of f (x) as x Approaches 3 Illustrated

(a) (b)
x y = f (x) x y = f (x)
2.990 8.94428 3.010 9.06415

2.991 8.95026 3.009 9.05814

2.992 8.95623 3.008 9.05212

2.993 8.96221 3.007 9.04612

2.994 8.96819 3.006 9.04011

2.995 8.97417 3.005 9.03411

2.996 8.98016 3.004 9.0281

2.997 8.98614 3.003 9.0221

2.998 8.99213 3.002 9.01611

2.999 8.99812 3.001 9.01011

3.000 9.00412 3.000 9.00412

3 but not equal to it. This is different from f (3) = 32 + 3−5 , which is when we evaluate the function
at x = 3, as shown by the last row. The limit of a function is further illustrated in Table 12.3, as the
variable tends to zero or infinity.

12.4 GRADIENT
Gradient is not a new concept to us, but we will advance our discussion on the term in this chapter.

12.4.1 STRAIGHT LINE

Δy
The gradient (or slope) of a straight line is given as ‘delta y (or 𝚫y) over delta x (or 𝚫x)’, i.e., .
Δx
Δ is a Greek letter, generally used to denote a measurable change in a physical quantity as against
𝛿 – a lowercase delta – which denotes an infinitesimal (or an infinitely small) change in the quantity.
Δy is obtained by finding the difference in two y-coordinates; these values could be the initial and
final or the first and second or second and fifth, and so on. The same can be said about Δx.
This implies that we can take any pair of points on a straight-line graph (Figure 12.1) to obtain a
change in either y or x. The value of the slope remains unchanged irrespective of the pair used in
computing the change. In other words, the slope of a straight line is constant. Could the same be said
about the slope of a non-linear function? Let’s follow the discussion to get the answer to this.
464 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 12.3
Examples of Limit of Function

f (x) Limit Answer Note

n
x +1 lim f (x) 2 This is because when n approaches 0,
n→0
xn → x0 → 1.

xn + 1 lim f (x)
n→∞ ● xn , for x > 1 ● This is because when n approaches ∞, xn
● 1, for x < 1 becomes the dominant term.

● 2, for x = 1 ● This is because when n approaches ∞, xn

becomes very small.
● This is because 1∞ = 1.
x
1
(1 + ) lim f (x) e ≈ 2.718281 … We will be using this soon.
x x→∞

sin 𝜽 limf (x) 𝜃 Provided that the angle is:

x→0

i) very small, and

ii) it is measured in radian.

We will be using this soon.

sin 𝜽
limf (x) 1 Provided that the angle is measured in radian.
𝜽 x→0
We will be using this soon.
y

y1 y2

FIGURE 12.1 Determining the gradient of a straight line illustrated.

Fundamentals of Differentiation 465

12.4.2 NON-LINEAR GRAPH OR CURVE

Figure 12.2 is a plot of two non-linear functions, where y1 = f (x) represents a quadratic function,
and y2 = g (x) represents a cubic function. Unlike a straight line, the gradient of these curves changes
as we move from one point to another along the curve. For example, the gradient at point A1 on f (x)
is different from that at points A2 and A3 on the same function. The same can be said about points
B1 , B2 , and B3 on g (x). As a result, there are numerous, or even an infinite number of slopes for a
given curve, depending on how much we zoom in.
The question of interest now is how do we find the gradient of a curve? For this, we will briefly
discuss the common options available.

12.4.2.1 Drawing a Tangent

We will illustrate this graphical approach by determining the slope at point x = 1.5 on a graph of
y = x2 − 1. This method is illustrated in four steps below.

FIGURE 12.2 Gradient of non-linear functions illustrated.

466 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 1: Using a suitable method, draw the graph of the function x2 − 1 if it is not already given
(Figure 12.3).
Step 2: Locate the point by drawing a vertical line from point x = 1.5 until it reaches the curve
drawn in Step 1 (Figure 12.4).
Step 3: Draw a tangent to the curve at the point of interest.
A tangent is a straight line that meets the curve at a right angle at the given point; it touches
the curve but does not cross or cut or go through it. A very good approximation can be
manually drawn (Figure 12.5).
Step 4: Determine the slope of the tangent using any two points on the tangent (Figure 12.6).
We have chosen points A (1, 0) and B (2, 3) and calculate the slope as:
Δy y − y1
Slope = = 2
Δx x2 − x1
3−0
= =3
2−1
The above four-step approach seems quick and easy, but there are some limitations:

a) The accuracy of the method depends on the precision of drawing the tangent.
b) It is relatively time consuming and will be even more challenging if we were to find the slope
of three or more different points on the curve.

In addition to the above limitations, the method seems to give us the slope of a tangent line and not
the given point.

3
y

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-1

-2

FIGURE 12.3 Drawing tangent – Part I.

Fundamentals of Differentiation 467

y
3

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-1

-2

FIGURE 12.4 Drawing tangent – Part II.

3
y

0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-1

-2

FIGURE 12.5 Drawing tangent – Part III.

12.4.2.2 Numerical Method

For this method, we’ve chosen a slightly different function, which is y = x2 + 1. Its plot is shown in
Figure 12.7. Here we intend to find the gradient at point A to the curve where x = 0.5.
468 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

y
3
= ( , )

3
2
2
1
1
0 x
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1
-1 = ( , )
-2

FIGURE 12.6 Drawing tangent – Part IV.

7
y

5 ( , )

0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

FIGURE 12.7 Numerical method of determining the gradient of a non-linear function illustrated.

To do this, we will draw a straight line (or chord) AB and find its gradient as:
Δy y − y1
Slope|line AB| = m = = 2
Δx x2 − x1
5 − 1.25 3.75
= = = 2.5
2 − 0.5 1.5
The gradient is 2.5, which is, of course, the gradient of the line AB and not the point A. AB is also not
a tangent to the curve at point A. We will equally notice that the change in x, Δx is 1.5. To improve
the estimate, keep point A fixed and move point B closer and closer to A along the curve, such that
Fundamentals of Differentiation 469

Δx is very small. The gradient obtained in this case will be very close to the gradient at point A. The
result of the process is shown in Table 12.4. Point A, given as (y1 , x1 ), is fixed at (0.5, 1.25). y1 is
2
found by substituting x1 in y = x2 + 1, i.e. y1 = 0.5 + 1 = 1.25. x2 is chosen arbitrarily, and the

TABLE 12.4
Gradient of a Non-Linear Function Using Numerical Method Illustrated

x1 y1 x2 y2 ∆x ∆y m
0.5 1.25 0.550 1.30 0.05 0.05 1.05

0.5 1.25 0.548 1.30 0.05 0.05 1.05

0.5 1.25 0.546 1.30 0.05 0.05 1.05

0.5 1.25 0.544 1.30 0.04 0.05 1.04

0.5 1.25 0.542 1.29 0.04 0.04 1.04

0.5 1.25 0.540 1.29 0.04 0.04 1.04

0.5 1.25 0.538 1.29 0.04 0.04 1.04

0.5 1.25 0.536 1.29 0.04 0.04 1.04

0.5 1.25 0.534 1.29 0.03 0.04 1.03

0.5 1.25 0.532 1.28 0.03 0.03 1.03

0.5 1.25 0.530 1.28 0.03 0.03 1.03

0.5 1.25 0.528 1.28 0.03 0.03 1.03

0.5 1.25 0.526 1.28 0.03 0.03 1.03

0.5 1.25 0.524 1.27 0.02 0.02 1.02

0.5 1.25 0.522 1.27 0.02 0.02 1.02

0.5 1.25 0.520 1.27 0.02 0.02 1.02

0.5 1.25 0.518 1.27 0.02 0.02 1.02

0.5 1.25 0.516 1.27 0.02 0.02 1.02

0.5 1.25 0.514 1.26 0.01 0.01 1.01

0.5 1.25 0.512 1.26 0.01 0.01 1.01

0.5 1.25 0.510 1.26 0.01 0.01 1.01

0.5 1.25 0.508 1.26 0.01 0.01 1.01

0.5 1.25 0.506 1.26 0.01 0.01 1.01

470 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
corresponding y2 using y2 = (x2 ) + 1. In other words, we simply substitute x2 in y = x2 + 1 to find
y2 . The computation follows this process for x3 , x4 , x5 , x6 , etc.
In the above, we’ve moved point B from the x-coordinate 0.55 to 0.506. It can be observed that the
limit of the gradient of the curve at x = 0.5, as Δx tends to zero, is 1. In other words, the gradient of
f (x) is
lim [x2 + 1] = 1
∆x→0

In summary, we can find the approximate value of the gradient of a non-linear function at a given
point numerically in this way:

Step 1: Evaluate y1 by using f (x1 ). This gives the coordinates of the point at which the gradient is
to be found, i.e., (x1 , y1 ).
Step 2: Choose another point x2 such that ∆x (or x2 − x1 ) is very small or close to zero.
Step 3: Evaluate y2 by using f (x2 ). This gives the coordinates of another point which is close to the
given point, i.e., (x2 , y2 ).
Step 4: Find the slope m using

𝚫y y − y1
Slope = = 2
𝚫x x2 − x1

12.4.2.3 Analytical Method

The above numerical method seems promising, but the ‘smallness’ of the change in x is relative and
may be subjective. In addition, there is a need to evaluate the function at x2 to find the gradient.
Unfortunately, the process will need to be repeated for every point on the curve that we need to find
its gradient.
We now want to build on the above method and find a general procedure to obtain the gradient of a
curve. We will start with the definition of a slope m as:
Δy y − y1
m= = 2
Δx x2 − x1
Let the coordinates of the line AB in Figure 12.8 (a re-production of Figure 12.7) be A (x1 , y1 ) and
B (x2 , y2 ). Given that points A and B are on the curve, we can say that Δx = x2 − x1 or x2 = x1 + Δx.
Given that y = f (x), we have
y1 = f (x1 )
y2 = f (x2 ) = f (x1 + Δx)
∴ Δy = f (x1 + Δx) − f (x1 )
We can now write the slope as:
f (x1 + Δx) − f (x1 )
m=
Δx
Since Δx needs to be very small as observed in the numerical method, we can replace Δx with 𝛿x,
thus
f (x1 + 𝛿x) − f (x1 )
m=
𝛿x
Fundamentals of Differentiation 471

y
6

5 ( , )

0 x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3

FIGURE 12.8 Analytical method of determining the gradient of a non-linear function illustrated.

This is a more general representation of the gradient of a function.

12.4.2.4 Derivative of a Function

In the analytical method presented above, we noted that the slope is given as:

f (x1 + 𝛿x) − f (x1 )

m=
𝛿x
𝛿x, though infinitesimal, shows that the slope found using the above formula is for a line AB (or
tangent) and not a point of interest. The condition for a point is that 𝛿x = 0. However, if we were to
substitute 𝛿x = 0 in the denominator, the m becomes undefined and meaningless.
Let’s make a final attempt to modify our approach. We will assume two arbitrary points on the curve
f (x). The first point A has coordinates of (x, y) and is the point whose gradient is to be found. The
second point B is that which is very close to point A, such that there is a small increment 𝛿x in x value
and an equivalent increment 𝛿y in y value. Hence, the coordinates of B are (x + 𝛿x, y + 𝛿y).
Recall that we can write y = f (x) and y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x). Thus, 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x). The slope
can now be given as:

𝛿y f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
m= =
𝛿x 𝛿x
If we assume that 𝛿x → 0, using the concept of limits, we have

𝛿y f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
m[at a given point] = lim [ ] = lim [ ]
𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
472 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The above is called the derivative of the function as the change in x approaches zero. It is the limiting
value of the gradient of AB as 𝛿x tends to zero and can be considered as the slope of the point of
interest or the tangent to the point of interest. So, we can simply say

dy 𝜹y dy ∆y
= lim [ ] OR = lim [ ] (12.1)
dx 𝜹x→0 𝜹x dx ∆x→0 ∆x

dy d
is an operator and does not imply dy divided by dx. It can be written as (y) read as ‘dee dee x of
dx dx
dy
y’, where y is a function of x or any other variable. This makes it explicitly clear that is an operator.
dx
𝜹y ∆y
On the other hand, and are not operators; they imply a change in y divided by a change in x,
𝜹x ∆x
hence they can be detached and evaluated separately.
The above method of finding the derivative of a function is known as ‘finding the derivative from
the first principle’ or ‘differentiating from the first principle’.

12.4.2.5 Notations for a Derivative of a Function

The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. This is also called ‘dif-
ferential coefficient of a function wrt an independent variable’ or ‘the rate of change of function or
dy
gradient function’ or simply . It is a gradient function rather than a gradient, as it gives us a function
dx
that can be used to find the gradient at a given point on the curve.
dy
In addition to , there are other notations that are used for denoting derivatives and are given in
dx
Table 12.5.
The notations are the same and can be used interchangeably. They are called the ‘first derivative’.
We will come back soon to explain what it’s meant by the second, third, etc., derivatives. Any of
the notations (and similar ones) show that we are required to ‘differentiate a function’ or ‘we’ve
differentiated a function’.

TABLE 12.5
Notations for a Derivative of a Function Illustrated

Notation Read as
dy
dee y, dee x (or dee y by dee x or dee y over dee x)
dx

f ′ (x) f-prime of x (or f -prime x)

y′ y-prime
d
(fx) dee dee x of f function of x
dx

ẏ y dot
Fundamentals of Differentiation 473

Here is a good time to look at some examples.

Example 1

Determine the derivative of the following functions from the first principles.

a) y = c b) y = mx + c c) y = x2 d) y = x3
1
e) y = ax2 + bx + c f) y = g) y = axn
x+3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

● In this case, our main reference is

dy 𝜹y f (x + 𝜹x) − f (x)
= lim [ ] = lim [ ]
dx 𝜹x→0 𝜹x 𝜹x→0 𝜹x
● Do not worry, you can choose 𝜹 or ∆. We will always arrive at the same answer.
● We will also use the binomial theorem covered in Chapter 6.

n n n−1 1 n (n − 1) n−2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3

(x + a) = (x) + n(x) (a) + (x) (a) + (x) (a) + …
2! 3!

a) y = c
Solution

y = f (x) = c

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
=c

Therefore,

𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x) = 0

This is because the graph is a straight line. Now we can evaluate the slope as:

𝛿y 0
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
≈0
474 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y 0
= lim ( ) = lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0 𝛿x

=0
dy
∴ =0
dx

b) y = mx + c
Solution

y = f (x) = mx + c

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= m (x + 𝛿x) + c
= mx + m𝛿x + c

Therefore,

𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
= [mx + m𝛿x + c] − [mx + c]
= m𝛿x

Now we can evaluate the slope as:

𝛿y m𝛿x
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
≈m

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y
= lim ( ) = lim (m)
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0

=m
dy
∴ =m
dx

c) y = x2
Solution

y = f (x) = x2

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
2
= (x + 𝛿x)
2
= x2 + 2x𝛿x + (𝛿x)
Fundamentals of Differentiation 475

Therefore,

𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
2
= [x2 + 2x𝛿x + (𝛿x) ] − [x2 ]
2
= 2x𝛿x + (𝛿x)

Now we can evaluate the slope as:

2
𝛿y 2x𝛿x + (𝛿x)
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
≈ 2x + 𝛿x

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y
= lim ( ) = lim (2x + 𝛿x)
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0

= 2x + 0
dy
∴ = 2x
dx

d) y = x3
Solution

y = f (x) = x3

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
3
= (x + 𝛿x)
2 3
= x3 + 3x2 𝛿x + 3x(𝛿x) + (𝛿x)

Therefore,

𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
2 3
= [x3 + 3x2 𝛿x + 3x(𝛿x) + (𝛿x) ] − [x3 ]
2 3
= 3x2 𝛿x + 3x(𝛿x) + (𝛿x)

Now we can evaluate the slope as:

2 3
𝛿y 3x2 𝛿x + 3x(𝛿x) + (𝛿x)
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
2
≈ 3x2 + 3x𝛿x + (𝛿x)

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
2
= lim (3x2 + 3x𝛿x + (𝛿x) )
𝛿x→0
476 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
As 𝛿x → 0, 3x𝛿x and (𝛿x) become relatively insignificant when compared to the term 3x2 and can
both be ignored. Hence, we have
2
lim (3x2 + 3x𝛿x + (𝛿x) ) = 3x2
𝛿x→0
dy
∴ = 3x2
dx

e) y = ax2 + bx + c
Solution

y = f (x) = ax2 + bx + c

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
2
= a(x + 𝛿x) + b (x + 𝛿x) + c
2
= ax2 + 2ax𝛿x + a(𝛿x) + bx + b𝛿x + c

Therefore,

𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
2
= [ax2 + 2ax𝛿x + a(𝛿x) + bx + b𝛿x + c] − [ax2 + bx + c]
2
= 2ax𝛿x + a(𝛿x) + b𝛿x
= 𝛿x (2ax + a𝛿x + b)

Now we can evaluate the slope as:

𝛿y 𝛿x (2ax + a𝛿x + b)
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
≈ 2ax + a𝛿x + b

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y
= lim ( ) = lim (2ax + a𝛿x + b)
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0

= 2ax + b
dy
∴ = 2ax + b
dx

1
f) y =
x+3
Solution
1
y = f (x) =
x+3
Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
1
=
(x + 𝛿x) + 3
Fundamentals of Differentiation 477

Therefore,
𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
1 1
=[ ]−[ ]
(x + 𝛿x) + 3 x+3
(x + 3) − [(x + 𝛿x) + 3]
=
[(x + 𝛿x) + 3] [x + 3]
−𝛿x
=
(x + 3 + 𝛿x) (x + 3)
Now we can evaluate the slope as:
−𝛿x
[ ]
𝛿y (x+3+𝛿x)(x+3)
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
−1
≈
(x + 3 + 𝛿x) (x + 3)
Thus, the derivative is
dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
−1
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 (x + 3 + 𝛿x) (x + 3)
−1 −1
=( )=
(x + 3 + 0) (x + 3) (x + 3) (x + 3)
dy 1
∴ =− 2
dx (x + 3)
This seems to be a long one!

g) y = axn
Solution
y = f (x) = axn
Similarly
y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
n
= a (x + 𝛿x)
n
We can use the binomial theorem, covered in Chapter 6, to expand (x + 𝛿x) . Thus, we have
n (n − 1) n−2
1 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3 n
y + 𝛿y = a [xn + nxn−1 (𝛿x) + x (𝛿x) + x (𝛿x) + … (𝛿x) ]
2! 3!
1 n (n − 1) n−2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3 n
= axn + naxn−1 (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x)
2! 3!
Therefore,
𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x) − f (x)
1n (n − 1) n−2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3 n
= [axn + naxn−1 (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x) ] − [axn ]
2! 3!
1 n (n − 1) n−2 2 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 3 n
= naxn−1 (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x)
2! 3!
478 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now we can evaluate the slope as:

𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
1 n(n−1) 2 n(n−1)(n−2) 3 n
naxn−1 (𝛿x) + axn−2 (𝛿x) + axn−3 (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x)
2! 3!
≈
𝛿x
n−1 n (n − 1) n−2 1 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 2 n−1
≈ nax + ax (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x)
2! 3!
As 𝛿x → 0, each term containing 𝛿x becomes relatively insignificant when compared to the term
axn−1 and can be ignored. Hence, we have

n (n − 1) n−2 1 n (n − 1) (n − 2) n−3 2 n−1

lim (naxn−1 + ax (𝛿x) + ax (𝛿x) + … a(𝛿x) ) = naxn−1
𝛿x→0 2! 3!
dy
∴ = naxn−1
dx

This last result is an important one, and we will come back to this shortly.

12.5 STANDARD DERIVATIVES

We have now been ‘armed’ with underpinning knowledge regarding differentiation and have man-
aged to find derivatives of functions from first principles. The process can however be long and time
consuming. What follows is the introduction of some standard derivatives of common functions,
which will be followed by techniques to deal with complex and complicated functions.

12.5.1 POWER (OR POLYNOMIAL) FUNCTIONS

The most common standard derivative is the power function or polynomial function, which is given
as:

dy
If f (x) = axn then = anxn−1 (12.2)
dx

The above is valid for any real value of n and a. If a = 1, we have a modified version

dy
If f (x) = xn then = nxn−1 (12.3)
dx

We’ve derived the formula above in Example 1(g) using the first principles. This standard or formula
looks simple, but we need to understand it properly; otherwise, we will be limited by what it can be
applied to. Here are the steps to follow in applying the formula:

Step 1: Arrange or simplify the function to be in a power form, i.e., axn .

Step 2: Multiply the function (i.e., axn ) by the power (i.e., n).
Step 3: Reduce the power by 1 (or subtract 1 from the power).
Step 4: Simplify the resulting function.
Fundamentals of Differentiation 479

FIGURE 12.9 Procedure for determining the derivative of a power function illustrated.

The above steps are illustrated in Figure 12.9.

The key to the derivative of a power function is ‘drop down the power then reduce the power by
1’. That’s everything.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 2

Determine the derivative of the following functions with respect to x.

1 −5
a) y = x2 b) y = x−4 c) y = x20 d) y = 1.4x
5
1
e) y = 6√x f) y = 3 g) y = −7x0.3 h) y = 𝜋x
√x
1
− x7
i) y = 5 j) y = xsin 𝜋 k) y = x 5 l) y =
x−3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Hint

Understanding the laws of indices will be helpful in differentiating some of the functions here
and power functions in general.

a) y = x2
Solution

f (x) = x2
480 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1 and n = 2. Hence
dy
= 2x2−1
dx
= 2x1 = 2x
dy
∴ = 2x
dx

b) y = x−4
Solution

f (x) = x−4

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1 and n = −4. Hence
dy
= −4x−4−1
dx
= −4x−5
dy
∴ = −4x−5
dx

1
c) y = x20
5
Solution
1 20
f (x) = x
5
1
Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = and n = 20. Hence
5

dy 1
= 20 × x20−1
dx 5
= 4x19
dy
∴ = 4x19
dx
You will agree that to do this from the first principles will take some time.

−5
d) y = 1.4x
Solution
−5
f (x) = 1.4x

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1.4 and n = −5. Hence
dy
= −5 × 1.4x−5−1
dx
= −7x−6
dy
∴ = −7x−6
dx
7
For this, we could have written the final answer as − using one of the laws of indices.
x6
Fundamentals of Differentiation 481

e) y = 6√x
Solution

f (x) = 6√x

This is not in the power form, so we need to do something to present it in that form. To do this, we
apply relevant law(s) of indices. We therefore have
1
f (x) = 6√x = 6x 2

1
Now comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 6 and n = . Hence
2

dy 1 1
( −1)
= × 6x 2
dx 2
1
−
= 3x 2

dy −
1
∴ = 3x 2
dx
3 3
For this, we could have written the final answer as 1 or using one of the laws of indices.
x2 √x

1
f) y = 3
√x
Solution
1
f (x) = 3
√x

Again, this is not in the power form, so we need to modify it by using relevant law(s) of indices.
Thus, we have
1 1 −
1
f (x) = 3
= 1
=x 3
√x x 3

1
Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1 and n = − . Hence
3

dy 1 1
(− −1)
=− ×x 3
dx 3
1 −4
=− x 3
3
dy 1 −4
∴ =− x 3
dx 3
1 1
For this, we could have written the final answer as − 4 or − 3 using relevant law(s) of indices.
3x 3 3 √ x4
482 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

g) y = −7x0.3
Solution

f (x) = −7x0.3

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = −7 and n = 0.3. Hence

dy
= 0.3 × −7x0.3−1
dx
= −2.1x−0.7
dy
∴ = −2.1x−0.7
dx

h) y = 𝜋x
Solution

f (x) = 𝜋x = 𝜋x1

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 𝝅 and n = 1. Note that the absence of a power
implies 1. Hence
dy
= 1 × 𝜋x(1−1)
dx
= 𝜋x0

dy
∴ =𝝅
dx

i) y = 5
Solution

f (x) = 5

We need to change it into the power form, as it is not currently so. To do this, we will apply a special
law of indices, i.e., x0 = 1, as follows:

f (x) = 5 = 5 × 1 = 5 × x0 = 5x0

Great! Now comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 5 and n = 0. Hence

dy
= 0 × 5x(0−1) = 0 × 5x−1
dx
=0

This is because anything multiplied by zero is zero.

dy
∴ =0
dx
Fundamentals of Differentiation 483

From this comes a general principle that

‘the derivative of a constant is zero’

OR

‘the rate of change of a constant is zero’

OR

‘a constant does not change with respect to anything’.

j) y = xsin 𝜋
Solution

f (x) = xsin 𝜋

This is in power form but not typical. Now comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1
and n = sin 𝝅. Hence,
dy
= sin 𝜋 × x(sin 𝜋−1)
dx
= sin 𝜋.x(sin 𝜋−1)
dy
∴ = sin 𝜋.x(sin 𝜋−1)
dx
Note that sin 𝜋 is a number and should be treated as a constant in this.

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
We can simply say that sin 𝜋 = 0, therefore

f (x) = xsin 𝜋
= x0 = 1

Thus
dy
=0
dx

Note
Note that if we simplify the first answer, we will also get zero as:

sin 𝜋.x(sin 𝜋−1) = 0 × x0−1 = 0

1
−
k) y = x 5

Solution
1
−
f (x) = x 5
484 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1 and n = − . Hence
5

dy 1 1
− −1
=− ×x 5
dx 5
1 −6
=− x 5
5
dy 1 −6
∴ =− x 5
dx 5
That’s the answer but we could have tidied that up a bit, using relevant laws of indices as:

1 −6 1 1
− x 5 = − × 1.2
5 5 x
1
= − 1.2
5x
dy 1
∴ = − 1.2
dx 5x

x7
l) y =
x−3
Solution
x7
f (x) =
x−3
We first need to simplify this as:

x7
f (x) = = x7 × x3 = x10
x−3
Great! Now comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 1 and n = 10. Hence

dy
= 10 × x10−1
dx
= 10x9
dy
∴ = 10x9
dx

Another set of examples to try.

Example 3

A function is defined as y = 5b2 t−3 x4 . Find the following derivatives.

dy dy dy dy dy
a) b) c) d) e)
dx dt db dh dA
Fundamentals of Differentiation 485

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Hint

● The questions could be tricky so follow the 4-step rule above and all should be fine.
● We will use wrt for ‘with respect to’. It is a common phrase in this topic, and we are
encouraged to use it.

dy
a)
dx
Solution

y = 5b2 t−3 x4

As we are differentiating wrt x, the function can be re-written as:

y = (5b2 t−3 ) x4

The above presentation is useful so that we can attain the general format. Now comparing the function
with axn , we can see that a = 5b2 t−3 and n = 4. Hence
dy
= 4 × (5b2 t−3 ) x4−1
dx
= 4 (5b2 t−3 ) x3
= 20b2 t−3 x3
dy
∴ = 20b2 t−3 x3
dx

dy
b)
dt
Solution

y = 5b2 t−3 x4

As we are differentiating wrt t, the function can be re-written as:

y = (5b2 x4 ) t−3

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 5b2 x4 and n = −3. Hence

dy
= −3 × (5b2 x4 ) t−3−1
dt
= −3 (5b2 x4 ) t−4
= −15b2 x4 t−4
dy
∴ = −15b2 x4 t−4
dt
486 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

dy
c)
db
Solution

y = 5b2 t−3 x4

As we are differentiating wrt b, the function can be re-written as:

y = (5t−3 x4 ) b2

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 5t−3 x4 and n = 2. Hence

dy
= 2 × (5t−3 x4 ) b2−1
db
= 2 (5t−3 x4 ) b1
= 10b1 t−3 x4
dy
∴ = 10bt−3 x4
db

dy
d)
dh
Solution

y = 5b2 t−3 x4

As we are differentiating wrt h, the function can be re-written as:

y = (5b2 t−3 x4 ) h0

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 5b2 t−3 x4 and n = 0. Hence

dy
= 0 × (5b2 t−3 x4 ) h0−1
dh
= 0 × (5b2 t−3 x4 ) h−1
=0
dy
∴ =0
dh

dy
e)
dA
Solution

y = 5b2 t−3 x4

As we are differentiating wrt A, the function can be re-written as:

y = (5b2 t−3 x4 ) A0
Fundamentals of Differentiation 487

Comparing the function with axn , we can see that a = 5b2 t−3 x4 and n = 0. Hence
dy
= 0 × (5b2 t−3 x4 ) A0−1
dA
= 0 × (5b2 t−3 x4 ) A−1 = 0
dy
∴ =0
dA
The last two examples show that when differentiating wrt a variable that is not in the expression of
the function then it is as though we are differentiating a constant. Therefore, the derivative in this
case is zero. Note this down.
Before we move to the next standard derivative, it is important to introduce a technique, called
‘derivative of sum’, also known as ‘linearity rule of differentiation’. This is used to find the
derivative of a function which is made up of the summation of two or more separate functions or
terms.
For example, y = x3 − 7x + 3 is a function that consists of three other functions or terms, namely
(i) y1 = x3 , (ii) y2 = −7x, and (iii) y3 = 3. Well, you may start thinking that this is a polynomial of
degree 3. Yes, it is, but it can be equally viewed as three functions. Again, you may say that y3 = 3
is just a constant. You’re right, but that does not ‘deny’ it being a function. Since we can plot it as a
straight horizontal line passing through y = 3, it is a ‘function’. The need for this technique becomes
apparent when we have functions such as 3x + sin 𝜃 and ex + √x2 among others.
Now, back to our discussion: let’s say we have f (x), U (x), V (x), and W (x), all functions of x. It
follows that:
If f (x) = U (x) + V (x) + W (x) then f ′ (x) = U′ (x) + V′ (x) + W′ (x) (12.4)
Alternatively,
dy du dv dw
If y=u+v+w then = + + (12.5)
dx dx dx dx
where y, u, v, and w are functions of x.
We can write this rule in words as: the derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives.
This is indeed useful for finding the derivative of polynomial functions as well as other relevant func-
tions that fall into this category or meet the criteria. One very quick note is that we will restrict the
application to functions of powers here, as we haven’t discussed other derivatives. However, the rule
is more encompassing.

Let’s try some examples.

Example 4

Find the derivative of the following functions with respect to the indicated variable.

a) y = 3x − 5, [x] b) y = mx + c, [x]
c) y = 5t2 − 11t + 3e, [t] d) y = t − 13t2 − t3 , [t]
488 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

● Just follow the 4-step rule above and apply this to each term of the expression.
● We will also skip steps that are fundamental and have already been shown in previous
examples.

a) y = 3x − 5
Solution

f (x) = 3x − 5 = 3x − 5x0

Thus
dy
= 3x0 − 0 × 5x−1
dx
=3−0
dy
∴ =3
dx

b) y = mx + c
Solution

f (x) = mx + c = mx + cx0

Thus
dy
= mx0 + 0 × cx−1
dx
=m+0
dy
∴ =m
dx
This is the reason why the coefficient of x in a linear expression ax + b is usually taken as the slope
of the line.

c) y = 5t2 − 11t + 3e
Solution

f (x) = 5t2 − 11t + 3e

Thus
dy
= 10t − 11
dt
dy
∴ = 10t − 11
dt
Fundamentals of Differentiation 489

d) y = t − 13t2 − t3
Solution

f (x) = t − 13t2 − t3

Thus
dy
= 1 − 26t − 3t2
dt
dy
∴ = 1 − 26t − 3t2
dt
Since a derivative is usually a function of the gradient on the curve, it is essential to mention that
when determining the gradient at a particular point, such as at x = x1 , we write:

dy
(12.6)
dx |x=x1

Let’s try an example.

Example 5

Find the derivative of y = x5 − 2x4 − 3x3 + 7x2 − x + 8 at x = 1.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Solution

f (x) = x5 − 2x4 − 3x3 + 7x2 − x + 8

Thus

f ′ (x) = 5x4 − 8x3 − 9x2 + 14x − 1

At x = −1, we have
4 3 2
f ′ (−1) = 5(−1) − 8(−1) − 9(−1) + 14 (−1) − 1
= 5 + 8 − 9 − 14 − 1 = −11
dy |
∴ | = −11
dx |x=−1
490 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s try another example.

Example 6

Find the value of the gradient of the curve y = √x − x−3 + 3x at point P, given that the x-coordinate
at this point is 1. Present the answer in exact form.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

Solution

f (x) = √x − x−3 + 3x

We need to simplify this and present it in the required format as:

1
f (x) = √x − x−3 + 3x = x 2 − x−3 + 3x

Thus, the gradient function is

1 −1
f ′ (x) = x 2 + 3x−4 + 3
2
At point P, we have x = 1, thus

1 − 12 −4
f ′ (1) = (1) + 3(1) + 3
2
13
=
2
dy | 13
∴ | =
dx |x=1 2

Let’s try another example.

Example 7

3 x
Find the gradient of y = x2 . √x − 3 at point A such that the coordinates of A are given as (8, 124).
√x
Present the answer correct to 1 d.p.
Fundamentals of Differentiation 491

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Solution
3 x
f (x) = x2 .√x − 3
√x

We need to simplify this and present it in the required format as:

3 x
f (x) = x2 .√x − 3
√x
1
x
= x2 . x − 3
1
x3
1 1
(2+ ) (1− )
=x 3 −x 3

7 2
= x3 − x3

Thus, the gradient function is

7 4 2 −1
f ′ (x) = x3 − x 3
3 3
At point A (8, 124), we have that x = 8, thus we have

7 34 2 − 13
f ′ (8) = (8) − (8)
3 3
= 37
dy |
∴ | = 37.0 (1 d.p.)
dx |x=8

Another example to try.

Example 8

The volume of a cylindrical shape is given by V = 𝜋r2 h, where V is the volume in cm3 , r the radius
in cm, and h is the height in cm. The height is fixed at 10 cm in a batch production, such that the
volume changes with respect to radius. Find the rate of change of volume wrt radius, when r = 2 cm.
Present the answer in cm3 correct to the nearest whole unit and comment on the answer.
492 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

V = 𝜋r2 h
dV
= 2𝜋rh
dr
At r = 2 cm, we have
dV |
| = 2𝜋 (2) (10)
dr |r=2 cm
= 40𝜋 cm3 per cm
dV |
∴ | = 126 cm3 per cm
dr |r=2 cm

This means that for every 1 cm increase in radius length, the volume is increased by 126 cm3
approximately.

Another example to try.

Example 9

d
Simply (x2 + √x) at x = 2.
dx

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

d
Recall that one of the notations for the derivative is (y). In other words, we are simply asked to
dx
2
find the derivative of the function x + √x at x = 2. Let’s go

d 2 d 2 1
(x + √x) = (x + x 2 )
dx dx
1 −1
= 2x + x 2
2
Fundamentals of Differentiation 493

At x = 2, we have
d 2 1 −1
(x + √x) = 2 (2) + (2) 2
dx 2
1 8√2 + 1
=4+ =
2√2 2√2
16 + √2
=
4
d 2 | 16 + √2
∴ (x + √x)|| =
dx x=2 4

12.5.2 EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

For exponential functions, we have two cases.

CASE 1 ex

This can be regarded as a special situation where the base is a constant e ≈ 2.718 … . For this, we
have that

dy
If y = ex then = ex (12.7)
dx

The above implies that a function is the same as its derivative. This is remarkable, and it’s something
special about the differential coefficient of ex . The proof for this derivative is provided in Appendix A.

CASE 2 ax

This is a general case where the base is any value (constant or variable). We therefore have that

dy
If y = ax then = ax ln a (12.8)
dx

Let’s try some examples. Here we go.

Example 10

Find the derivative of the following functions wrt the indicated variable.

1
a) y = ex , [x] b) y = √5et , [t] c) y = 0.5bt , [t] d) y = at ,[x]
6

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) y = ex , [x]
494 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Solution
y = ex
Thus
dy
= ex
dx
dy
∴ = ex
dx

b) y = √5et , [t]
Solution
y = √5et
Thus
dy
= √5et
dt
dy
∴ = √5et
dt

c) y = 0.5bt , [t]
Solution
y = 0.5bt
Thus
dy
= (0.5bt ) ln b
dt
dy
∴ = 0.5bt ln b
dt

1
d) y = at ,[x]
6
Solution
1 t
y= a
6
We can modify this a bit to show how we arrive at the answer as:
1 t 1 t 1
y= a = a × 1 = ( at ) 1x
6 6 6
1
Note that 1 to the power of anything is 1. In this case, we will consider at as a constant, thus
6

dy 1
= ( at ) 1x × ln 1
dx 6
But ln 1 = 0, hence
dy
=0
dx
dy
∴ =0
dx
Fundamentals of Differentiation 495

Here is another couple of examples to try.

Example 11

Find the derivative of the following functions at the indicated value of the variable. Present the answer
in exact form.

a) y = 5x1.2 − 2ex , [x = 32] b) y = 2x + x2 , [x = 3]

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

a) y = 5x1.2 − 2ex , [x = 32]

Solution

y = 5x1.2 − 2ex

Thus

y′ = 6x0.2 − 2ex

At x = 32, we have
0.2
f ′ (32) = 6(32) − 2e32
= 12 − 2e32
dy |
∴ | = 2 (6 − e32 )
dx |x=32

b) y = 2x + x2 , [x = 3]
Solution

y = 2x + x2

Thus

y′ = 2x ln 2 + 2x

At x = 3, we have

f ′ (3) = 23 ln 2 + 2 × 3
= 8 ln 2 + 6
dy |
∴ | = 2 (4 ln 2 + 3)
dx |x=3
496 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

12.5.3 LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS

For logarithmic functions, we also have two cases.

CASE 1 loge x or ln x

This can be regarded as a special situation where the base is a value e ≈ 2.718 … . We will have that

dy 1
If y = ln x then = (12.9)
dx x

CASE 2 loga x

This is when the base of the logarithmic function takes any real value or variable. We also have that

dy 1
If y = loga x then = (12.10)
dx x ln a

Let’s try some examples.

Example 12

Find the derivative of the following functions with respect to the indicated variable.

a) y = 2 ln x, [x] b) y = ln √2, [x] c) y = log5 t, [𝜽] d) y = 7 log√3 t, [t]

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

a) y = 2 ln x , [x]
Solution

y = 2 ln x

Thus
dy 1
=2 ×
dx x
dy 2
∴ =
dx x

b) y = ln √2, [x]
Solution

y = ln √2
Fundamentals of Differentiation 497

Thus
dy
=0
dx
dy
∴ =0
dx

c) y = log5 t , [𝜽]
Solution

y = log5 t

Thus
dy
=0
d𝜃
dy
∴ =0
d𝜽

d) y = 7 log√3 t , [t]
Solution

y = 7 log√3 t

Thus
dy 1
=7×
dt t ln √3
dy 7
∴ =
dt t ln √3

Another set of examples to try.

Example 13

Find the derivative of the following functions at the indicated value of the variable. Present the answer
in exact form or correct to 2 decimal places.

a) y = ln x + log x, [x = 5] b) y = 4 log3 x − 3x − ln v, [x = 1]

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

a) y = ln x + log x, [x = 5]
Solution

y = ln x + log x
498 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus
1 1
y′ = +
x x ln 10
At x = 5, we have
1 1
y′ (5) = +
5 5 ln 10
ln 10 + 1
=
5 ln 10
dy |
∴ | = 0.29 (2 d.p.)
dx |x=5

b) y = 4 log3 x − 3x − ln v, [x = 1]
Solution

y = 4 log3 x − 3x − ln v

Thus
1
y′ = 4 − 3x ln 3 − 0
x ln 3
4
= − 3x ln 3
x ln 3
2
4 − x (3x ) (ln 3)
=
x ln 3
At x = 1, we have
2
′
4 − 1 × (31 ) (ln 3)
y (1) =
1 × ln 3
2
4 − 3(ln 3)
=
ln 3
dy |
∴ | = 0.35 (2 d.p.)
dx |x=1

12.5.4 TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

In this section, we’ll cover the derivative of the three fundamental trigonometric functions and their
reciprocals. Relevant proofs are provided in Appendix A.
Fundamentals of Differentiation 499

dy
If y = sin x then = cos x (12.11)
Case 1 sin x dx

dy
If y = cos x then = − sin x (12.12)
Case 2 cos x dx

dy
If y = tan x then = sec2 x (12.13)
Case 3 tan x dx

dy
If y = sec x then = sec x tan x (12.14)
Case 4 sec x dx

dy
If y = cosec x then = − cosec x cot x (12.15)
Case 5 cosec x dx

dy
If y = cot x then = −cosec2 x (12.16)
Case 6 cot x dx

Note that the derivative of the sine function is the cosine function, and the derivative of the cosine
function is the negative of the sine function. This will be reversed in integration in Chapter 15. This
is the case for all functions, but sine and cosine functions need particular attention.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 14

Find the derivative of the following functions wrt the indicated variable.

cos 𝜃
a) y = 𝜋 sin x, [x] b) y = , [𝜽]
√6

c) y = 1.4 tan 𝜔 − cos 𝜔, [𝝎] d) y = 𝜑 + sec 𝜑, [𝝋]

cot 𝛽
e) y = 3 cosec 𝛼 + sin x, [𝜶] f) y = − , [𝜷]
√3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) y = 𝜋 sin x, [x]
Solution

y = 𝜋 sin x
500 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus
dy
= 𝜋 × cos x
dx
dy
∴ = 𝝅 cos x
dx

cos 𝜃
b) y = , [𝜽]
√6
Solution
cos 𝜃
y=
√6
1
= × cos 𝜃
√6

Thus
dy 1
= × − sin 𝜃
d𝜃 √6
√6
=− × sin 𝜃
6
dy √6 sin 𝜽
∴ =−
d𝜽 6

c) y = 1.4 tan 𝜔 − cos 𝜔, [𝝎]

Solution

y = 1.4 tan 𝜔 − cos 𝜔

Thus
dy
= 1.4 tan 𝜔 − cos 𝜔
d𝜔
= 1.4sec2 𝜔 − (− sin 𝜔)
= 1.4sec2 𝜔 + sin 𝜔
dy
∴ = 1.4sec2 𝝎 + sin 𝝎
d𝝎

d) y = 𝜑 + sec 𝜑, [𝝋]
Solution

y = 𝜑 + sec 𝜑

Thus
dy
= 1 + sec 𝜑 tan 𝜑
d𝜑
dy
∴ = 1 + sec 𝝋 tan 𝝋
d𝝋
Fundamentals of Differentiation 501

e) y = 3 cosec 𝛼 + sin x, [𝜶]

Solution

y = 3 cosec 𝛼 + sin x

Thus
dy
= −3 cosec 𝛼 cot 𝛼 + 0
d𝛼
dy
∴ = −3 cosec 𝜶 cot 𝜶
d𝜶
Note
The derivative of sin x wrt to 𝛼 is zero.

cot 𝛽
f) y = − , [𝜷]
√3
Solution
cot 𝛽 1
y=− =− × cot 𝛽
√3 √3

Thus
dy 1
=− × −cosec2 𝛽
d𝛽 √3
1
= × cosec2 𝛽
√3
√3
= × cosec2 𝛽
3
dy √3
∴ = cosec2 𝜷
d𝜷 3

Here is another couple of examples to try.

Example 15

Find the derivative of the following functions at the indicated value of the variable. Present the answer
in exact form.

a) y = sin x + cos x, [x = 𝝅] b) y = √2 tan 𝜃 + √3 cot 𝜃, [𝜽 = 30°]

502 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

a) y = sin x + cos x, [x = 𝝅]
Solution

y = sin x + cos x

Thus

y′ = cos x − sin x

At x = 𝝅, we have

y′ (𝜋) = cos 𝜋 − sin 𝜋

= −1 − 0 = −1
dy |
∴ | = −1
dx |x=𝝅

b) y = √2 tan 𝜃 + √3 cot 𝜃, [𝜽 = 30°]

Solution

y = √2 tan 𝜃 + √3 cot 𝜃

Thus

y′ = √2sec2 𝜃 − √3cosec2 𝜃
√2 √3
= −
cos2 𝜃 sin2 𝜃

At 𝜽 = 30°, we have

√2 √3
y′ (30°) = −
cos2 30° sin2 30°
√2 √3 √2 √3
= 2
− 2
= −
1 3 1
√3
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 4 4
2

4√2 4√2 − 12√3

= − 4√3 =
3 3
4 (√2 − 3√3)
dy |
∴ | =
d𝜽 |𝜽=30° 3

While we will be less concerned with inverse trigonometric functions in this book, we thought it is
appropriate to provide the derivative of the inversion here for reference only (Table 12.6).
Fundamentals of Differentiation 503

TABLE 12.6
Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

dy dy
Function Function
dx dx

1 1
sin−1 x , x ≠ ±1 sec−1 x , x ≠ ±1, 0
√1−x2 |x|√x2 −1

−1 −1
cos−1 x , x ≠ ±1 cosec−1 x x ≠ ±1, 0
√1−x2 |x|√x2 −1

1 −1
tan−1 x cot−1 x
1+x2 1+x2

12.6 HIGHER-ORDER DERIVATIVES

We’ve now covered the fundamentals of differentiation. It is our aim to finish off this chapter with a
concept that is relevant to our work in the latter chapters when we start looking at the applications
of differentiation. This is called the higher derivatives. It is a rather simple concept, and it implies
finding the derivative of a derivative and another in a consecutive manner. The higher you go, the
higher the number associated with the derivative.
The derivatives we’ve had so far are regarded as the first derivative, and if we take the derivative of
the first derivative, we get the second derivative and when we take the derivative of the second one,
we get the third, and so on. This will become easy with the examples to follow, but before that, here
are some notations (Table 12.7) for the higher derivatives, given that y = f (x).
As earlier noted for the first derivative, all other notations for higher derivatives are also operators
and should be considered so.

TABLE 12.7
Notations for Higher Derivatives Illustrated

Degree Notation Read as Alternative Notations

dy d
First derivative Dee y dee x f ′ (x); ẏ ; y′ ; (y)
dx dx

d2 y d dy
Second derivative Dee two y dee x squared f″ (x); ÿ ; y″ ; ( )
dx2 dx dx

d3 y d d2 y
Third derivative Dee three y dee x cubed f ‴ (x); y⃛ ; y‴ ; ( )
dx3 dx dx2

d4 y v d d3 y
Fourth derivative Dee four y dee x quadrupled f ′ (x); ( )
dx4 dx dx3

dn y d dn−1 y
nth derivative Dee n y dee x n ( )
dxn dx dxn−1
504 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s try some examples to illustrate higher derivatives.

Example 16

Find the first, second, and third derivatives of the following functions:

a) y = x3 + 5x − x−2 b) s = 5t2 − 11t + 3 c) y = ln x

d) f (𝜃) = sin 𝜃 e) g (𝜑) = cos 𝜑 f) h (x) = ex

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

Hint

Nothing to worry about. We’ve used different notations to ensure that you are familiar with them.
Feel free to choose from the options when you are solving problems.

a) y = x3 + 5x − x−2
Solution

y = x3 + 5x − x−2

Thus, the first derivative

dy
= 3x2 + 5 + 2x−3
dx
dy
differentiating to get the second derivative
dx

d2 y
= 6x − 6x−4
dx2
d2 y
differentiating to get the third derivative
dx2

d3 y
= 6 + 24x−5
dx3
Therefore
dy d2 y d3 y
= 3x2 + 5 + 2x−3 = 6x − 6x−4 = 6 + 24x−5
dx dx2 dx3
Fundamentals of Differentiation 505

b) s = 5t2 − 11t + 3
Solution

s = 5t2 − 11t + 3

Thus, the first derivative

s ̇ = 10t − 11

differentiating s ̇ to get the second derivative

s ̈ = 10

differentiating s ̈ to get the third derivative

s⃛ = 0

Therefore

s ̇ = 10t − 11 s ̈ = 10 s⃛ = 0

As you will see later in this book, if s represents displacement (in m), then s,̇ s,̈ and s ⃛ are the velocity
(in m/s), acceleration (in m/s2 ), and jerk or jolt (in m/s3 ), respectively.

c) y = ln x
Solution

y = ln x

Thus, the first derivative

1
y′ = = x−1
x
differentiating y′ to get the second derivative
1
y″ = −x−2 = −
x2
differentiating y″ to get the third derivative
2
y‴ = 2x−3 =
x3
Therefore
1 1 2
y′ = y″ = − y‴ =
x x2 x3
506 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

d) f (𝜃) = sin 𝜃
Solution

f (𝜃) = sin 𝜃

Thus, the first derivative

f ′ (𝜃) = cos 𝜃

differentiating f ′ (𝜃) to get the second derivative

f ″ (𝜃) = − sin 𝜃

differentiating f ″ (𝜃) to get the third derivative

f ‴ (𝜃) = − cos 𝜃

Therefore

f ′ (𝜽) = cos 𝜽 f ″ (𝜽) = − sin 𝜽 f ‴ (𝜽) = − cos 𝜽

The cycle here is S → C → −S → −C

e) g (𝜑) = cos 𝜑
Solution

g (𝜑) = cos 𝜑

Thus, the first derivative

g′ (𝜑) = − sin 𝜑

differentiating g′ (𝜑) to get the second derivative

g″ (𝜑) = − cos 𝜑

differentiating g″ (𝜑) to get the third derivative

g‴ (𝜑) = sin 𝜑

Therefore

g′ (𝝋) = − sin 𝝋 g″ (𝝋) = − cos 𝝋 g‴ (𝝋) = sin 𝝋

The cycle here is C → −S → −C → S. It is therefore obvious that the cycle is continuous and can be
represented as shown in Figure 12.10:
Fundamentals of Differentiation 507

FIGURE 12.10 Solution to Example 16(e).

f) h (x) = ex
Solution

h (x) = ex

Thus, the first derivative

h′ (x) = ex

differentiating h′ (x) to get the second derivative

h″ (x) = ex

differentiating h″ (x) to get the third derivative

h‴ (x) = ex

Therefore

h′ (x) = ex h″ (x) = ex h‴ (x) = ex

The function remains the same.

12.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Calculus is a branch of mathematics with two distinctive parts: differentiation and inte-
gration.
2) Differentiation is a measure of the ‘rate of change’. In other words, it is a technique
that is used to determine the size of change in one physical quantity (e.g., volume, dis-
tance, mass) when compared to an equivalent change in another physical quantity (e.g.,
time).
508 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

dy
3) We have a few ways to denote differentiation, but (reads ‘dee y dee x’) seems very
dx
popular.
4) The limit is the boundary, and thus the limit of a function is the boundary of that func-
tion.
5) If a function of x is denoted as f (x), then the limit of this function is represented as:

lim f (x)

This is read as ‘limit of f function of x’. A more useful version is

lim f (x)
x→∞

This is the ‘limit of f function of x as x → ∞’. The sign → is read as ‘tends to’ and
technically implies that the left-hand variable x approaches the right-hand variable or
number.
6) Gradient (or slope) of a straight line is given by ‘delta y (or 𝚫y) over delta x (or 𝚫x)’,
Δy
i.e., .
Δx
7) Δ is a Greek letter, generally used to denote a measurable change in a physical quantity
as against 𝛿 – a lowercase delta – which denotes an infinitesimal (or an infinitely small)
change in the quantity. Δy is obtained by finding the difference in two y-coordinates;
these values could be the initial and final or the first and second or second and fifth and
so on. The same can be said about Δx.
8) Unlike a straight line, the gradient of a curve changes as we move from one point to
another along the curve.
9) Derivative of the function as the change in x approaches zero is written as:

dy 𝜹y dy ∆y
= lim [ ] OR = lim [ ]
dx 𝜹x→0 𝜹x dx ∆x→0 ∆x

dy d
10) is an operator and does not imply dy divided by dx. It can be written as (y) read as
dx dx
‘dee dee x of y’, where y is a function of x or any other variable. This makes it explic-
dy 𝜹y ∆y
itly clear that is an operator. On the other hand, and are not operators; they
dx 𝜹x ∆x
imply a change in y divided by a change in x, hence they can be detached and evaluated
separately.
11) A particular method of finding the derivative of a function is known as ‘finding the
derivative from the first principle’ or ‘differentiating from the first principle’.
12) The process of finding the derivative of a function is called differentiation. This is also
called ‘differential coefficient of a function wrt to an independent variable’ or ‘the rate
dy
of change of function or gradient function’ or simply . It is a gradient function rather
dx
than a gradient, as it gives us a function that can be used to find the gradient at a given
point on the curve.
Fundamentals of Differentiation 509

13) Since a derivative is usually a function of the gradient on the curve, it is essential to
mention that when determining the gradient at a particular point such as at x = x1 , we
write:
dy
dx |x=x1
14) Standard derivatives of common functions:
● Polynomial function or power function
dy
If f (x) = axn then = anxn−1
dx
The above is valid for any real values of n and a. If a = 1, we have a modified
version
dy
If f (x) = xn then = nxn−1
dx
● Exponential functions
dy
If y = ex then = ex
dx

dy
If y = ax then = ax ln a
dx
● Logarithmic functions
dy 1
If y = ln x then =
dx x

dy 1
If y = loga x then =
dx x ln a
● Trigonometric functions and their reciprocals

dy
If y = sin x then = cos x
dx
dy
If y = cos x then = − sin x
dx
dy
If y = tan x then = sec2 x
dx
dy
If y = sec x then = sec x tan x
dx
dy
If y = cosec x then = − cosec x cot x
dx
dy
If y = cot x then = −cosec2 x
dx
510 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

15) The ‘derivative of sum’ is used to find the derivative of a function which is made up
of the summation of two or more separate functions or terms.
Let’s say we have f (x), U (x), V (x), and W (x), all functions of x. It follows that:

If f (x) = U (x) + V (x) + W (x) then f ′ (x) = U′ (x) + V′ (x) + W′ (x)

Alternatively,

dy du dv dw
If y=u+v+w then = + +
dx dx dx dx

where y, u, v, and w are functions of x.

We can write this rule in words as: the derivative of a sum is the sum of the deriva-
tives.
16) The higher derivatives imply finding the derivative of a derivative and another in a con-
secutive manner. The higher you go, the higher the number associated to the derivative..

****

12.8 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 13 Advanced Differentiation
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Determine the derivative of composite functions using the chain rule

● Determine the derivative of a product of two or more functions using
the product rule
● Determine the derivative of rational functions using the quotient rule
● Determine the derivative of complex functions using a combination
of rules
● Determine the derivative of implicit functions
● Determine the derivative of logarithmic functions
● Determine the derivative of parametric functions
● Use the inverse derivative

13.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapter, we went through the fundamentals of differential coefficients and focused
on simple functions, which consists of one term and one process. We used the differentiation of the
sum rule to deal with multiple-term functions. In practice, functions can be of multiple processes,
products of two or more functions, division of functions, or combinations of these. These complex
functions can be solved by applying further rules and techniques, as will be seen soon in this chapter.
We will therefore cover the chain, product, and quotient rules, and discuss implicit, logarithmic, and
parametric differentiation.

13.2 RULES OF DIFFERENTIATION

We will start off here by looking at the rule of:

a) multiple process,
b) multiplication, and
c) division.

Recall that the differential of the sum rule has catered for addition, and subtraction is also implied
by extension.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-13 511
512 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This is the first stage, which

This is the final stage, which
feeds in the independent or
produces the dependent variable
control variable. This is usually
or value. It is usually expected
our value, which represents This is the stage where the
that is a number but can be
any variable and can equally main ac!on(s) of the func!on
another variable. Another le#er or
be replaced with any le#er or is carried out. It can be single
sign can also be used instead.
sign. or mul!-layer.

Input Process Output

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

FIGURE 13.1 Chain rule illustrated.

13.2.1 CHAIN RULE

The chain rule plays an important role in differentiation, and it is used to solve multiple, composite,
or cascaded processes. This is commonly called ‘function of a function’.
Before we introduce the rule, let’s quickly revise a function or a process. Figure 13.1 is a flow chart
(or block diagram) of the three main stages of a function, which:

1) takes a value, generally denoted as x,

2) processes the value based on a pre-defined protocol or instruction(s), and finally
3) sends the processed value as an output y.

We write this process in a shorthand form as:

y = f (x) (13.1)

The above simply implies that y is a function of x or the value of y depends on the value of x, based
on a pre-defined process. For example, y = x2 − 1 is a function that depends on the value of x to
produce a related value of y. The process here consists of two instructions, namely:

a) Square the input (or multiply the input by itself).

b) Subtract 1 from the result obtained in (a).

The combination of these two instructions results in what is known as a quadratic function, and the
result is sent to stage 3 as output y. This is a simple or single function, where the instructions are con-
sidered as a block of processes. On the other hand, we have situations where an input will undergo
two or more independent processes to generate an output.
Under this, we will examine two different situations:

Case 1 Function of a function

Imagine the result of the above process in stage 2, defined by f (x) = x2 − 1, needs to be further
processed by an instruction or a set of instructions, defined by g (x) = sin x, before being sent as an
output to stage 3. In this case, we have what we call (or can be regarded as) a function of a function.
This is illustrated in Figure 13.2.
Advanced Differentiation 513

Process 1: Process 2:
Input Output
−

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

(a)

Process 1:
−
Input Output
Process 2:
Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

(b)

FIGURE 13.2 Two levels of chain rule illustrated.

In (a), we have two processes: the input x is fed into x2 – 1, and the result is an input to a second pro-
cess, sin (x2 − 1). Once the sine function has been performed, the result is fed to stage 3, the output.
The same can be visualised as illustrated in (b). In this case, the input from stage 1 is sent to the inner
process of quadratic function, and the result of this process is passed to an outer process for further
processing before being sent to stage 3, the output. This is simply a composite function, which can
be denoted as f [g (x)]. Understanding the inner vs outer, as well as the first and second processes, is
a pre-requisite for dealing with chain rule, which will be used to solve function of function problems.
The rule states that:

dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g (x) then = × (13.2)
dx du dx

where g (x) is the inner or first function to be evaluated and f (u) is the outer or second function.
Other variants of the rule are:

dy
If y = f [g (x)] then = f′ [g (x)] × g′ (x) (13.3)
dx

and

n dy n−1
If y = [f (x)] then = n [f (x)] × f′ (x) (13.4)
dx

Using our example above, we can say that g (x) = x2 − 1 and f (u) = sin u.

Case 2 Function of a ‘function of a function’

Sometimes, a function can be a cascade of more than two processes. Figure 13.3 is a three-process
cascaded function.
514 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Process 3:
Process 1: Process 2:
Input 1 Output
− − 1 − 1

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3

(a)

Process 1: −
Input Process 2: Output
Process 3:
Stage 1 Stage 3
Stage 2
(b)

FIGURE 13.3 Three levels of chain rule illustrated.

The chain rule for this can be stated as:

dy dy du dv
If y = f (u) , u = g (v) , and v = h (x) then = × × (13.5)
dx du dv dx

Following the above two cases, we should note the following:

Note 1 A function of a function can be viewed as a loop within a loop.

Note 2 The derivative of the overall function is the product of the derivative from each loop.
Note 3 If there are n loops or processes in stage 2, there will be n derivatives in the differential coef-
ficient. For example, in a function of a function, n = 2 and there are two derivatives to be
dy du
multiplied, namely and .
du dx

Note 4 n can be determined by the number of distinctly possible brackets. If one can distinctly apply
[{ ( ) }], then there are three processes and it will be considered as a ‘function of a function
of a function’.
Note 5 Notice that the formula is such that the RHS can be cancelled out (as illustrated below) in
order to obtain the LHS, though technically impossible as derivatives are operators.
Advanced Differentiation 515

Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Solve the following using the chain rule, and where possible, solve the same without using the rule.

d 2 d 3
a) (x2 + 2) b) (3t − 1)
dx dt

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

d 2
a) (x2 + 2)
dx
Solution
2
y = (x2 + 2)

Chain Rule
This is a function of a function. Let u = x2 + 2 then y = u2 , therefore

du dy
= 2x and = 2u = 2 (x2 + 2)
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
du du dx
= 2 (x2 + 2) × 2x
= 4x (x2 + 2)
dy
∴ = 4x (x2 + 2)
dx

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Without the chain rule, we will need to expand the brackets
2
y = (x2 + 2)
= x4 + 4x2 + 4

Differentiating y wrt x, we have

dy
= 4x3 + 8x
dx
516 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Factorise the differential coefficient, we have

= 4x(x2 + 2)
dy
∴ = 4x (x2 + 2)
dx

d 3
b) (3t − 1)
dt
Solution
3
y = (3t − 1)

Chain Rule
This is a function of a function. Let u = 3t − 1 then y = u3 , therefore

du dy 2
=3 and = 3u2 = 3(3t − 1)
dt du
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dt du dt
2
= 3(3t − 1) × 3
2
= 9(3t − 1)
dy 2
∴ = 9(3t − 1)
dt

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Without the chain rule, we will need to expand the brackets
3
y = (3t − 1)

This can be expanded using the binomial theorem or another suitable approach. Doing this will
give
3
y = (3t − 1)
= (3t − 1) (3t − 1) (3t − 1)
= (9t2 − 6t + 1) (3t − 1)
= 27t3 − 9t2 − 18t2 + 6t + 3t − 1
= 27t3 − 27t2 + 9t − 1

Differentiating y wrt x, we have

dy
= 81t2 − 54t + 9
dx
Advanced Differentiation 517

Factorise the differential coefficient, we have

= 9 (9t2 − 6t + 1)
2
= 9(3t − 1)
dy 2
∴ = 9(3t − 1)
dx

From the above examples, we observe the following:

Note 1 The answer is the same for either the chain rule or by expanding the brackets.
Note 2 In (a), the chain rule appears relatively longer, but in (b), it was simple and relatively
straightforward.

Whilst the expansion is possible here, and we could apply both methods, often the expansion is either
impossible or too complicated to obtain, especially if u is neither a power function nor a polynomial
expression, e.g., sin (x2 − 1). We shall try a new set of examples and determine how many we can
try without the chain rule. Here we go.

Example 2

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

a) y = cos3 x b) y = cos x3 c) y = etan x d) y = 2e1−3x

20 1
e) y = (x3 − x + √3) f) y = g) y = cosec (3 − ln x) h) y = log2 ex
√x2 −3x−1

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Hint

Once we are comfortable with this, we do not need to go through all the steps. All we need is
to:

● Determine each ‘block’ and differentiate each.

● Substitute the inner block function in the derivative of the immediate next block.
● Multiply all the differential coefficients together.
518 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

a) y = cos3 x
Solution
3
y = cos3 x = (cos x)
Let u = cos x then y = u3 , therefore
du dy 2
= − sin x and = 3u2 = 3(cos x) = 3 cos2 x
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 3 cos2 x × − sin x
= −3 sin x cos2 x
d
∴ cos3 x = −3 sin x cos2 x
dx

b) y = cos x3
Solution
y = cos x3 = cos (x3 )
Let u = x3 then y = cos u, therefore
du dy
= 3x2 and = − sin u = − sin x3
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= − sin x3 × 3x2
= −3x2 . sin x3
d
∴ cos x3 = −3x2 . sin x3
dx

c) y = etan x
Solution
y = etan x
Let u = tan x then y = eu , therefore
du dy
= sec2 x and = eu = etan x
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= etan x × sec2 x
= sec2 x.etan x
d tan x
∴ e = sec2 x.etan x
dx
Advanced Differentiation 519

d) y = 2e1−3x
Solution

y = 2e1−3x

Let u = 1 − 3x then y = 2eu , therefore

du dy
= −3 and = 2eu = 2e1−3x
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= 2e1−3x × −3
= −6e1−3x
d 1−3x
∴ 2e = −6e1−3x
dx

20
e) y = (x3 − x + √3)
Solution
20
y = (x3 − x + √3)

Although it is possible to expand this, avoid the expansion unless it is a stated requirement.
Let u = x3 − x + √3 then y = u20 , therefore

du dy 19
= 3x2 − 1 and = 20u19 = 20(x3 − x + √3)
dx du
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
19
= 20(x3 − x + √3) × 3x2 − 1
19
= 20 (3x2 − 1) (x3 − x + √3)
d 3 20 19
∴ (x − x + √3) = 20 (3x2 − 1) (x3 − x + √3)
dx

1
f) y =
√x2 −3x−1
Solution
1
y=
√x2 − 3x − 1

We need to manipulate this a bit as follows

1
1 −
y= 1
= (x2 − 3x − 1) 2

(x2 − 3x − 1) 2
520 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
−
Now it is in the right form. Let u = x2 − 3x − 1 then y = u 2 , therefore
3
du dy 1 −3 1 −
= 2x − 3 and = − u 2 = − (x2 − 3x − 1 ) 2
dx du 2 2
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
3
1 −
= − (x2 − 3x − 1 ) 2 × (2x − 3)
2
1 2x − 3
=− 3
× (2x − 3) = −
3
2(x2 − 3x − 1 ) 2 2√(x2 − 3x − 1 )
d 1 2x − 3 3 − 2x
∴ =− OR
dx √x2 − 3x − 1 3 3
2√(x2 − 3x − 1 ) 2√(x2 − 3x − 1 )

Note
You will see later in this chapter that we can deal with this problem using the quotient rule.

g) y = cosec (3 − ln x)
Solution

y = cosec (3 − ln x)

Let u = 3 − ln x then y = cosec u, therefore

du 1 dy
=− and = − cosec u. cot u = − cosec (3 − ln x) . cot (3 − ln x)
dx x du
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
1
= − cosec (3 − ln x) . cot (3 − ln x) × −
x
cosec (3 − ln x) . cot (3 − ln x)
=
x
d cosec (3 − ln x) . cot (3 − ln x)
∴ cosec (3 − ln x) =
dx x

h) y = log2 ex
Solution

y = log2 ex

Let u = ex then y = log2 u, therefore

du dy 1 1
= ex and = = x
dx du u. ln 2 e . ln 2
Advanced Differentiation 521

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
1
= x × ex
e . ln 2
1
=
ln 2
d x 1
∴ log2 e =
dx ln 2

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

y = log2 ex

Using the power law of logarithm, we have

y = xlog2 e = (log2 e) x

We need to recognise that log2 e is a constant and should be differentiated in the same manner
as y = 3x, hence
dy
= log2 e
dx
Using a couple of laws, we can simplify the above as:

dy loge e
= log2 e =
dx loge 2
1 1
= =
loge 2 ln 2
d 1
∴ log2 ex =
dx ln 2

Another set of examples to try. These are ‘function of a function of a function’ cases.

Example 3

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

2
a) y = tan4 (2x + 1) b) y = sin (ex ) c) y = sec2 (1 − 5x) d) y = log7 |cos (𝜋x)|
522 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Hint

● The approach here is that we need to identify the three composite functions. The inner-
most is our v, then u and the outermost (or the ‘team leader’) is our y. You may want to
rearrange or re-present the function to give you the picture of a 3 cascaded function.
● Also, once you are comfortable, you can ignore certain steps. In this case, you just need
to multiply the derivative of each of the blocks or layers as you see it.

a) y = tan4 (2x + 1)
Solution

y = tan4 (2x + 1)
4
= [tan (2x + 1)]

Using the above format, v = 2x + 1, u = tan v and y = u4 , therefore

du dy 3
dv = sec2 v = 4u3 = 4(tan v)
=2 dv and du
dx
= sec2 (2x + 1) = 4tan3 v = 4tan3 (2x + 1)
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
= 4tan3 (2x + 1) × sec2 (2x + 1) × 2
= 8 sec2 (2x + 1) tan3 (2x + 1)
dy
∴ = 8 sec2 (2x + 1) tan3 (2x + 1)
dx

2
b) y = sin (ex )
Solution
2
y = sin (ex )

Let v = x2 , u = ev and y = sin u, therefore

du dy
dv = ev = cos u
= 2x dv and du
2
dx x2 = cos (ex )
=e
Advanced Differentiation 523

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
2 2
= cos (ex ) × ex × 2x
2 2
= 2x.ex . cos (ex )
dy 2 2
∴ = 2x.ex . cos (ex )
dx

c) y = sec2 (1 − 5x)
Solution

y = sec2 (1 − 5x)
2
= [sec (1 − 5x)]

Using the above format, v = 1 − 5x, u = sec v and y = u2 , therefore

du dy
dv = sec v. tan v = 2u
= −5 dv and du
dx
= sec (1 − 5x) . tan (1 − 5x) = 2 sec (1 − 5x)
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
= 2 sec (1 − 5x) × sec (1 − 5x) . tan (1 − 5x) × −5
= −10 sec2 (1 − 5x) tan (1 − 5x)
dy
∴ = −10 sec2 (1 − 5x) tan (1 − 5x)
dx

d) y = log7 |cos (𝜋x)|

Solution

y = log7 cos (𝜋x)

Using the above format, v = 𝜋x, u = cos v and y = log7 u, therefore

dy 1
dv
du
= − sin v =
du u ln 7
=𝜋 dv and 1
dx
= − sin (𝜋x) =
(ln 7) cos(𝜋x)

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du dv
= × ×
dx du dv dx
1
= × − sin (𝜋x) × 𝜋
(ln 7) cos (𝜋x)
𝜋 sin (𝜋x) 𝜋
=− =− tan (𝜋x)
(ln 7) cos (𝜋x) ln 7
dy 𝝅
∴ =− tan (𝝅x)
dx ln 7
524 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

13.2.2 PRODUCT RULE

This rule is used when one function is multiplied by another function wrt the same variable, e.g.,
y = sin x. (x2 + 3). In this case, we will consider that y is a function of x which is a product of two
functions, namely:

1) a sine function, sin x, and

2) a quadratic function, x2 + 3.

In the above example, if we choose u and v to represent sin x and x2 + 3, respectively, then we can
write y = uv. Also, just as we can write y = f (x) to show that y varies as x or is a function of x, we can
equally write u = g (x) and v = h (x) for the same purpose. Consequentially, it is a pre-requisite that
y, u, and v are functions of the same variable (i.e., x in this case) to use the product rule. As a result,
y = sin 2𝜋 (x2 + 3) is not a product rule case since functions sin 2𝜋 and x2 + 3 are not varying with
respect to the same variable. In fact, this is a single function, i.e., quadratic function, since sin 2𝜋 is
a constant once evaluated.
Product rule can be stated as:

dy dv du
If y = uv, where u = g (x) and v = h (x) then =u +v (13.6)
dx dx dx

Since y, u, and v are functions of x, we can write the rule in a short form as:

y′ = uv′ + vu′ (13.7)

where y′ , u′ and v′ are derivatives of the respective functions.

Before we start looking at examples, let’s outline the following steps to take in applying this rule:

Step 1: Identify that you have two functions that are multiplied together.
Step 2: Label the two functions as u and v.
Step 3: Find the derivative of u and call this u′ .
Step 4: Do the same for v and call this v′ .
Step 5: Substitute u, v , u′ , and v′ in uv′ + vu′ .
dy
Step 6: Simplify the expression to obtain your derivative y′ or .
dx

The above steps are for two functions, but the same steps can be used when there are more than two
functions in the product.
Let’s try an example.

Example 4

A function y = f (x) is defined by y = uvw, where u, v, and w are functions of x. Prove that the
differential coefficient of y wrt x can be obtained using:
dy dw dv du
= uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx dx
Advanced Differentiation 525

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Method 1 From the first principle

y = uvw

Step 1: Determine the change in y or y + 𝛿y

𝛿x in x will produce a corresponding 𝛿y, 𝛿u, 𝛿v, and 𝛿w in y, u, v, and w, respectively. Therefore,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= (u + 𝛿u) (v + 𝛿v) (w + 𝛿w)
= (uv + u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v) (w + 𝛿w)
= uvw + uw𝛿v + vw𝛿u + w𝛿u𝛿v + uv𝛿w + u𝛿v𝛿w + v𝛿u𝛿w + 𝛿u𝛿v𝛿w

It follows that

𝛿y = [uvw + uw𝛿v + vw𝛿u + w𝛿u𝛿v + uv𝛿w + u𝛿v𝛿w + v𝛿u𝛿w + 𝛿u𝛿v𝛿w] − [uvw]

= uw𝛿v + vw𝛿u + w𝛿u𝛿v + uv𝛿w + u𝛿v𝛿w + v𝛿u𝛿w + 𝛿u𝛿v𝛿w

Step 2: Evaluate the slope as:

𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
uw𝛿v + vw𝛿u + w𝛿u𝛿v + uv𝛿w + u𝛿v𝛿w + v𝛿u𝛿w + 𝛿u𝛿v𝛿w
≈
𝛿x
𝛿v 𝛿u 𝛿v 𝛿w 𝛿w 𝛿w 𝛿w
≈ uw + vw + w𝛿u + uv + u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v
𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x
Step 3: Determine the derivative

dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
𝛿v 𝛿u 𝛿v 𝛿w 𝛿w 𝛿w 𝛿w
= lim (uw + vw + w𝛿u + uv + u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x
𝛿w dw 𝛿v dv 𝛿u du
As 𝛿x → 0, → , → and → , and 𝛿u → 0, 𝛿v → 0, and 𝛿w → 0, hence
𝛿x dx 𝛿x dx 𝛿x dx

dy dv du dv dw dw dw
= uw + vw + w × 0 + uv +u×0 +v×0
dx dx dx dx dx dx dx

dy d dv du dw
∴ = (uvw) = uw + vw + uv
dx dx dx dx dx
526 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Method 2 Double application of the product rule

Alternatively, we can prove the same by applying the product rule formula twice as follows:

y = uvw
= u (vw)

Step 1: Product rule (first stage)

We will consider u and vw, hence
d d du
y = u vw + vw − − − (i)
dx dx dx
Step 2: Product rule (2nd stage)
Using the product rule again, we have

d dw dv
vw = v +w − − − (ii)
dx dx dx
Step 3: Combining the two stages
Substituting (ii) in (i), we have

d dw dv du
y = u [v + w ] + vw
dx dx dx dx
dw dv du
= uv + uw + vw
dx dx dx
dy d dv du dw
∴ = (uvw) = uw + vw + uv
dx dx dx dx dx
The second method above can be easily used when n functions are multiplied together by using the
product rule (n − 1) times.

Another example to try.

Example 5

2
A polynomial function is given as y = (3x − 5) (x4 + 1). Using the product rule or otherwise,
differentiate y wrt x.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Method 1 Using Product Rule

2
y = (3x − 5) (x4 + 1)
Advanced Differentiation 527

2
Let u = 3x − 5 and v = x4 + 1, therefore
du dv
= 6x and = 4x3
dx dx
Using the product rule, we have that

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
2
= (3x − 5) (4x3 ) + (x4 + 1) (6x)
= 12x5 − 20x3 + 6x5 + 6x
= 18x5 − 20x3 + 6x
= 2x (9x4 − 10x2 + 3)
dy
∴ = 2x (9x4 − 10x2 + 3)
dx
Method 2 Using expansion
In this alternative method, we start by opening the brackets as:
2
y = (3x − 5) (x4 + 1)
= 3x6 − 5x4 + 3x2 − 5

This is now a polynomial function, thus

y′ = 18x5 − 20x3 + 6x
= 2x (9x4 − 10x2 + 3)
dy
∴ = 2x (9x4 − 10x2 + 3)
dx

The above example highlights the possibility of using a different approach when a product rule ques-
tion is presented. In fact, this question shows that the alternative method is quicker and easier. Yes,
2
this seems true for this question, which is a product of two polynomial functions, i.e., 3x − 5 and
4
x + 1. In general, the function where the product rule is specially required to be used is when mul-
tiplying functions cannot be simplified (or fused) into one function. This will become apparently
evident in the examples to follow shortly.
Another set of examples to try.

Example 6

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

a) y = (x2 + x − 1) tan x b) y = sin x. cos x c) y = 2x5 log x

d) y = ex cot x e) y = √x. ln x
528 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

a) y = (x2 + x − 1) tan x
Solution

y = (x2 + x − 1) tan x

Let u = x2 + x − 1 and v = tan x, therefore

du dv
= 2x + 1 and = sec2 x
dx dx
Using the product rule, we have that

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (x + x − 1) (sec2 x) + (tan x) (2x + 1)
2

There is less to simplify here

dy
∴ = (x2 + x − 1) sec2 x + (2x + 1) tan x
dx

b) y = sin x. cos x
Solution

y = sin x. cos x

Let u = sin x and v = cos x, therefore

du dv
= cos x and = − sin x
dx dx
Using the product rule, we have that

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= sin x . − sin x + cos x. cos x
2
= cos2 x − sin x
= cos 2x
dy
∴ = cos 2x
dx
Advanced Differentiation 529

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

y = sin x. cos x

Using the double-angle formula, we have

1
y= sin 2x
2
Using the chain rule to differentiate the above, we have
1
y′ = ( cos 2x) × 2
2
= cos 2x
dy
= cos 2x
dx

c) y = 2x5 log x
Solution

y = 2x5 log x

Let u = 2x5 and v = log x, therefore

du dv 1
= 10x4 and =
dx dx x ln 10
Using the product rule, we have that
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
1
= 2x5 . + log x.10x4
x ln 10
2x4
= 10x4 log x +
ln 10
4 1
= 2x (5 log x + )
ln 10
= 2x4 (log x5 + log e)
= 2x4 log ex5
dy
∴ = 2x4 log ex5
dx

d) y = ex cot x
Solution

y = ex cot x

Let u = ex and v = cot x, therefore

du dv
= ex and = −cosec2 x
dx dx
530 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Using the product rule, we have that

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= ex . − cosec2 x + cot x.ex
= ex (cot x − cosec2 x)
dy
∴ = ex (cot x − cosec2 x)
dx

e) y = √x. ln x
Solution

y = √x. ln x

Let u = √x and v = ln x, therefore

du 1 −1 dv 1
= x 2 and =
dx 2 dx x
Using the product rule, we have that

dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
1 1 −1
= √x. + ln x. x 2
x 2
1
−1 1
= x 2 .x + ln x. 1
2x 2
−
1
ln x 1 ln x
=x 2 + = +
2√x √x 2√x
2 + ln x
=
2√x
dy 2 + ln x
∴ =
dx 2√x

Before we leave this section, let’s try cases where a function is a product of three and four functions.
Here we go.

Example 7

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

a) y = ex . sin x. ln x b) y = (x2 + 1) (x − 3) log6 x c) y = x2 .ex . tan x. ln x

Advanced Differentiation 531

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

a) y = ex . sin x. ln x
Solution

y = ex . sin x. ln x

Let u = ex , v = sin x, and w = ln x, therefore

1
u′ = ex v′ = cos x and w′ =
x
Using the product rule, we have that

y′ = uvw′ + uwv′ + vwu′

1
= (ex ) (sin x) ( ) + (ex ) (ln x) (cos x) + (sin x) (ln x) (ex )
x
sin x
= ex ( + ln x. cos x + ln x. sin x)
x
There is less to simplify here

dy sin x
∴ = ex ( + ln x. cos x + ln x. sin x)
dx x
Note
The functions u, v, and w in this example are such that we cannot simplify to a product of two func-
tions. Therefore, there is no way to cross-reference the solution except possibly by using the product
rule twice. Let’s look at another example where we have an apparent alternative method.

b) y = (x2 + 1) (x − 3) log6 x
Solution
Method 1 Product rule for three functions

y = (x2 + 1) (x − 3) log6 x

Let u = x2 + 1, v = x − 3, and w = log6 x, therefore

1
u′ = 2x v′ = 1 and w′ =
x ln 6
Using the product rule, we have that

y′ = uvw′ + uwv′ + vwu′

1
= (x2 + 1) (x − 3) ( ) + (x2 + 1) (log6 x) (1) + (x − 3) (log6 x) (2x)
x ln 6
(x2 + 1) (x − 3)
= + (x2 + 1) log6 x + 2x (x − 3) log6 x
x ln 6
532 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

(x2 + 1) (x − 3)
= + log6 x [(x2 + 1) + 2x (x − 3)]
x ln 6
(x2 + 1) (x − 3)
= + log6 x [x2 + 1 + 2x2 − 6x]
x ln 6
(x2 + 1) (x − 3) 2
= + (3x − 6x + 1) log6 x
x ln 6
dy (x2 + 1) (x − 3) 2
∴ = + (3x − 6x + 1) log6 x
dx x ln 6
Method 2 Product rule for two functions
For this case, we will simplify the function as:
y = (x2 + 1) (x − 3) log6 x
= (x3 − 3x2 + x − 3) log6 x
Let u = x3 − 3x2 + x − 3 and v = log6 x, therefore
1
v′ = 3x2 − 6x + 1 and w′ =
x ln 6
Using the product rule, we have that
y′ = uv′ + vu′
1
= (x3 − 3x2 + x − 3) ( ) + (log6 x) (3x2 − 6x + 1)
x ln 6
x3 − 3x2 + x − 3
= + (3x2 − 6x + 1) log6 x
x ln 6
(x2 + 1) (x − 3)
= + (3x2 − 6x + 1) log6 x
x ln 6
dy (x2 + 1) (x − 3) 2
∴ = + (3x − 6x + 1) log6 x
dx x ln 6
as before.

c) y = x2 .ex . tan x. ln x
Solution
We are considering a 4-function product here to illustrate its application, and you can extend it beyond
this, though it is a rare requirement.
y = x2 .ex . tan x. ln x
Let u = x2 , v = ex , w = tan x, and z = ln x, therefore
1
u′ = 2x v′ = ex w′ = sec2 x and z′ =
x
Using the product rule, we have that
y′ = uvwz′ + uvzw′ + uwzv′ + vwzu′
1
= (x2 ) (ex ) (tan x) ( ) + (x2 ) (ex ) (ln x) (sec2 x) + (x2 ) (tan x) (ln x) (ex ) + (ex ) (tan x) (ln x) (2x)
x
= x.ex . tan x + x2 .ex . ln x.sec2 x + x2 .ex . ln x. tan x + 2x.ex . ln x. tan x
= xex (tan x + x. ln x.sec2 x + x. ln x. tan x + 2 ln x. tan x)
Advanced Differentiation 533

There is less to simplify here

dy
∴ = xex (tan x + x. ln x.sec2 x + x. ln x. tan x + 2 ln x. tan x)
dx

13.2.3 QUOTIENT RULE

We are now ready to take the last key rule of differentiation, called the quotient rule. It is not much
different from the product rule, except that this is used for rational functions (i.e., one function is
divided by another function) where it is either impossible to simplify it into a single function or
practically difficult to do so.
The rule states that:

du dv
v −u
u dy dx dx
If y = , where u = g (x) and v = h (x) then = (13.8)
v dx v2

Since y, u, and v are functions of x, we can write the rule in a compact form as:

vu′ − uv′
y′ = (13.9)
v2

where y′ , u′ , and v′ are derivatives of the respective functions.

We should mention a couple of things about this rule, which makes it different from the product rule:

Note 1 There is a negative sign between the two terms in the numerator.
Note 2 The function in the denominator must be taken as v when referring to the above (format of
the) formula.

Before we start looking at examples, let’s outline the steps to follow in applying this rule:

Step 1: Identify that you have two functions, namely dividend (u) and divisor (v). This should be
u
expressed as y = .
v
Step 2: Label the two functions as u and v.
Step 3: Find the derivative of u and call this u′ .
Step 4: Do the same for v and call this v′ .
vu′ − uv′
Step 5: Substitute u, v, u′ , and v′ in .
v2
dy
Step 6: Simplify the expression to obtain your derivative y′ or .
dx
534 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Now it’s time to try some examples.

Example 8

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

1 5
a) y = b) y =
x5 +3x+5 ex

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

1
a) y =
x5 +3x+5
Solution
Method 1 Quotient rule

1
y=
x5 + 3x + 5
Let u = 1 and v = x5 + 3x + 5, therefore

u′ = 0 and v′ = 5x4 + 3

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(x + 3x + 5) × 0 − 1 × (5x4 + 3)
5
= 2
(x5 + 3x + 5)
4
− (5x + 3)
= 2
(x5 + 3x + 5)
There is less to simplify here

dy − (5x4 + 3)
∴ = 2
dx (x5 + 3x + 5)
Method 2 Chain rule

1 −1
y= = (x5 + 3x + 5)
x5 + 3x + 5
If u = x5 + 3x + 5 then y = u−1 , therefore

du dy −2
= 5x4 + 3 and = −u−2 = −(x5 + 3x + 5)
dx du
Advanced Differentiation 535

Using the chain rule, we have

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
−2
= −(x5 + 3x + 5) × (5x4 + 3)
− (5x4 + 3)
= 2
(x5 + 3x + 5)
dy − (5x4 + 3)
∴ = 2
dx (x5 + 3x + 5)

5
b) y =
ex
Solution
Method 1 Quotient rule

5
y=
ex
Let u = 5 and v = ex , therefore
du dv
=0 and = ex
dx dx
Using the quotient rule, we have that
vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(ex ) × 0 − 5 × (ex )
= 2
(ex )
x
−5e −5
= 2x = x
e e
dy −5
∴ = x OR − 5e−x
dx e
Method 2 Chain rule

5 −1
y= = 5e−x = 5(ex )
ex
If u = ex then y = 5u−1 , therefore
du dv −2
= ex and = −5u−2 = −5(ex ) = −5e−2x
dx dx
Using the chain rule, we have that
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
= −5e−2x × ex
= −5e−x
dy
∴ = −5e−x
dx
536 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We note from the above that there are cases where the quotient rule can be used, though alterna-
tive methods could prove more suitable. Also, in cases where there is an apparent division and the
dividend (or numerator) is a constant, the quotient rule becomes

−uv′
y′ = (13.10)
v2

Let’s try another example.

Example 9

2t+1 −3
A function of t is given by . Show that the differential coefficient of f (t) is 2 .
6t2 −7t−5 (3t−5)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

2t + 1
f (t) =
6t2 − 7t − 5
Method 1 Quotient rule

2t + 1
y=
6t2 − 7t − 5
Let u = 2t + 1 and v = 6t2 − 7t − 5, therefore

u′ = 2 and v′ = 12t − 7

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
2
(6t − 7t − 5) × 2 − (2t + 1) × (12t − 7)
= 2
(6t2 − 7t − 5)
2
2 (6t − 7t − 5) − (2t + 1) (12t − 7)
= 2
(6t2 − 7t − 5)
(12t − 14t − 10) − (24t2 − 2t − 7)
2
= 2
(6t2 − 7t − 5)
−12t2 − 12t − 3
= 2
(6t2 − 7t − 5)
−3 (4t2 + 4t + 1)
= 2
(6t2 − 7t − 5)
Advanced Differentiation 537

We can simplify the above expression as:

−3 (2t + 1) (2t + 1)
y′ = 2
[(2t + 1) (3t − 5)]
2
−3(2t + 1)
= 2 2
(2t + 1) (3t − 5)
−3
= 2
(3t − 5)
dy −3
∴ = 2
dt (3t − 5)
Method 2 Expansion and the chain rule

2t + 1
y=
6t2 − 7t − 5
Let’s factorise the denominator, we have
2t + 1
y=
(2t + 1) (3t − 5)
1
=
3t − 5
As this is now simplified, we will use the chain rule (for the same reasons we noted above), although
the quotient rule can also be used.
1 −1
y= = (3t − 5)
3t − 5
If u = 3t − 5 then y = u−1 , therefore
du dv −2
=3 and = −u−2 = −(3t − 5)
dx dx
Using chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dt du dt
−2
= −(3t − 5) × 3
−3
= 2
(3t − 5)
There is less to simplify here.

dy −3
∴ = 2
dt (3t − 5)
538 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

For the above examples, we can avoid using the quotient rule. However, there are instances where
the rational function cannot be simplified, and as a result, we can only differentiate them using the
quotient rule. Let’s try some examples to illustrate this.

Example 10

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

3x−7 log2 x ex cot x

a) y = b) y = c) y = d) y =
x2 +1 sec x √x5 ln x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

3x−7
a) y =
x2 +1
Solution
3x − 7
y=
x2 + 1
Let u = 3x − 7 and v = x2 + 1, therefore

u′ = 3 and v′ = 2x

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
2
(x + 1) × 3 − (3x − 7) × 2x
= 2
(x2 + 1)
3x + 3 − 6x2 + 14x
2
−3x2 + 14x + 3
= 2
= 2
(x2 + 1) (x2 + 1)
dy − (3x2 − 14x − 3)
∴ = 2
dx (x2 + 1)

log2 x
b) y =
sec x
Solution
log2 x
y=
sec x
Let u = log2 x and v = sec x, therefore

1
u′ = and v′ = sec x. tan x
x ln 2
Advanced Differentiation 539

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
1
(sec x) ( ) − (log2 x) (sec x. tan x)
x ln 2
= 2
(sec x)
1
sec x [( ) − (log2 x) (tan x)]
x ln 2
=
(sec x) (sec x)
1
( ) − (log2 x) (tan x)
x ln 2
=
sec x
1
( ) (log2 x) (tan x)
x ln 2
= −
sec x sec x
sin x
(log2 x) ( )
1 cos x
= −
1 sec x
( ) (x ln 2)
cos x

cos x (log2 x) (sin x. sec x)

= −
x ln 2 sec x
cos x
= − (sin x) log2 x
x ln 2
cos x − x (ln 2) (sin x) log2 x
=
x ln 2
dy cos x − x (ln 2) (sin x) log2 x
∴ =
dx x ln 2

ex
c) y =
√x5
Solution
ex ex
y= = 5
√x5 x2
5
Let u = ex and v = x 2 , therefore
5 3 5
u′ = ex and v′ = x 2 = √x3
2 2
Using the quotient rule, we have that
vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
5
(√x5 ) × ex − (ex ) × √x3
2
= 2
(√x5 )

ex (√x5 − 2.5√x3 )
=
x5
540 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s simplify this a bit further

ex [(√x2 ) (√x3 ) − 2.5 (√x2 ) (√x)]

=
x5
ex [x (√x3 ) − 2.5x (√x)]
=
x5
ex .x [√x3 − 2.5√x]
=
x5
e x
[√x3 − 2.5√x]
=
x4
dy e [√x3 − 2.5√x]
x

∴ =
dx x4

cot x
d) y =
ln x
Solution
cot x
y=
ln x
Let u = cot x and v = ln x, therefore
1
u′ = −cosec2 x and v′ =
x
Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
1
(ln x) × −cosec2 x − (cot x) ×
x
= 2
(ln x)
cot x
− ln x.cosec2 x −
x
= 2
(ln x)
[x. ln x.cosec2 x+cot x]
−
x
= 2
(ln x)
x. ln x.cosec2 x + cot x
=− 2
x.(ln x)
dy x. ln x.cosec2 x + cot x
∴ =− 2
dx x.(ln x)
Advanced Differentiation 541

13.2.4 COMBINED RULE

By the ‘combined’ rule, we intend to demonstrate cases where more than one rule would be needed
for a question; in fact, this is common in general. At any rate, it is desirable to master the ‘tricks’
of the chain rule (and possibly the product rule too) such that one would not need to refer to any of
the formulas when applying them. This is exactly what we will do in the worked examples to follow
shortly. In other words, we will ignore presenting the chain rule, and sometimes the product rule will
also be left out.
To summarise, given three functions u, v, and w, we would like to cover the following cases:

uv
1) y =
w
u
2) y =
vw

With the two cases mentioned above, u, v, and w can be functions of functions, and there will be a
need for the use of the chain rule. Let’s try a couple of examples.

Example 11

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

2
x3 sin 4x (1−x)
a) y = b) y =
e5x ln 5x. cos ex

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

x3 sin 4x
a) y =
e5x
Solution
x3 sin 4x
y=
e5x
This is a complex expression where we will need the three rules, but the key rule is the quotient rule.
Let u = x3 sin 4x and v = e5x . Apply both the chain and product rules to our u to have

u′ = (x3 ) (4 cos 4x) + (3x2 ) (sin 4x)

= 4x3 cos 4x + 3x2 sin 4x

Also, apply the the chain rule to v as:

v′ = 5e5x
542 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Using the quotient rule, we have that:

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(e ) (4x3 cos 4x + 3x2 sin 4x) − (x3 sin 4x) (5e5x )
5x
= 2
(e5x )
(4x cos 4x + 3x sin 4x) − (x3 sin 4x) (5)
3 2
=
e5x
4x cos 4x + 3x sin 4x − 5x3 sin 4x
3 2
=
e5x
x2
= 5x . [4x cos 4x + 3 sin 4x − 5x sin 4x]
e
dy x2
∴ = 5x . [4x cos 4x + 3 sin 4x − 5x sin 4x]
dx e

2
(1−x)
b) y =
ln 5x. cos ex
Solution
2
(1 − x)
y=
ln 5x. cos ex
This is a complex expression where we will need the three rules, but again the key rule is the quotient
2
rule. Let u = (1 − x) and v = ln 5x. cos ex . Apply the chain rule to our u to have

u′ = 2 (1 − x) × −1
= −2 (1 − x)

Also, apply both the chain and product rules to v as:

1
v′ = (ln 5x) (ex . − sin ex ) + ( ) (cos ex )
x
1
= . cos ex − ln 5x.ex . sin ex
x
Using the quotient rule, we have that
vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
2 1
(ln 5x. cos ex ) (−2 (1 − x)) − (1 − x) ( . cos ex − ln 5x.ex . sin ex )
x
= 2
(ln 5x. cos ex )
1 2 2
−2 (1 − x) (ln 5x. cos ex ) − (1 − x) . cos ex + (1 − x) . ln 5x.ex . sin ex
x
= 2
(ln 5x. cos ex )
1 2
2 (1 − x) . cos ex
(1 − x) . ln 5x.ex . sin ex x 2 (1 − x) (ln 5x. cos ex )
2
− 2
− 2
(ln 5x. cos ex ) (ln 5x. cos ex ) (ln 5x. cos ex )
2 2
(1 − x) .ex . sin ex (1 − x) 2 (1 − x)
= 2 x
− 2
− x
ln 5x.cos e x(ln 5x) . cos ex ln 5x. cos e
Advanced Differentiation 543

This expression is already in a simplified form, but we will tweak this a bit further to ensure that
the answer looks like the one we will have later when we use a different method called logarithmic
differentiation.
2
(1 − x) ex . sin ex 1 2
= x
.[ x
− − ]
ln 5x. cos e cos e x ln 5x (1 − x)
2
dy (1 − x) ex . sin ex 1 2
∴ = . [ − − ]
dx ln 5x. cos ex cos ex x ln 5x (1 − x)

13.3 IMPLICIT DIFFERENTIATION

In this section, there are two things to understand, namely implicit function and implicit differentia-
tion, with the former necessitating the latter. So far, we’ve been dealing with functions where the LHS
is y (or a dependent variable) and the RHS is x (or an independent variable), and as such, we write
y = f (x). This type of function, where y can be expressed explicitly (i.e., exclusively or completely)
in terms of x, is called an explicit function. Examples of this include y = 3x − 5, y = sin (2x + 𝛼),
1
y = 3xetanx and y = .
√x3 −2x2 +5

However, there are cases where collecting the independent variable on one side and the dependent
variable on the other is either difficult or impracticable, such functions are called implicit functions.
x2 + y2 − 4 = 0 and 2xy − x2 + y2 = 6 are examples of implicit functions. Instead of y = f (x), we can
express implicit functions as f (x, y) = 0 or f (x, y) = g (x, y). The process of finding the derivatives
of an implicit function is known as implicit differentiation.
To differentiate an implicit function is not different from that used for an explicit function, but it does
require a few additional notes as:

Note 1 First check if the expression can be simplified, such that y is expressed explicitly in terms of
x (i.e., y on one side and x term(s) on another side). This is to establish that it is an implicit
function and requires implicit differentiation.
Note 2 Differentiate each term of the function on its own using the relevant differential standards.
Note 3 If a term is purely in x (or an independent variable), it should be differentiated as one would
do in an explicit function.
Note 4 If a term is purely in y (or dependent variable), it should be differentiated using the chain
d dy
rule since y is a function of x. The general rule is [yn ] = nyn−1 . . For example, if a term
dx dx
dy dy
is 3y2 , its differential coefficient is 6y and for −3y it is −3 .
dx dx
Note 5 If a term is made up of both x and y, it should be differentiated using the product rule, consid-
ering that y is a function of x. In this case, we may view the independent (or x) as u, the depen-
dent (or y) as v, and apply the product rule y′ = uv′ + vu′ to it. Still y needs to be treated with
d n dy
the chain rule as per Note 3 above. The general rule is [xn y ] = nxn−1 yn + nxn yn−1 . .
dx dx
dy
For example, if a term is x2 y3 , its differential coefficient is (2xy3 + 3x2 y2 ) and for −3xy−1
dx
−1 dy
it is (−3y + 3xy−2 ).
dx
544 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

These are the extra tips needed, and every other aspect is the same. Now let’s try some examples.

Example 12

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

a) x2 − y2 − 4 = 0 b) 3y − x2 + 4 = 2xy

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

a) x2 − y2 − 4 = 0
Solution
Method 1 Simplification and explicit differentiation

x2 − y2 − 4 = 0

Let’s simplify this to make y the subject

x2 − y2 − 4 = 0
x2 − 4 = y2
y = √x2 − 4
1
y = (x2 − 4) 2

This is a function of function case, so let’s use the chain rule as:
1 1 1
du dy 1 − 1 −
u = x2 − 4 y = u2 = 2x = u 2 = (x2 − 4) 2
dx du 2 2

Thus
dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
1
1 −
= (x2 − 4) 2 × 2x
2
2x
= 1
2(x2 − 4) 2
x
= 1
(x2 − 4) 2
dy x
∴ =
dx √x2 − 4
Advanced Differentiation 545

Method 2 Implicit differentiation

Differentiate each term one after the other and do check the tips above.

x2 − y2 − 4 = 0

Differentiating

dy
2x − 2y −0=0
dx
Now simplify as:

dy
2y = 2x
dx
dy
y =x
dx
dy x
=
dx y
Using the expression derived in method 1, we can further write the derivative as:

dy x
=
dx √x − 4
2

b) 3y − x2 + 4 = 2xy
Solution
Method 1 Simplification and explicit differentiation

3y − x2 + 4 = 2xy

Let’s simplify this to make y the subject

3y − 2xy = x2 − 4

y (3 − 2x) = x2 − 4
x2 − 4
y=
3 − 2x
Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(3 − 2x) (2x) − (x2 − 4) (−2) 6x − 4x2 + 2x2 − 8
= 2
= 2
(3 − 2x) (3 − 2x)
6x − 2x2 − 8 −2x2 + 6x − 8 −2 (x2 − 3x + 4)
= 2
= 2
= 2
(3 − 2x) (3 − 2x) (3 − 2x)
dy −2 (x2 − 3x + 4)
∴ = 2
dx (3 − 2x)
546 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Method 2 Implicit differentiation

Differentiate each term one after the other and do check the tips above. Let’s see

3y − x2 + 4 = 2xy

Differentiating
dy dy
3 − 2x + 0 = 2y + 2x
dx dx
Now simplify as:
dy dy
3 − 2x = 2y + 2x
dx dx
dy
(3 − 2x) = 2 (x + y)
dx
dy 2(x + y)
=
dx (3 − 2x)
Using the expression derived in method 1, we can further write the derivative as:
x2 −4 2x(3−2x)+2(x2 −4)
2x + 2 ( ) [ ]
dy 3−2x 3−2x
= =
dx (3 − 2x) (3 − 2x)
2
2x (3 − 2x) + 2 (x − 4)
=
(3 − 2x) (3 − 2x)
6x − 4x2 + 2x2 − 8
= 2
(3 − 2x)
6x − 2x2 − 8 −2x2 + 6x − 8
= 2
= 2
(3 − 2x) (3 − 2x)
2
−2 (x − 3x + 4)
= 2
(3 − 2x)
dy −2 (x2 − 3x + 4)
∴ = 2
dx (3 − 2x)

From the above examples, it appears that in some cases it may be possible to re-arrange a seemingly
involved or implicit function to an explicit one and differentiate. Yet differentiating implicitly looks
easier and more compact. We will now consider where a function may prove impossible to write
explicitly, and as such, we will need to apply implicit differentiation only. Let’s try an example.

Example 13

A function is defined implicitly as 4y2 + x2 y − 3x = 0, determine:

dy d2 y
a) at (1, −1) b) at (−4, −1)
dx dx2
Advanced Differentiation 547

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 13

dy
a) at x = 1 and y = −1
dx
Solution
Differentiate each term one after the other.

4y2 + x2 y − 3x = 0

Differentiating

dy dy
8y + 2xy + x2 − 3 = 0
dx dx
Now simplify as:

dy dy
8y + x2 = 3 − 2xy
dx dx
dy
(8y + x2 ) = 3 − 2xy
dx
dy 3 − 2xy
=
dx 8y + x2
dy 3 − 2xy
∴ = 2
dx x + 8y

At (1, −1)

dy | 3 − 2 (1) (−1) 3+2 5

| = = =−
dx |(1,−1) 2
(1) + 8 (−1) 1 − 8 7
dy | 5
∴ | =−
dx |(1,−1) 7

d2 y
b) at x = −4 and y = −1
dx2
Solution
Differentiate the first derivative and apply the quotient rule

d2 y d 3 − 2xy
= ( )
dx 2 dx x2 + 8y
dy dy
(x2 + 8y) (−2y − 2x ) − (3 − 2xy) (2x + 8 )
dx dx
= 2
(x2 + 8y)
dy dy
−2 (x2 + 8y) (y + x ) − (3 − 2xy) (2x + 8 )
dx dx
= 2
(x2 + 8y)
548 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We do not need to simplify the above further; we just need to substitute the coordinates. However,
we need to start by evaluating the first derivative at (−4, −1) as follows:
dy | 3 − 2 (−4) (−1)
| =
dx |(−4,−1) 2
(−4) + 8 (−1)
3−8
=
16 − 8
5
=−
8
Thus, we can now determine the second derivation at (−4, −1) by plugging in the values as
5 5
−2 (16 − 8) (−1 − 4 (− )) − (3 − 2 (−4) (−1)) (2 (−4) + 8 (− ))
d2 y | 8 8
| =
dx2 |(−4,−1) (16 − 8)
2

5
−2 (8) (−1 + ) − (3 − 8) (−8 − 5)
2
= 2
(8)
3
−16 ( ) + 5 (−13)
2
=
64
−24 − 65
=
64
−89
=−
64
d2 y | 89
∴ 2| =−
dx |(−4,−1) 64

13.4 LOGARITHMIC DIFFERENTIATION

Earlier in this chapter, we looked at the product and quotient rules and how they can be used to deter-
mine the derivative of a function formed by multiplying or dividing two functions, and extending the
product rule to three or more functions. It can be noted that real problems may be more involved
or complicated, requiring the application of the two rules and also the third one (i.e., chain rule).
Indeed, we can deal with such cases using these rules; however, sometimes this can be time consum-
ing. There is another approach that is best suited for these cases, and this is known as logarithmic
differentiation.
Fundamentally, logarithmic differentiation should be viewed as a process of dealing with complex
derivatives, rather than a type of differentiation. We will illustrate this for two cases, which can be
extended to similar functions.
Case 1 y = uvw
This is a case where u, v, w, and y are functions of x (or another variable) such that y is a product of
u, v, and w. To differentiate y = uvw, follow these steps:

Step 1: Take the natural logarithmic of both sides. We chose natural logarithm instead of common
logarithm (or any other) because it gives the simplest derivative. You will observe this later
when we get to the worked examples.
ln y = ln (uvw)
Advanced Differentiation 549

Step 2: Simplify the RHS using the multiplication law of logarithm.

ln y = ln (u) + ln (v) + ln (w)

Step 3: Take the derivative of both sides. Remember to apply implicit differentiation to the LHS
(ln y). Also remember to apply the chain rule to u, v, and w. We have:
1 dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
( ) =( ) +( ) +( )
y dx u dx v dx w dx
Step 4: Multiply both sides by y to determine the differential coefficient of y wrt x.

dy d 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= (uvw) = y. [( ) +( ) +( ) ] (13.11)
dx dx u dx v dx w dx
or
dy d 1 1 1
= (uvw) = y. [( ) u′ + ( ) v′ + ( ) w′ ] (13.12)
dx dx u v w

The final formula above is no different from what we obtained and used earlier. Let’s show this in
one go.
dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= y [( ) +( ) +( ) ]
dx u dx v dx w dx
1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= uvw [( ) +( ) +( ) ]
u dx v dx w dx
uvw du uvw dv uvw dw
=( ) +( ) +( )
u dx v dx w dx
du dv dw
= (vw) + (uw) + (uv)
dx dx dx
d
∴ (uvw) = (vw) u′ + (uw) v′ + (uv) w′ (13.13)
dx
Looking at the pattern of the logarithmic differentiation formula, we can extend it to a product of
four functions of y as:

dy d 1 1 1 1
= (uvwz) = y. [( ) u′ + ( ) v′ + ( ) w′ + ( ) z′ ] (13.14)
dx dx u v w z

uv
Case 2 y =
w

u, v, w, and y are functions of x (or another variable) such that y is a product of u and v divided by
uv
w. To differentiate y = , follow these steps:
w

Step 1: Take the natural logarithmic of both sides. We choose natural log for the same reason given
earlier.
uv
ln y = ln ( )
w
Step 2: Simplify the RHS using multiplication and division laws of logarithm

ln y = ln (u) + ln (v) − ln (w)

550 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 3: Take the derivative of both sides. Remember to apply implicit differentiation to the LHS
(ln y). Also remember to apply the chain rule to u, v, and w. We have
1 dy 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
( ) =( ) +( ) −( )
y dx u dx v dx w dx
Step 4: Multiply both sides by y to determine the differential coefficient of y wrt x.
dy d uv 1 du 1 dv 1 dw
= ( ) = y. [( ) +( ) −( ) ] (13.15)
dx dx w u dx v dx w dx

or
dy d uv 1 1 1
= ( ) = y. [( ) u′ + ( ) v′ − ( ) w′ ] (13.16)
dx dx w u v w
u
We can easily show that y = .
vw

dy d uv 1 1 1
= ( ) = y. [( ) u′ − ( ) v′ − ( ) w′ ] (13.17)
dx dx w u v w

u
Case 3 y =
vw

u
Following from case 2 above, we can easily show that y = .
vw

dy d uv 1 1 1
= ( ) = y. [( ) u′ − ( ) v′ − ( ) w′ ] (13.18)
dx dx w u v w
It should be emphasised that this is a method of solving a complex problem rather than a rigid formula
to be memorised or used.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 14

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

a) y = ex . sin x. ln x b) y = (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 14

a) y = ex . sin x. ln x
Solution
y = ex . sin x. ln x
We’ve solved this question previously, but let’s try this same question using logarithmic differentia-
tion.
Advanced Differentiation 551

Step 1: Take the natural log of both sides and simplify.

ln y = ln (ex . sin x. ln x)
= ln (ex ) + ln (sin x) + ln (ln x)
= x ln e + ln (sin x) + ln (ln x)
= x + ln (sin x) + ln (ln x)

Step 2: Apply implicit differentiation and simplify.

ln y = x + ln (sin x) + ln (ln x)
1
1 dy cos x x cos x 1
. =1+ + =1+ +
y dx sin x ln x sin x x ln x
dy cos x 1 cos x 1
= y [1 + + ] = ex . sin x. ln x [1 + + ]
dx sin x x ln x sin x x ln x
ex . sin x. ln x. cos x ex . sin x. ln x
= ex . sin x. ln x + +
sin x x ln x
x x ex . sin x
= e . sin x. ln x + e . ln x. cos x +
x
x sin x
= e . [ln x. sin x + ln x. cos x + ]
x
dy sin x
∴ = ex ( + ln x. cos x + ln x. sin x)
dx x
Note
This is exactly what we obtained previously. Note that we carried out some simplification to ensure
that the final answer here is a perfect match of the previous one, though this is not really a requirement.

b) y = (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x

Solution

y = (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x

We’ve not solved this question previously, but you can try to apply the previous approach and
compare the answers.
Step 1: Take the natural log of both sides and simplify.

ln y = ln [(x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x]

= ln (x2 − 4) + ln (log3 x) + ln (tan2 x)
= ln (x2 − 4) + ln (log3 x) + 2 ln (tan x)
552 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: Apply implicit differentiation and simplify.

ln y = ln (x2 − 4) + ln (log3 x) + 2 ln (tan x)

1
1 dy 2x x ln 3 2 sec2 x
. = 2 + +
y dx x − 4 log3 x tan x
1 dy 2x 1 2 sec2 x
. = 2 + +
y dx x − 4 x. ln 3.log3 x tan x
dy 2x 1 2 sec2 x
= (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x [ 2 + + ]
dx x − 4 x. ln 3log3 x tan x
2x. (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x 2 sec2 x. (x2 − 4) log3 x.tan2 x
= + +
x2 − 4 x. ln 3 log3 x tan x
(x2 − 4) .tan2 x
= 2x. log3 x.tan2 x + + 2 sec2 x. (x2 − 4) log3 x. tan x
x ln 3
dy 2
(x2 − 4) .tan2 x
∴ = 2x. log3 x.tan x + + 2 (x2 − 4) . log3 x. tan x. sec2 x
dx x ln 3

Example 15

Find the differential coefficient of the following functions wrt x.

2
x3 sin 4x (1−x)
a) y = b) y =
e5x ln 5x. cos ex

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 15

x3 sin 4x
a) y =
e5x
Solution
x3 sin 4x
y=
e5x
We’ve solved this question previously, but let’s try the same using logarithmic differentiation.
Advanced Differentiation 553

Step 1: Take the natural log of both sides and simplify.

x3 sin 4x
ln y = ln ( )
e5x
= ln (x3 ) + ln (sin 4x) − ln (e5x )
= 3 ln (x) + ln (sin 4x) − 5x ln (e)
= 3 ln (x) + ln (sin 4x) − 5x

Step 2: Apply implicit differentiation and simplify.

ln y = 3 ln (x) + ln (sin 4x) − 5x

1 dy 3 4 cos 4x 3
. = + − 5 = + 4 cot 4x − 5
y dx x sin 4x x
dy 3
= y [ + 4 cot 4x − 5]
dx x
3
x sin 4x 3
= [ + 4 cot 4x − 5]
e5x x
dy x3 sin 4x 3
∴ = [ + 4 cot 4x − 5]
dx e5x x
As obtained earlier.
2
(1−x)
b) y =
ln 5x. cos ex
Solution
2
(1 − x)
y=
ln 5x. cos ex
We’ve solved this question previously, but let’s attempt it again using logarithmic differentiation.
Step 1: Take the natural log of both sides and simplify.

2
(1 − x)
ln y = ln ( )
ln 5x. cos ex
2
= ln (1 − x) − ln (ln 5x) − ln (cos ex )
= 2 ln (1 − x) − ln (ln 5x) − ln (cos ex )

Step 2: Apply implicit differentiation and simplify.

ln y = 2 ln (1 − x) − ln (ln 5x) − ln (cos ex )

1
( )
1 dy 2 x (− sin ex × ex )
. =( × −1) − −
y dx 1−x ln 5x cos ex
x x
2 1 e . sin e
=− − +
1 − x x. ln 5x cos ex
554 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ex . sin ex 2 1
= − −
cos ex 1 − x x. ln 5x
dy ex . sin ex 2 1
= y[ − − ]
dx cos e x 1 − x x. ln 5x
2
(1 − x) ex . sin ex 2 1
= [ − − ]
ln 5x. cos ex cos ex 1 − x x. ln 5x

2
(1 − x) 2 1
= [ex . tan ex − − ]
ln 5x. cos ex 1 − x x. ln 5x
2
dy (1 − x) 2 1
∴ = [ex . tan ex − − ]
dx ln 5x. cos ex 1 − x x. ln 5x
as obtained earlier.

13.5 PARAMETRIC DIFFERENTIATION

We know that the graph of a function in x–y plane is a locus of points connecting its coordinates
(x, y). Hitherto, we’ve observed that a single expression will have both x and y together, explicitly
or implicitly. However, it is possible to define x as a function of a new independent variable t, i.e.,
x = f (t), and y also as a function of the same variable t, y = f (t). The new variable t is called the
parameter and the two equations x = f (t) and y = f (t) are called parametric equations, as they
are based on the parameter t. That is to say that we’ve parametrised the variables x and y. You will
also find 𝜃 being used as a parameter.
Since t is an independent variable, we can use a set of t values to find x values and corresponding y
values. The resulting x–y coordinates can be used to draw the graph of y = f (x). It is apparent from
this that there is a relationship between x and y, and we may therefore be interested in knowing the
rate of change of y wrt x. To do this, we need some tips as follows:

Note 1 We need to understand that

dy 1 dy dx
= OR × =1 (13.19)
dx dx dx dy
( )
dy

This is known as the derivative of the inverse function. The proof of this is provided in Appendix A.

dy dy dt
Note 2 We will need to apply a modified chain rule. Given a chain rule, = × , a modified
dx dt dx
version is

dy dy 1
= × (13.20)
dx dt dx
( )
dt

Note 3 We can also convert parametric equations to an equivalent Cartesian equation, by eliminat-
ing the parameter t. We can therefore differentiate the Cartesian equation, containing only x
Advanced Differentiation 555

and y, using the standard method(s) of differentiation. The differential coefficient obtained
here might seemingly be different from the one obtained using the above approach in Note
2, as the former is expressed in t while the latter in x.

Let’s try a couple of examples on inverse differentiation before we look at parametric differentiation.

Example 16

dx
For each of the following functions, determine .
dy

5
a) y = x.√x b) y = x2 − √x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 16

5
a) y = x.√x
Solution
Method 1 Using inverse derivative

1 1
5 (1+ )
y = x.√x = x.x 5 = x 5

= x1.2

Differentiating wrt x
dy
= 1.2x0.2
dx
Using inverse derivative, we have
dx 1 5
= = 1
dy 1.2x0.2
6x 5
dx 5
∴ = 5
dy 6√x

The above answer is in the form of x; we can express the same in the form of y as:
dx 5 5
= 1 = 1
dy 5
6x 5 5
6(y )
6

5
= 1
6y 6
dx 5
∴ =
dy 6
6 (√ y)
556 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Method 2 Re-arrangement

5
y = x.√x
1
= x.x 5
6
= x5

Making x the subject, we have:

5
x = y6

Differentiating wrt y

dx 5 −1
= y 6
dy 6
5
= 1
6y 6
dx 5
∴ =
dy 6 (√6
y)

The above answer is in the form of y; we can express the same in the form of x as:
1
−
dx 5 −1 5 6 6
= y 6 = (x 5 )
dy 6 6
5 −1 5
= x 5 = 1
6
6x 5
dx 5
∴ = 5
dy 6√x

b) y = x2 − √x
Solution

y = x2 − √x
= x2 − x0.5

Differentiating wrt x

dy
= 2x − 0.5x−0.5
dx
1
= 2x −
2√x
4x√x − 1
=
2√x
Advanced Differentiation 557

Using inverse derivative, we have:

dx 1
=
dy 4x√x−1
( )
2√x

2√x
=
4x√x − 1
dx 2√x
∴ =
dy 4x√x − 1
The above answer is in the form of x; it is practically impossible or undesirable to express this in
terms of y.
From the above, it is obvious that sometimes it is possible to re-arrange a function to switch the depen-
dent and independent variables instead of using the inverse derivative formula. This is however not
the case in all situations as apparent in the second example above (Example 16(b)).

Let’s try some examples on inverse differentiation before we look at parametric differentiation.

Example 17

Find the Cartesian equation of the curves given by the following parametric function equations.

3 t 1 7
a) x = t − 5, y = t2 + 1 b) x = ,y= [t ≠ , t≠ ]
1−2t 2t−7 2 2

c) x = sin 𝜃, y = cos 𝜃 d) x = sin 𝜃 − 1, y = 2 cos 𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 17

a) x = t − 5, y = t2 + 1
Solution
Given

x=t−5 − − − − − (i)

y = t2 + 1 − − − − − (ii)

From (i), we can make the parameter t the subject as

t=x+5 − − − − − (iii)

Now substitute (iii) in (ii) and simplify, thus

2
y = (x + 5) + 1
= x2 + 10x + 26
558 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The Cartesian equation is therefore

y = x2 + 10x + 26

3 t 1 7
b) x = ,y= [t ≠ , t≠ ]
1−2t 2t−7 2 2
Solution
Given
3
x= − − − − − (i)
1 − 2t

t
y= − − − − − (ii)
2t − 7
From (i), we can make the parameter t the subject as
3
1 − 2t =
x
3
−2t = − 1
x
3 x−3
2t = 1 − =
x x
x−3
t= − − − − − (iii)
2x
Now substitute (iii) in (ii) and simplify, thus
x−3 x−3
( ) ( )
2x 2x
y= =
x−3 x−3
[2 ( ) − 7] ( − 7)
2x x
x−3 x−3
( ) ( )
2x 2x x−3 x
= = = ×
x−3−7x −6x−3 2x −6x − 3
( ) ( )
x x
x−3 x−3
= =
−2 (6x + 3) −6 (2x + 1)
3−x
=
6 (2x + 1)
The Cartesian equation is therefore
3−x
y=
6 (2x + 1)

c) x = sin 𝜃, y = cos 𝜃
Solution
Given

x = sin 𝜃 − − − − − (i)

y = cos 𝜃 − − − − − (ii)
Advanced Differentiation 559

From (i), we have

2 2
(x) = (sin 𝜃)
2
x2 = sin 𝜃 − − − − − (iii)

From (ii), we have

2 2
(y) = (cos 𝜃)
y2 = cos2 𝜃 − − − − − (iv)

Add equations (iii) and (iv), i.e., the LHS together and the RHS together, we have
2
x2 + y2 = sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
2
Because sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1, we have

x2 + y2 = 1

The Cartesian equation is therefore

x2 + y2 = 1

d) x = sin 𝜃 − 1, y = 2 cos 𝜃
Solution
Given

x = sin 𝜃 − 1 − − − − − (i)

y = 2 cos 𝜃 − − − − − (ii)

From (i), we have

x + 1 = sin 𝜃
2 2
(x + 1) = (sin 𝜃)
2
x2 + 2x + 1 = sin 𝜃 − − − − − (iii)

From (ii), we have

y
= cos 𝜃
2
y 2 2
( ) = (cos 𝜃)
2
y2
= cos2 𝜃 − − − − − (iv)
4
Add equations (iii) and (iv), i.e. LHS together and RHS together, we have

y2 2
x2 + 2x + 1 + = sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃
4
560 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
Because sin 𝜃 + cos2 𝜃 = 1, we have

y2
x2 + 2x + 1 + =1
4
4x2 + 8x + 4 + y2 = 4
4x2 + 8x + y2 = 0

The Cartesian equation is therefore

4x2 + 8x + y2 = 0

Now let’s try some examples on parametric differentiation to finish this chapter.

Example 18

Find the derivative of the following parametric equations.

a) x = sin 2𝜃, y = tan 𝜃 b) x = 3t − ln t2 , y = e−5t

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 18

a) x = sin 2𝜃, y = tan 𝜃

Solution
x = sin 2𝜃, y = tan 𝜃
Differentiating

dx dy
= 2 cos 2𝜃 and = sec2 𝜃
d𝜃 d𝜃

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy d𝜃
= ×
dx d𝜃 dx
1
= sec2 𝜃 ×
2 cos 2𝜃
dy sec2 𝜽
∴ =
dx 2 cos 2𝜽

b) x = 3t − ln t2 , y = e−5t
Solution
x = 3t − ln t2 , y = e−5t
Differentiating

dx 2t 2 3t−2 dy
=3− =3− = and = −5e−5t
dt t2 t t dt
Advanced Differentiation 561

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy t
= −5e−5t ×
dx 3t − 2
t.5e−5t 5t
=− =−
3t − 2 (3t − 2) e5t
dy 5t
∴ =−
dx (3t − 2) e5t

A final set of examples.

Example 19

A function of x is defined by the parametric equation y = tan 𝜃 − 𝜃, x = 1 − cos 𝜃. Determine the

following in the simplest form.

dy d2 y
a) b)
dx dx2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 19

dy
a)
dx
Solution
y = tan 𝜃 − 𝜃, x = 1 − cos 𝜃
Differentiating

dy dx
= sec2 𝜃 − 1 and = sin 𝜃
d𝜃 d𝜃

Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy d𝜃
= ×
dx d𝜃 dx
1 sec2 𝜃 − 1
= (sec2 𝜃 − 1) × =
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2
sin 𝜃
2 ()
tan 𝜃 𝜃 sin 𝜃
cos2
= = =
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 cos2 𝜃
dy sin 𝜽
∴ =
dx cos2 𝜽
562 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

d2 y
b)
dx2
Solution
The second derivative is a bit tricky for parametric equations. Let’s go.
Differentiating
d2 y d dy
2
= ( )
dx dx dx
d sin 𝜃
= ( )
dx cos2 𝜃
sin 𝜃
But we will not be able to differentiate wrt x. We therefore need some manipulation as follows
cos2 𝜃

d sin 𝜃 d sin 𝜃 d𝜃
( )= ( )×
dx cos2 𝜃 dx cos2 𝜃 d𝜃
d𝜃
Although technically incorrect, we can say that = 1. We will now switch the position to have
d𝜃

d sin 𝜃 d𝜃
= ( )×
d𝜃 cos2 𝜃 dx
d sin 𝜃 d𝜃
Great! We have the product of two differential coefficients, namely ( ) and . For clarity,
d𝜃 cos2 𝜃 dx
let’s attempt each separately.
Part 1

d sin 𝜃 (cos2 𝜃) (cos 𝜃) − (sin 𝜃) (−2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃)

( 2 )= 2
d𝜃 cos 𝜃 (cos2 𝜃)
2
2
cos3 𝜃 + 2 cos 𝜃sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 (cos2 𝜃 + 2sin 𝜃)
= =
cos4 𝜃 cos4 𝜃
2 2
cos 𝜃 + 2sin 𝜃
=
cos3 𝜃
Part 2

d𝜃 1 1
= =
dx dx
( ) sin 𝜃
d𝜃

It is time to combine the two parts

d2 y d sin 𝜃 d𝜃
= ( 2 )×
dx 2 d𝜃 cos 𝜃 dx
2
cos2 𝜃 + 2sin 𝜃 1
=( )( )
cos3 𝜃 sin 𝜃
2
cos2 𝜃 + 2sin 𝜃
=
cos3 𝜃. sin 𝜃
2 2
d y cos2 𝜽 + 2sin 𝜽
∴ 2 =
dx cos3 𝜽. sin 𝜽
Advanced Differentiation 563

13.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) The chain rule is used to solve multiple or cascaded process, which is also called
‘function of a function’. The rule states that:

dy dy du
If y = f (u) and u = g (x) then = ×
dx du dx

dy dy du dv
If y = f (u) , u = g (v) , and v = h (x) then = × ×
dx du dv dx

2) The product rule is used when one function is multiplied by another function wrt the
same variable. This rule states that:

dy dv du
If y = uv, where u = g (x) and v = h (x) then =u +v
dx dx dx

Since y, u, and v are functions of x, we can write the rule in a short form as:

y′ = uv′ + vu′

where y′ , u′ , and v′ are derivatives of the respective functions.

3) The quotient rule is used when one function is divided by another function where it
is either impossible to simplify it into a single function or practically difficult to do so.
This rule states that:

du dv
v −u
u dy dx dx
If y = , where u = g (x) and v = h (x) then =
v dx v2

Since y, u, and v are functions of x, we can write the rule in a short form as:

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2

4) In cases where there is an apparent division and the dividend (or numerator) is a con-
stant, the quotient rule becomes

−uv′
y′ =
v2

5) The process of finding the derivatives of an implicit function is known as implicit dif-
ferentiation.
6) Logarithmic differentiation should be viewed as a process of dealing with complex
derivatives rather than a type of differentiation.
564 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

7) It is possible to define x as a function of a new independent variable t, i.e., x = f (t)

and y also as a function of the same variable t, y = f (t). The new variable t is called
the parameter and the two equations x = f (t) and y = f (t) are called parametric
equations, as they are based on the parameter.
8) Inverse relationship is given by

dy 1 dy dx
= OR × =1
dx dx dx dy
( )
dy

****

13.7 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 14 Applications of
Differentiation
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Determine velocity, acceleration, and jerk using differentiation

● Determine the equation of the tangent to a curve at a given point
● Determine the equation of the normal to a curve at a given point
● Evaluate increasing and decreasing functions
● Evaluate the stationary points and distinguish them
● Determine the maximum points, minimum points, and the point of
inflexion
● Apply the stationary points to solve problems and sketch curves

14.1 INTRODUCTION
Having discussed the fundamentals of differentiation in the last two chapters, here we will introduce
the common applications of differentiation, including mechanics, tangent and normal line equations,
and stationary points.

14.2 RATE OF CHANGE

Differentiation is the rate of change of one physical quantity (an independent variable) with respect
to another quantity (a dependent variable). The rate here is not restricted to time. In other words,
dy
the variables x and y in for y = f (x) can represent any quantity. In this section, we will fix our x
dx
variable as time and our y variable will change according to the application. Generally, when this is
the case, ‘with respect to’ is omitted.

14.2.1 VELOCITY
Velocity is the rate of change of displacement. It is a vector quantity, which means that it is completely
identified by its magnitude (size) and direction. Its SI (Système International or International Sys-
tem) unit is metre per second, shortened as m/s or ms−1 . If s = f (t), where s and t are position and
time, respectively, velocity (v) is the differential coefficient of s wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
v= [s] (14.1)
dt

In summary, velocity is the first derivative of position wrt time.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-14 565
566 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

14.2.2 ACCELERATION
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity, and it is also a vector quantity. Its SI unit is metre
per second squared, shortened as m/s2 or ms−2 . If v = f (t), where v and t are velocity and time,
respectively, acceleration (a) is the differential coefficient of v wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
a= [v] (14.2)
dt

Alternatively, given that s = f (t), where s and t are position and time, respectively, velocity is the
second derivate of s wrt t.

d ds d2 s
a= [ ]= 2 (14.3)
dt dt dt

In summary, acceleration is the first derivative of velocity wrt time or the second derivative of position
wrt time.

14.2.3 JERK
Jerk (also known as Jolt) is the rate of change of acceleration and a vector quantity. Its SI unit is
metre per second cubed, shortened as m/s3 or ms−3 . If a = f (t), where a and t are acceleration and
time, respectively, jerk (j) is the differential coefficient of a wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
j= [a] (14.4)
dt

Alternatively, given that s = f (t), where s and t are position and time, respectively, jerk is the third
derivate of s wrt t.

d d2 s d3 s
j= [ 2]= 3 (14.5)
dt dt dt

In summary, jerk is the first derivative of acceleration wrt time, the second derivative of velocity wrt
time or the third derivative of position wrt time.

14.3 TANGENT AND NORMAL LINE EQUATION

When a straight-line, with a gradient m, passes through a point (x1 , y1 ) , its equation is given by:

y − y1 = m (x − x1 ) (14.6)

Now consider the graph of y = f (x) shown in Figure 14.1. A straight line L1 is drawn tangential to
the curve at point A with coordinates (x1 , y1 ); L1 is called the tangent at the given point. Similarly,
another straight line L2 is drawn perpendicularly to L1 and passes through point A. This is called the
normal at the same point A.
It is our desire here to apply differentiation to obtain the equation of the tangent L1 and the normal
L2 at point A.
Applications of Differentiation 567

FIGURE 14.1 Tangent and normal to a curve illustrated.

568 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● Tangent line

To find the equation of the above tangent drawn to a curve f (x) which passes through point A with
coordinates (x1 , y1 ), follow these steps:

d
Step 1: Find the [f (x)]. This is our gradient function or f ′ (x).
dx
d dy |
Step 2: Calculate the value of [f (x)] at point A by replacing x with x1 in f ′ (x), i.e., | . This
dx dx |x=x
1
is the slope m of the tangent to f (x) at point A.
Step 3: Substitute the coordinates of point A in y−y1 = m (x − x1 ) and simplify. This is the equation
of the tangent to the curve f (x) at point A.

● Normal line

To find the equation of a normal to a curve g (x) which passes through point B with coordinates
(x1 , y1 ), follow these steps:

d
Step 1: Find the [g (x)]. This is our gradient function or g′ (x).
dx
d dy |
Step 2: Calculate the value of [g (x)] at point B by replacing x with x1 in g′ (x), i.e., | . This
dx dx |x=x
1
1
is the slope m of the tangent to g (x) at point B. The slope of the normal is then − .
m
1
Step 3: Substitute the coordinates of point B in y − y1 = − (x − x1 ) and simplify. This is the
m
equation of the normal to the curve g (x) at point B.

This is all we need to know, which is relevant and sufficient for finding a tangent and a normal at a
given point. Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

1
A curve is defined as y = x2 − 5x − − 3. Determine the equation of the tangent to the curve at point
x
A where x = 1.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

1
y = x2 − 5x − −3
x
= x2 − 5x − x−1 − 3

Let’s walk through the steps for this

Applications of Differentiation 569

Step 1: Determine the y-coordinate

Use the given equation to find the y value at x = 1 as:

1
y = 12 − 5 (1) −
−3
1
=1−5−1−3
= −8

The coordinates of point A are (x1 , y1 ) = (1, −8),

Step 2: Find the differential coefficient of y wrt x

dy
= 2x − 5 + x−2
dx
1
= 2x − 5 + 2
x
dy
Step 3: Calculate the at x = 1
dx

dy | 1
| = 2 (1) − 5 + 2
|
dx x=1 1
=2−5+1
= −2

Thus, the slope m of the tangent at point A is −2

Step 4: Substitute in the line equation
As we have a point (1, −8) and a slope of −2, we will use

(y − y1 ) = m (x − x1 )
(y − 1) = −2 (x − 1)
y + 8 = −2x + 2
y + 8 + 2x − 2 = 0
y + 2x + 6 = 0
∴ y + 2x + 6 = 0

Example 2

Determine the equation of the normal line to the curve xy2 − x2 y − 3y + ln x = 5 at point P where
x = 1 and for which y is positive. Express the equation in the form ax + by = c and state the value
of a, b, and c.
570 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

xy2 − x2 y − 3y + ln x = 5

Let’s walk through the steps for this.

Step 1: Determine the y-coordinate
Use the function to find the y value at x = 1

xy2 − x2 y − 3y + ln x = 5
1 × y2 − 12 × y − 3y + ln (1) = 5
y2 − y − 3y + 0 − 5 = 0
y2 − 4y − 5 = 0
(y − 5) (y + 1) = 0
∴ y = 5, y = −1

From the above, we have two points, namely (1, 5) and (1, −1). Since point P is a point where y is
positive, we can say that the coordinates of point P are (x1 , y1 ) = (1, 5),
Step 2: Find the differential coefficient of y wrt x

dy dy dy 1
y2 + 2xy. − 2xy − x2 . − 3. + = 0
dx dx dx x
dy 2 dy dy 1
2xy. − x . − 3. = 2xy − y2 −
dx dx dx x
dy 1
(2xy − x2 − 3) = 2xy − y2 −
dx x
2x2 y − xy2 − 1
=
x
dy 2x2 y − xy2 − 1
=
dx x (2xy − x2 − 3)
dy
Step 3: Calculate the at (1, 5)
dx

dy | 2x2 y − xy2 − 1
| =
dx |(1,5) x (2xy − x2 − 3)
2 2
2(1) (5) − (1) (5) − 1
=
1 × (2 × 1 × 5 − 12 − 3)
10 − 25 − 1 16 8
= =− =−
10 − 1 − 3 6 3
8
Thus, the slope m of the tangent at point A is − .
3
Applications of Differentiation 571

Step 4: Find the slope of the normal

If m1 and m2 represent the slopes of the tangent and normal, respectively, we can write that

m1 × m2 = −1

Thus
1 1
m2 = − =−
m1 8
(− )
3
3
∴ m2 =
8
Step 5: Substitute in the straight-line equation
3
As we have a point (1, 5) and a slope of , we will use
8

(y − y1 ) = m (x − x1 )

Now substituting, we have:

3
(y − 5) = (x − 1)
8
8 (y − 5) = 3 (x − 1)
8y − 40 = 3x − 3
8y − 3x = 40 − 3
8y − 3x = 37
∴ 3x − 8y = −37, a = 3, b = −8, c = −37

Example 3

A curve is defined by parametric equations:

t+3 t2 − 4
x= y=
et + 5 et + 5
Determine the equations of the tangent and normal at point C on the curve such that t = 0. Express
the answer in the form of ax + by + c = 0.
572 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

t+3 t2 − 4
x= y=
et + 5 et + 5
Let’s walk through the steps:
Step 1: Determine the x- and y-coordinates

t=0
t+3 0+3
x= t = 0
e +5 e +5
3 1
x= =
6 2
Similarly,

t2 − 4 0−4 −4
y= = 0 =
et + 5 e +5 1 +5
−4 2
y= =−
6 3
1 2
The coordinates of point C are (x1 , y1 ) = ( , − ),
2 3

Step 2: Find the differential coefficient of y wrt x

This is a parametric differentiation, so let’s go.

dx d t+3 (et + 5) − (t + 3) et
= [ t ]=
dt dt e + 5 (et + 5)
2

Similarly,

dy d t2 − 4 (et + 5) × 2t − (t2 − 4) et
= [ t ]=
dt dt e + 5 (et + 5)
2

Therefore
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx
(et + 5) × 2t − (t2 − 4) et ⎡ 1 ⎤
=[ ]×⎢ t ⎥
(et + 5)
2 ⎢ (e +5)−(t+3)et ⎥
( )
⎣ (et +5)
2
⎦
2
(et + 5) × 2t − (t2 − 4) et (et + 5)
=[ ]×[ ]
(et + 5)
2 (et + 5) − (t + 3) et
(e + 5) × 2t − (t2 − 4) et
t
=
(et + 5) − (t + 3) et
Applications of Differentiation 573

dy
Step 3: Calculate the at t = 0
dx

Do not bother simplifying, as we will be substituting t = 0.

dy | (e0 + 5) × 2 × 0 − (02 − 4) e0
| =
dx |t=0 (e0 + 5) − (0 + 3) e0
(1 + 5) × 0 − (0 − 4) × 1
=
(1 + 5) − (0 + 3) × 1
(6) × 0 − (−4) × 1
=
(6) − (3) × 1
0+4 4
= =
6−3 3
4
Thus, the slope m of the tangent at point C is .
3

Step 4: Substitute into line equation to find the tangent

1 2 4
As we have a point ( , − ) and a slope of , we will use:
2 3 3

(y − y1 ) = m (x − x1 )
2 4 1
(y − (− )) = (x − )
3 3 2
2 4 2
y+ = x−
3 3 3
3y + 2 = 4x − 2
3y + 2 − 4x + 2 = 0
−4x + 3y + 4 = 0
∴ − 4x + 3y + 4 = 0

Step 5: Substitute into line equation to find the normal

Recall that
−1
Slope of normal =
slope of tangent

We can either find the slope of the normal using the above relationship or modify the line equation
accordingly. We will use the latter here since we’ve demonstrated the first previously.
574 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1 2 4
Now as we have a point ( , − ) and m = , we will use:
2 3 3

1
(y − y1 ) = − (x − x1 )
m
2 1 1
(y − (− )) = − (x − )
3 4 2
( )
3
2 3 1
(y − (− )) = − (x − )
3 4 2
2 3 3
y+ =− x+
3 4 8
3 2 3
y+ x+ − =0
4 3 8
3 2 3
y+ x+ − =0
4 3 8
Multiply through by 24, which is the LCM of 3, 4, and 8.

24y + 18x + 16 − 9 = 0
24y + 18x + 7 = 0
∴ 18x + 24y + 7 = 0

Note the subtle difference between the equations of the tangent and normal, even when the gradient
is 1 and −1, respectively.

Example 4

A curve is defined by parametric equations:

x = 3 tan 2𝜃, y = sin 2𝜃

𝜋
Determine the equations of the tangent and normal at point P on the curve such that 𝜃 = . Express
12
the answer in the form of y = mx + c.
Applications of Differentiation 575

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

x = 3 tan 2𝜃, y = sin 2𝜃

Let’s walk through the steps:

Step 1: Determine the (x, y) coordinates

𝜋
𝜃=
12
𝜋 𝜋
x = 3 tan 2𝜃 = 3 tan 2 ( ) = 3 tan ( )
12 6
√3
x=3× = √3
3
Similarly,
𝜋 𝜋
y = sin 2𝜃 = sin 2 ( ) = sin ( )
12 6
1
y=
2
1
The coordinates of point P are (x1 , y1 ) = (√3, ).
2

Step 2: Find the differential coefficient of y wrt x

This is a parametric differentiation, so let’s go

dx d
= [3 tan 2𝜃] = 6sec2 2𝜃
d𝜃 d𝜃
Similarly,

dy d
= [sin 2𝜃] = 2 cos 2𝜃
d𝜃 d𝜃
Therefore
dy dy d𝜃
= ×
dx d𝜃 dx
1
= [2 cos 2𝜃] × [ ]
6sec2 2𝜃
cos 2𝜃
=[ ]
3sec2 2𝜃
⎡ ⎤
1 ⎢ cos 2𝜃 ⎥
=
3⎢⎢( 1 ) ⎥
2⎥

⎣ cos 2𝜃 ⎦
1 3
= (cos 2𝜃)
3
576 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

dy 𝜋
Step 3: Calculate the at 𝜃 =
dx 12

dy | 1 𝜋 3 1 𝜋 3
| 𝜋 = [cos (2 × )] = [cos ( )]
dx |𝜃= 3 12 3 6
6
3
1 √3 √3
= [ ] =
3 2 8

√3
Thus, the slope m of the tangent at point P is .
8

Step 4: Substitute into line equation to find the equation of the tangent
1 √3
As we have a point (√3, ) and a slope of , we will use:
2 8

(y − y1 ) = m (x − x1 )

which implies that

1 √3
(y − ) = (x − √3)
2 8
1
8 (y − ) = √3 (x − √3)
2
8y − 4 = √3x − 3
8y = √3x + 1
√3 1
∴y= x+
8 8
Step 5: Substitute into line equation to find the equation of the normal
1 √3
As we have a point (√3, ) and a slope of , we will use:
2 8

1
(y − y1 ) = − (x − x1 )
m
which implies that
1 8
(y − ) = − (x − √3)
2 √3
1 8√3
(y − ) = − (x − √3)
2 3
1 8√3 8√3
y− =− x+( × √3)
2 3 3

1 8√3
y− =− x+8
2 3
Applications of Differentiation 577

Multiply through by 6, which is the LCM of 2 and 3.

6y − 3 = −16√3x + 48
16√3x + 6y − 3 − 48 = 0
16√3x + 6y − 51 = 0
∴ 16√3 x + 6y − 51 = 0

A final example to try.

Example 5

Determine the angle between the straight line y = 3x + 1 and the parabola y = x2 + x − 2 at the point
of their intersection in the positive x-axis region. Present the angle correct to 1 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

y = 3x + 1 , y = x2 + x − 2

Let’s walk through the steps:

Step 1: Determine the point of intersection(s) of the two functions
At the point of intersection, we have:

3x + 1 = x2 + x − 2
x2 − 2x − 3 = 0
(x − 3) (x + 1) = 0

Therefore

(x − 3) = 0 (x + 1) = 0
x−3=0 OR x+1=0
∴x=3 ∴ x = −1
We can find the y-coordinate using either of the two equations, let’s go:
When x = 3

y = 3x + 1
= 3 (3) + 1 = 10
∴ (3, 10)
578 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

When x = −1

y = 3x + 1
= 3 (−1) + 1 = −2
∴ (−1, −2)

There are two points of intersection, but we are interested in the positive x-region, thus we have
(3, 10) only.
Step 2: Find the differential coefficient of each function at x = 3.

● For y = 3x + 1

d
[3x + 1] = 3
dx
d |
[3x + 1]|| =3
dx x=3

● For y = x2 + x − 2

d 2
[x + x − 2] = 2x + 1
dx
d 2 |
[x + x − 2]|| = 2 (3) + 1 = 7
dx x=3

Step 3: Determine the angle between them

We will use the fact that

tan 𝜃 = m
𝜃 = tan−1 m

● For y = 3x + 1

𝜃1 = tan−1 (3) = 71.57°

● For y = x2 + x − 2

𝜃1 = tan−1 (7) = 81.87°

Hence, the angle 𝜃 between them is

𝜃 = |𝜃2 − 𝜃1 |
= |81.87° − 71.57°|
∴ 𝜽 = 10.3°
Applications of Differentiation 579

14.4 INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS

A function y = f (x) is said to be increasing, often within a particular interval, if y increases as x
increases and vice versa. Figure 14.2(a) shows that f (x) is increasing between x = a and x = b, for
a < b, which implies that f (a) < f (b). Note that the slope is positive at all points between a and b.
On the other hand, a function y = g (x) is said to be decreasing, often in a particular interval, if
y increases as x decreases and vice versa. Figure 14.2(b) shows that g (x) is a decreasing function
between x = a and x = b. This is because as x increases from a to b, y decreases accordingly, i.e.,
a < b implies that f (a) > f (b). Here the slope is negative at all points between a and b.
The interval in both cases above can be written as a ≤ x ≤ b.
Often a function is both increasing and decreasing, but at different intervals. Let’s consider a curve
y = h (x) which rises and falls as the value of x changes from negative to positive (Figure 14.3).
For our discussion here, we’ve identified three portions, A, B, and C, to the right of y-axis, though
we could have done the same to the left of the same axis. As the value of x in the region A increases,
the value of y decreases, the same holds for region C. Although the curve is in the positive x region
(A) and the negative y region (C), it can however be noted that the gradient is negative in both cases,
i.e. m < 0. This is a key and common criterion. The function h (x) is therefore said to be decreasing
in these two regions.
When we look at region B, it can be observed that as the value of x increases the value of y also
increases. Although the curve is above the x-axis like region A, we note that the gradient is positive,
i.e. m > 0. The function h (x) is therefore said to be increasing in this region.
We can therefore summarise the above points as:

1) Increasing Function

dy
If h (x) is increasing then >0 OR gradient is positive (14.7)
dx

FIGURE 14.2 (a) Increasing function and (b) decreasing function.

580 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

B
A

FIGURE 14.3 A function that increases and decreases in a particular interval illustrated.

2) Decreasing Function

dy
If h (x) is decreasing then < 0 OR gradient is negative (14.8)
dx

It seems that we’ve said it all. Let’s illustrate with examples.

Example 6

Determine the range of values of x for which each of the following functions is increasing.

a) y = x2 + 3x − 5 b) y = 13 − x − 2x2 − x3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

a) y = x2 + 3x − 5
Solution
Given that y = x2 + 3x − 5, we have
dy
= 2x + 3
dx
For increasing function, we have
dy
>0
dx
Applications of Differentiation 581

which implies that

2x + 3 > 0
2x > −3
3
x>−
2
The above implies that the function f (x) is increasing at any point when x is greater than −1.5.

b) y = 13 − x − 2x2 − x3
Solution
Given that y = 13 − x − 2x2 − x3 , we have
dy
= −1 − 4x − 3x2
dx
For increasing function, we have:

dy
>0
dx
which implies that

−1 − 4x − 3x2 > 0
3x2 + 4x + 1 < 0
(3x + 1) (x + 1) < 0
1
∴ −1<x<−
3
1
The above implies that the function f (x) is increasing at any point when x is between −1 and − .
3

Let’s try another example.

Example 7

1
v (t) = 2t3 + t2 − 35t + 1 represents the velocity of an object as a function of time.
2

a) Determine the time interval when the object is accelerating.

b) Determine the time interval when the object is decelerating.
c) Show this on a graph.
582 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

● Acceleration implies a positive or an increasing function.

● Deceleration implies a negative or an decreasing function.

a) Accelerating
Solution
1
Given that v (t) = 2t3 + t2 − 35t + 1, we have
2

d
[v (t)] = 6t2 + t − 35
dt
During acceleration the function v (t) will be increasing, thus
d
[v (t)] > 0
dt
6t2 + t − 35 > 0
The quadratic expression is 6t2 + t − 35, hence we solve as
6t2 + t − 35 = 0
(2t + 5) (3t − 7) = 0
Therefore

2t + 5 = 0 3t − 7 = 0
OR 7
∴ t = −2.5 ∴t=
3

We can conclude that the object is increasing (or accelerating) during the following time intervals
7
t < −2.5 and t >
3

b) Decelerating
Solution
During deceleration, the function v (t) will be decreasing, thus
d
[v (t)] < 0
dt
6t2 + t − 35 < 0
7
As before, the roots of 6t2 + t − 35 = 0 are t = −2.5 or t = .
3
We can conclude that the object is decreasing (or decelerating) during the following time intervals
5 7
− <t<
2 3

c) Graph (Figure 14.4 and Figure 14.5)

Applications of Differentiation 583

1
2

t
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIGURE 14.4 Acceleration (as an increasing function of velocity) illustrated.

1
2
v

t
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

FIGURE 14.5 Deceleration (as a decreasing function of velocity) illustrated.

14.5 STATIONARY POINTS

Figure 14.6 is a graph of f (x), with a gradient function given as f ′ (x). The gradient at a given point is
obtained by evaluating f ′ (x) using the value of x at that point. For example, the gradient at points A,
B, C, D, and E are f ′ (x1 ), f ′ (x2 ), f ′ (x3 ), f ′ (x4 ), and f ′ (x5 ), respectively. One thing that is common
584 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

B D

A
C

FIGURE 14.6 Stationary points illustrated.

to these points is that the slope at these points is zero, i.e., f ′ (x1 ) = f ′ (x2 ) = f ′ (x3 ) = f ′ (x4 ) =
f ′ (x5 ) = 0. Because of this condition, these points (and similar ones) are called stationary points.
It is possible or easy to visualise the stationary points once a graph is plotted. However, there are
complicated functions and those with discontinuities (e.g., a tangent function) that might be difficult
to plot. If the main interest is to determine the stationary points, then it will be useful to establish an
analytical technique.
Stationary points fall into one of these three categories, namely:

a) Minimum point,
b) Maximum point, and
c) Point of inflexion or inflection (PI)

14.5.1 MINIMUM AND MAXIMUM POINTS

Consider Figure 14.7 of f (x), where points A and C are local minima (plural of minimum), and points
B and D are local maxima (plural of maximum). By ‘local’, it implies that the term ‘minimum’ or
‘maximum’ is related to a small region of the curve, otherwise we will only have one minimum
point (e.g., point A) and one maximum point (e.g., point D) in the curve shown below. This also
distinguishes them from the global minimum and maximum points of the function.
If we take a second look at the curve, we will notice that each stationary point (A, B, C, and D) has
a pair of lines, one to the left and the other to the right of the point. Furthermore, the sign ‘− − −’
indicates that the gradient of the curve in this region is negative and ‘+ + +’ implies that the gradient
of the curve in this region is positive. We can now summarise our observations as:
Applications of Differentiation 585

D
B

C
A

FIGURE 14.7 Minimum and maximum points illustrated.

FIGURE 14.8 Minimum point illustrated.

Note 1 For each point, the gradient changes from either positive through zero to negative or from
negative through zero to positive. Essentially, the curve switches its direction.
Note 2 Points A and C switch signs from negative to positive and are called minimum points. It is
also a point where the function changes from a decreasing function to an increasing function.
This is schematically shown in Figure 14.8.
Note 3 Points B and D switch signs from positive to negative and they are called maximum points. It
is also a point where the function changes from being an increasing function to a decreasing
function, as schematically shown in Figure 14.9.
Note 4 Minima (A and C) and maxima (B and D) are also called the turning points (TP). It should
be added that turning points are sometimes used synonymously as stationary points. We can
conclude that stationary is more general and unambiguous, whilst turning points can be used
in a general sense or specific form.
586 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 14.9 Maximum point illustrated.

We need to be able to determine a turning point analytically without reference to an existing curve
and then use the information to sketch the curve of a function. We will consider two methods that
can be used to achieve this.

Method 1 Using the second derivative

To determine whether a point on a curve of f (x) is minimum (trough) or maximum (crest) using this
method, follow these steps:

dy
Step 1: Find the first derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ′ (x).
dx
dy
Step 2: Solve = 0 (or f ′ (x) = 0) to determine the x-coordinate(s) of the turning point. Let this
dx
point be x1 .
Step 3: Substitute x1 in f (x) to obtain the coordinates of the point (x1 , y1 ).
d2 y
Step 4: Determine the second derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ″ (x).
dx2
d2 y d2 y |
Step 5: Substitute x1 in , i.e., | or f ″ (x1 ).
dx2 dx2 |x
1
Step 6: Establish the nature of the turning at (x1 , y1 ) as:

If f ″ (x1 ) > 0 then it is Minimum (14.9)

and

If f ″ (x1 ) < 0 then it is Maximum (14.10)

Method 2 Using change of gradient at stationary point

To determine whether a point on a curve of f (x) is minimum (trough) or maximum (crest) using this
method, follow these steps:

dy
Step 1: Find the first derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ′ (x).
dx
dy
Step 2: Solve = 0 or f ′ (x) = 0 to determine the x-coordinate of the turning point. Let this point
dx
be x1 .
Applications of Differentiation 587

Step 3: Substitute x1 in f (x) to obtain the coordinates of the point (x1 , y1 ).

Step 4: Choose a point x1 − a to the left and x1 + a to the right of the stationary point x1 , where a
is a small positive real number. We say ‘small’ to ensure that the point chosen is as close as
possible to (x1 , y1 ), otherwise the curve might have changed shape.
dy | dy |
Step 5: Substitute x1 − a and x1 + a in the first derivative, i.e., || and || .
dx x −a dx x +a
1 1
Step 6: Establish the nature of the turning point at (x1 , y1 ) as:

If f ′ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) > 0 then it is Minimum

f ′ (a− ) < 0 f ′ (a) = 0 f ′ (a+ ) > 0 (14.11)

and

If f ′ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) < 0 then it is Maximum

f ′ (a− ) > 0 f ′ (a) = 0 f ′ (a+ ) < 0 (14.12)

Let’s add a few points about the above two methods.

Note 1 Instead of writing f ′ (x1 − a), we sometimes use f ′ (x− ) or f ′ (a− ) to mean a point to the
left. Similarly, f ′ (x+ ) or f ′ (a+ ) is used instead of f ′ (x1 + a), to indicate a point to the
right of the stationary point.
Note 2 What is substituted in method 1 is the actual x-coordinate of the turning point and is sub-
d2 y
stituted in , but the x-values of the neighbouring points (left and right) of the stationary
dx2
dy
points are substituted in method 2 and is done in .
dx

The above process is also known as determining the nature of the stationary point.
It will be interesting to know what happens if:

a) f ′ (x1 ) ≠ 0
b) f ″ (x1 ) = 0
c) f ′ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) < 0
d) f ′ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) > 0

The answer to the above will come in the next section when we discuss a point of inflexion (P-of-I),
but for now, let’s take a break and try some examples.
588 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

y
x

FIGURE 14.10 Determining the minimum point using change of gradient at stationary point illustrated.
y

FIGURE 14.11 Determining the maximum point using change of gradient at stationary point illustrated.

Example 8

Determine the coordinates (x1 , y1 ) of the turning point on the following curves and state the nature.

a) f (x) = x2 − 7x + 5 b) g (x) = 13 − 8x − 5x2

Applications of Differentiation 589

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) f (x) = x2 − 7x + 5
Solution
Method 1 First derivative
Given that f (x) = x2 − 7x + 5, we have

f ′ (x) = 2x − 7

At the turning point, we have

f ′ (x) = 0

which implies that

2x − 7 = 0
7
∴ x = = 3.5
2
This is the x-coordinate; the y-coordinate is found as:

f (x) = x2 − 7x + 5
2
7 7
f (3.5) = ( ) − 7 ( ) + 5
2 2
29
=− = −7.25
4
Hence, the coordinates are
7 29
(x1 , y1 ) = ( , − )
2 4
Remember that the above coordinates can also be found using the completing square method (cov-
ered in Foundation Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples by the same
author).
Let’s determine the nature of the turning point. If f ′ (x) = 2x − 7, then

f ″ (x) = 2
7
∴ f″ ( ) = 2 > 0
2
7 29
Since f ″ (x) > 0, there is a minimum at the turning point ( , − ).
2 4
7
Notice that we evaluated f ( ), but this is not needed in this situation, since f ″ (x) is not a function
″
2
but a numerical constant. This was shown to highlight the steps given above and we will subsequently
omit it where necessary.
590 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Method 2 Change of gradient at the stationary point

You might have noticed that the first three steps are the same for both methods, and since we do have
the answer for these steps, we will not be repeating them. Instead, we will start from step 4. The
7 7 7
point to the left of x1 = is − a and to the right is + a, where a is a small positive real number.
2 2 2

f ′ (x) = 2x − 7

Therefore
7 7
f ′ ( − a) = 2 ( − a) − 7
2 2
= 7 − 2a − 7
= −2a < 0

Similarly,
7 7
f ′ ( + a) = 2 ( + a) − 7
2 2
= 7 + 2a − 7
= 2a > 0
7 7
Since f ′ ( − a) < 0 AND f ′ ( + a) > 0, then we have
2 2

Minimum

Note
Instead of using 3.5 − a and 3.5 + a, we could have used 3.4 and 3.6 respectively.

b) g (x) = 13 − 8x − 5x2
Solution
Method 1 First derivative
Given that g (x) = 13 − 8x − 5x2 , we have

g′ (x) = −8 − 10x

At the turning point, we have

g′ (x) = 0

Therefore

−10x − 8 = 0
8
∴x=− = −0.8
10
This is the x-coordinate; the y-coordinate is found as:

g (x) = 13 − 8x − 5x2
2
f (−0.8) = 13 − 8 (−0.8) − 5(−0.8)
81
= = 16.2
5
Applications of Differentiation 591

Hence, the coordinates are

(x1 , y1 ) = (−0.8, 16.2)

If g′ (x) = −8 − 10x, then

g″ (x) = −10
∴ g″ (−0.8) = −10 < 0

Since g″ (x) < 0, there is a maximum at the turning point (−0.8, 16.2).
Method 2 Change of gradient at the stationary point
The point to the left of x1 = −0.8 is −0.8 − a and to the right is −0.8 + a, where a is a small positive
real number.

g′ (x) = −8 − 10x

Therefore

g′ (−0.8 − a) = −8 − 10 (−0.8 − a)
= −8 + 8 + 10a
= 10a > 0

Similarly,

g′ (−0.8 + a) = −8 − 10 (−0.8 + a)
= −8 + 8 − 10a
= −10a < 0

Since g′ (x− ) > 0 AND g′ (x+ ) < 0, then we have:

Maximum

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
In this example, we will try to use the following values.
If x1 = −0.8, then we choose x− = −1.0 and x+ = −0.6. Notice that we chose a number to
the left and another to the right of x1 = −0.8. Now let’s substitute as:

g′ (x) = −8 − 10x

Therefore

g′ (−1.0) = −8 − 10 (−1.0)
= −8 + 10
=2>0
592 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Similarly,

g′ (−0.6) = −8 − 10 (−0.6)
= −8 + 6
= −2 < 0

Again, since g′ (x− ) > 0 AND g′ (x+ ) < 0, then we have:

Maximum

Note
Here, we chose a point 0.2 to the left and right. For this case, this might be relatively small but
perhaps too big in other situations. It is therefore important to keep this as small as practically
possible (Figure 14.12).

Let’s try another example.

Example 9

A cubic polynomial function is given by y = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 9.

a) Determine the coordinates of the stationary points.
b) State the nature of the stationary points.
c) Draw a graph showing the stationary points.

=
y

x
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

FIGURE 14.12 Solution to Example 8(b).

Applications of Differentiation 593

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

a) Stationary points
Solution
Given that y = x3 + 4x2 − 3x − 9, we have

y′ (x) = 3x2 + 8x − 3

At the turning point, we have

y′ (x) = 0
∴ 3x2 + 8x − 3 = 0

Let’s use quadratic formula here: a = 3, b = 8, and c = −3.

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
−8 ± √82 − 4 (3) (−3)
=
2 (3)
−8 ± √100 −8 ± 10
= =
6 6
−4 ± 5
=
3
Therefore
−4+5
x= −4−5
3 x=
1
OR 3
∴x= ∴ x = −3
3

1
● When x =
3

3 2
1 1 1 1
y ( ) = ( ) + 4( ) − 3 ( ) − 9
3 3 3 3
257
=−
27
1 257
Thus, the coordinates are (x1 , y1 ) = ( , − )
3 27

● When x = −3

3 2
y (−3) = (−3) + 4(−3) − 3 (−3) − 9
=9

Thus, the coordinates are (x2 , y2 ) = (−3, 9).

594 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) Nature of the stationary points

Solution
If y′ (x) = 3x2 + 8x − 3, then

y″ (x) = 6x + 8

1
● When x =
3

1 1
y″ ( ) = 6 ( ) + 8
3 3
= 10 > 0

1 257
Since y″ (x) > 0, it is minimum at the turning point ( , − ).
3 27

● When x = −3

1
y″ ( ) = 6 (−3) + 8
3
= −10 < 0

Since y″ (x) < 0, it is maximum at the turning point (−3, 9).

c) Plot
Solution (Figure 14.13)

(− , ) 10
y

0 x
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2

-5

-10
( ,− )

-15

FIGURE 14.13 Solution to Example 9(c).

Applications of Differentiation 595

Let’s try one final example.

Example 10

A sinusoidal voltage signal is given by v (t) = (sin 𝜔t + 1) mV. The signal operates at a constant
angular frequency of 1000𝜋 rad/s.

a) Determine the time when the signal reaches its maximum/minimum voltage in the interval
0 ≤ t ≤ 2𝜋.
b) Determine the coordinates of the points in (a).
c) State the nature of the stationary points.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) Stationary points
Solution
Given that v (t) = sin 𝜔t + 1, we have

v′ (t) = 𝜔 cos 𝜔t + 0 = 𝜔 cos 𝜔t

At the turning point, we have

v′ (t) = 0

Therefore

𝜔 cos 𝜔t = 0
𝜔t = cos−1 (0)
𝜋
=
2
This is the value in the first quadrant, the other value is
𝜋 3𝜋
𝜔t = 2𝜋 − =
2 2
𝜋
● When 𝜔t = , we have
2

𝜋 𝜋
t= =
2𝜔 2 × 1000𝜋
1
= s = 0.5 ms
2000
∴ t1 = 0.5 ms
596 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

3𝜋
● When 𝜔t = , we have
2

3𝜋 3𝜋
t= =
2𝜔 2 × 1000𝜋
3
= s = 1.5 ms
2000
∴ t2 = 1.5 ms

Thus, we can say that the signal reaches its maximum/minimum at two points within the stated range.

b) Coordinates
Solution

● When t = 0.5 ms ● When t = 1.5 ms

v (t) = sin 𝜔t + 1 v (t) = sin 𝜔t + 1

−3 −3
v (0.5 ms) = sin (1000𝜋 × 0.5 × 10 ) + 1 v (1.5 ms) = sin (1000𝜋 × 1.5 × 10 ) + 1
1 3
= sin ( 𝜋) + 1 = sin ( 𝜋) + 1
2 2
= 1 + 1 = 2 mV = −1 + 1 = 0 mV
Thus, the coordinates are (t1 , v1 ) = Thus, the coordinates are (t2 , v2 ) =
(0.5 ms, 2 mV) (1.5 ms, 0 mV)

c) Nature of stationary point

Solution
If v′ (t) = 𝜔 cos 𝜔t, then

v″ (t) = −𝜔2 sin 𝜔t

● When t = 0.5 ms

2 −3
∴ v″ (0.5 ms) = −(1000𝜋) sin (1000𝜋 × 0.5 × 10 )
2 1 2
= −(1000𝜋) sin ( 𝜋) = −(1000𝜋) < 0
2
Since v″ (t) < 0, it is maximum at the turning point (0.5 ms, 2 mV).

● When t = 1.5 ms

2 −3
∴ v″ (1.5 ms) = −(1000𝜋) sin (1000𝜋 × 1.5 × 10 )
2 3 2 2
= −(1000𝜋) sin ( 𝜋) = −(1000𝜋) × (−1) = (1000𝜋) > 0
2
Since v″ (t) > 0, it is minimum at the turning point (1.5 ms, 0 mV).
Applications of Differentiation 597

14.5.2 INFLEXION
This is the last type of stationary point, which is a bit different from the two we’ve covered. Let’s start
by stating what the point of inflexion is, as this will provide a clue to answering the four questions
we asked at the end of the last section.
A point of inflexion (PI) is a point on a curve where there is a change in the magnitude of the gra-
dient without a change in its sign, i.e., the curve changes from being concave to being convex to a
particular direction or vice versa. In this situation, the slope of the curve does not change sign as one
moves from left to right of the stationary point. In other words, if m = +ve it remains so and if it is
negative, it will not change.
We can equally say that a point of inflexion exists at a point on a curve where the curve is generally
increasing (positive) or decreasing (negative), but not changing from a positive to a negative slope.
Figure 14.14 shows some possible examples of a point of inflexion.
To summarise, we can broadly divide a point of inflexion into two categories:

dy
1) A generally increasing (or decreasing) function with a zero slope (i.e., = 0) at the point
dx
of inflexion. This is the general case and the reason for including a point of inflexion in a
stationary point.
dy
2) A generally increasing (or decreasing) function with a non-zero slope (i.e., ≠ 0) at the
dx
point of inflexion. This is not generally intended when the point of inflexion is mentioned.
Obviously, it is not a stationary point.

Based on this and subject to what we intend by ‘turning’, it can be said that the point of inflexion is
not a turning point.
dy
We now know that = 0 is not a necessary condition to establish a point of inflexion. In fact,
dx
dy dy
at the point of inflexion, can be negative, zero, or positive. Solving = 0 will only detect the
dx dx
x-coordinate(s) of y = f (x):

a) maximum point,
b) minimum point, and
c) point of inflexion if the slope is zero (Figure 14.14(a) and 14.14(b)). It will not reveal the point
of inflexion for the cases in 14.14(b) and 14.14(d).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

FIGURE 14.14 Point of inflexion illustrated, showing rising PI (a) and (c) and falling PI (b) and (d).
598 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

There are two key measures that can be used to establish a point of inflexion, namely

Condition 1: Is there a point of inflexion?

We know that f ″ (x) = 0 (or undefined) confirms that there is neither a maximum nor a minimum at
the given point, but does it suggest a point of inflexion? The answer is that it is a pre-condition for a
point of inflexion, but it is not sufficient to confirm the presence of a point of inflexion. In summary
f ″ (x) = 0 (or undefined) gives the x-coordinate(s) for a possible point (or points) of inflexion on the
curve.

Condition 2: What is the nature of inflexion?

If condition 1 above is established, then there is a point of inflexion at point x = x1 on the curve if
the second condition is met. Condition 2 can be established using either of the two methods below.

Method 1 Neighbourhood points (first derivative – test for no change in sign)

If f ′ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) > 0 for a rising function (14.13)

OR

If f ′ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) < 0 for a falling function (14.14)

Method 2 Neighbourhood points (second derivative – test for change of sign)

If f ″ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ″ (x1 + a) > 0 for a falling function (14.15)

OR

If f ″ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ″ (x1 + a) < 0 for a rising function (14.16)

It should be mentioned that if we are only interested in whether a function is rising or falling at the
point of inflexion xn , we can find the third derivative of the function and subject it to the following
test.

f ‴ (xn ) > 0 for a rising function (14.17)

OR

f ‴ (xn ) < 0 for a falling function (14.18)

Before we leave this section, it will be helpful to summarise the steps to be followed in establishing
the point of inflexion. We will consider two methods.
Applications of Differentiation 599

Method 1 Test for no change in sign (using the first derivative)

To determine whether a point on a curve of f (x) is a point of inflexion, follow these steps:

dy
Step 1: Find the first derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ′ (x).
dx
dy
Step 2: Solve = 0 or f ′ (x) = 0 to determine the x-coordinate of the turning point. Let this be x1 .
dx
Step 3: Substitute x1 in f (x) to obtain the coordinates of the point (x1 , y1 ).
d2 y
Step 4: Determine the second derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ″ (x).
dx2
dy dy | dy |
Step 5: Substitute x1 in or f ′ (x), i.e., | or f ′ (x1 ). If | = 0, then a pre-condition (or condi-
dx dx |x dx |x
1 1
tion 1) for a point of inflexion at x1 has been established. We need to proceed to the second
condition.
Step 6: Use the following test to establish the existence of a point of inflexion at x1 :
a) For a rising function, we must have:

f ′ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) > 0 (14.19)

b) For a falling function, we must have:

f ′ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ′ (x1 + a) < 0 (14.20)

Method 2 Test for change of sign (using second derivative)

To determine whether a point on a curve of f (x) is a point of inflexion, follow these steps:

dy
Step 1: Find the first derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ′ (x).
dx
dy
Step 2: Solve = 0 or f ′ (x) = 0 to determine the x-coordinate of the turning point. Let this be x1 .
dx
Step 3: Substitute x1 in f (x) to obtain the coordinates of the point (x1 , y1 ).
d2 y
Step 4: Determine the second derivative of f (x), i.e., or f ″ (x).
dx2
d2 y |
|| or f ″ (x1 ). If 2 ||| = 0, then a pre-condition (or
d2 y d2 y
Step 5: Substitute x1 in or f ″ (x), i.e.,
dx2 x1 dx2 dx x
1
condition 1) for a point of inflexion at x1 has been established. We need to proceed to the
second condition.
Step 6: Use the following test to establish the existence of a point of inflexion at x1 :
a) For a rising function, we must have:

f ″ (x1 − a) > 0 AND f ″ (x1 + a) < 0 (14.21)

a) For a falling function, we must have:

f ″ (x1 − a) < 0 AND f ″ (x1 + a) > 0 (14.22)

All we said above is to determine and establish the existence of a point of inflexion when the gradient
dy dy dy
is zero. What if ≠ 0 (i.e., when < 0 and > 0)? For this, the steps stated in the two methods
dx dx dx
above are still relevant but with a bit of tweak and this is as follows:
600 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

dy d2 y
Note 1 We will not solve = 0 since this is not valid in this situation; we will instead use =0
dx dx2
and determine the possible points of inflexion. Let this be x1 .
d2 y
Note 2 Proceed in the first method, the substitution is carried out in while the same is
dx2
dy
done in .
dx

dy d2 y d3 y
We can also conclude the existence of P-of-I if = 0 and = 0, but ≠ 0. This is for y = x3
dx dx2 dx3
for example.
All done! Let’s try an example to illustrate this.

Example 11

Determine the coordinates of the points of inflexion, if any, on the graph of f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − x + 5.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

Given that f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − x + 5, then we have

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 8x − 1
f ″ (x) = 6x − 8

A point of inflexion will occur, if it exists, when

f ″ (x) = 0

which implies that

6x − 8 = 0
4
∴x=
3
Let’s find the y-coordinate as:

f (x) = x3 − 4x2 − x + 5
3 2
4 4 4 4
f ( ) = ( ) − 4( ) − ( ) + 5
3 3 3 3
29
=−
27
4 29
Thus, the coordinates are (x1 , y1 ) = ( , − )
3 27
5
Now, let x− = 1 and x+ = .
3
Applications of Differentiation 601

10

5
y

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

-5

-10 x

-15

-20

-25

FIGURE 14.15 Solution to Example 11.

Method 1

f ′ (x) = 3x2 − 8x − 1
2
f ′ (x− ) = 3(1) − 8 (1) − 1
= 3 − 8 − 1 = −6
∴ f ′ (x− ) < 0

Similarly
2
5 5
f ′ (x+ ) = 3( ) − 8 ( ) − 1
3 3
25 40
= − − 1 = −6
3 3
∴ f ′ (x+ ) < 0

4 29
Since f ′ (x− ) < 0 AND f ′ (x+ ) < 0, thus there is a point of inflexion at point ( , − ). As both
3 27
conditions are negative, then it is a falling function at this point.
Method 2

f ″ (x) = 6x − 8
f ″ (x− ) = 6 (1) − 8
= 6 − 8 = −2
∴ f ″ (x− ) < 0
602 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Similarly
5
f ″ (x+ ) = 6 ( ) − 8
3
= 10 − 8 = 2
∴ f ″ (x+ ) > 0
4 29
Since f ″ (x− ) < 0 AND f ″ (x+ ) > 0, thus there is a point of inflexion at point ( , − ). As we have
3 27
f ″ (x− ) < 0 and f ″ (x+ ) > 0, then it is a falling function at this point.

14.6 CURVE SKETCHING

Sketching the graph of a function is generally required. We cover this briefly in Foundation Math-
ematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples when discussing quadratic equations.
Here are the key features.

1) Intercepts
a) y-intercept: This is when the graph cuts the vertical line or y-axis. To obtain this, we will
use x = 0 in explicitly defined functions y = f (x) or in implicitly defined functions
f (x, y) = f (x, y). In general, we expect a curve to cross the vertical axis once, at a point
(0, yc ), where yc is the point where the curve crosses the y-axis. However, a curve of an
implicit function can cross the y-axis more than once.
b) x-intercept: This is when the graph cuts the horizontal line or x-axis. To obtain this, we
set y = 0 in explicitly defined functions f (x) or in implicitly defined functions f (x, y). The
x-value or values obtained are called the roots or zeros of the function. In general, the num-
ber of x-values obtained is determined by the type of function. For a polynomial function,
the number is the same as the degree of the polynomial. For a trigonometric function, this
is primarily determined by the intervals and the periodicity (or angular frequency) of the
function. If the roots of a function are x1 , x2 , , ...xn , the points of crossing the horizontal
axis are (x1 , 0), (x2 , 0), …, (xn , 0), respectively.
2) Stationary points
We just covered this above. In summary, we need to determine the (x, y) coordinates of the
maximum and minimum points and the point of inflexion. This is particularly needed to show
where the curve changes direction (concave or convex).
3) General behaviour
In addition to the above points, there are other secondary factors that we need to consider when
sketching a curve. It is not a condition that we check for each of the below when sketching the
graph of a function. Nonetheless, it helps to have a better view and to obtain a more accurate
shape.
a) Symmetry: This is where a line can be drawn through the curve such that one part of the
curve is a mirror of the other part. This line is called the line of symmetry. Generally, we
expect only one line of symmetry where the graph is split into two. If this is a vertical
line, where x = n such that n ∈ ℝ, then we can say that the curve is symmetrical about the
y-axis. This symmetry occurs when x is replaced with −x in the f (x) and can be represented
as f (x) = f (−x), e.g., cos 𝜃 = cos (−𝜃).
Applications of Differentiation 603

On the other hand, if this is a horizontal line, where y = n such that n ∈ ℝ, then we say
that the curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. This occurs when y is replaced with −y in
f (x) and can be represented as f (x) = −f (x). For example, x2 + y2 = 5 is symmetrical
about both the x-axis and the y-axis because we can replace either x or y or both with their
respective negative value and the equation remains unchanged. The line of symmetry here
is the diameter of the circle.
b) Interval (decreasing and increasing): Increasing and decreasing functions have been cov-
ered earlier in this chapter. We can examine this to confirm if the curve is progressing
upward left and downward right (decreasing) or progressing upward right and downward
left (increasing).
c) Asymptotes: Some functions are undefined at particular value(s) of x or y, we can say that
the curve is asymptotic at these point(s) of x or y. A vertical asymptote is a vertical line,
defined as x = n, for n ∈ ℝ, which the curve approaches but never touches. Similarly, a
horizontal asymptote is a horizontal line, defined as y = n, for n ∈ ℝ, which the curve
approaches but never touches. At these points, the curve is discontinuous. For example, a
tangent function is discontinuous at angles 𝜃 = 90° ± 180°n and these are the asymptotic
1
lines. Similarly, a rational function y = is undefined when the denominator equals
x−1
zero, i.e., x − 1 = 0, thus there is a vertical asymptote at x = 1. By re-arranging and
making x the subject, we can show that there is a horizontal asymptote at y = 0.
d) It is also helpful to check the behaviour of the curve at certain intervals.
e) Finally, knowing the default shape of certain functions (e.g., quadratic and cubic functions,
trigonometric functions) will be immensely helpful in sketching a more accurate shape.

All covered! Let us try some examples.

Example 12

Sketch the following functions.

a) y = 3 − 2x b) y = x2 + 3x − 4
c) y = (1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2)
604 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 12

a) y = 3 − 2x
Solution
We need the following information to be able to sketch the graph.

● x-intercept

When y = 0, we have

3 − 2x = 0
3 = 2x
∴ x = 1.5

If this point is A, then the coordinates of A are (1.5, 0)

● y-intercept

When x = 0, we have

y = 3 − 2 (0)
∴y=3

If this point is B, then the coordinates of B are (0, 3)

● Stationary point

Knowing that this is a linear function, the two points A and B are sufficient to sketch this successfully.
Nevertheless, let us apply this condition to it, so we differentiate

y = 3 − 2x
y′ = −2

The first derivative is a numeric value, which implies that there is only one slope for this function at
every point. Hence, this is a straight line (Figure 14.16).

b) y = x2 + 3x − 4
Solution
We need the following information to be able to sketch the graph

● x-intercept

When y = 0, we have

x2 + 3x − 4 = 0
(x − 1) (x + 4) = 0
Applications of Differentiation 605

FIGURE 14.16 Solution to Example 12(a).

Therefore

x−1 x+4=0
OR
∴x=1 ∴ x = −4

If the points are A and B, then we have the following coordinates: A (−4, 0) and B (1, 0)

● y-intercept

When x = 0, we have
2
y = (0) + 3 (0) − 4
∴ y = −4

If this point is C, then the coordinates of C are (0, − 4)

● Stationary point

Knowing that this is a quadratic function, we expect a single turning point. In fact, we know it is
minimum since the coefficient of x2 is positive, i.e. a > 0. The vertex (or the turning point) can also
be obtained using completing the square method, but we will use differential calculus here. Now,
differentiating

y = x2 + 3x − 4
y′ = 2x + 3
606 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

At the stationary point, we have

y′ = 0
2x + 3 = 0
2x = −3
3
∴x=−
2
Since this point is on the function, we can get the y-coordinate by substitution in the original function
as:

y = x2 + 3x − 4
2
3 3 3
y (− ) = (− ) + 3 (− ) − 4
2 2 2
25
=−
4
3 25
If this point is D, then the coordinates of D are (− , − )
2 4
Now we can determine the nature of the turning point by finding the second derivative as:

y″ = 2

d2 y 3
The value of at the turning point x = − is
dx2 2

3
y″ ( ) = 2 > 0
2
3 25
As this is positive, then there is a minimum at (− , − ).
2 4

● Increasing/decreasing

The function is increasing when

y′ > 0
2x + 3 > 0
3
∴x>−
2
It is decreasing when

y′ < 0
2x + 3 < 0
3
∴x<−
2
The above information is sufficient to accurately plot the graph (Figure 14.17).
Applications of Differentiation 607

FIGURE 14.17 Solution to Example 12(b).

c) y = (1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2)
Solution
We need the following information to be able to sketch the graph

● x-intercept

When y = 0, we have

(1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2) = 0

We’re lucky that the expression is already factorised. Hence,

1 − 2x = 0
1
∴x=
2
OR

x+3=0
∴ x = −3

OR

x−2=0
∴x=2

1
If the points are A, B, and C, then we have the following coordinates: A (−3, 0), B ( , 0), and C (2, 0)
2
608 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

● y-intercept

When x = 0, we have

y = (1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2)
= (1 − 0) (0 + 3) (0 − 2)
= 1 × 3 × −2
∴ y = −6

If this point is D, then the coordinates of D are (0, − 6).

● Stationary point
Knowing that this is a cubic quadratic function, we expect two turning points (a maximum and a
minimum). In fact, we also know it is a minimum then a maximum if the drawing is from the left
side of the graph. This is because the coefficient of x3 is negative, i.e., a < 0.
Now, let’s differentiate. Although, it is better if we open the brackets, we could also use the product
rule for triple functions. We’ll consider the former; here we go.

y = (1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2)
= (1 − 2x) (x2 + x − 6)
= x2 + x − 6 − 2x3 − 2x2 + 12x
= −2x3 − x2 + 13x − 6

Therefore

y′ = −6x2 − 2x + 13

At the stationary point, we have

y′ = 0
−6x2 − 2x + 13 = 0

Let’s use quadratic formula to solve this. We know that a = −6, b = −2, and c = 13. Therefore,

−b ± √b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
2
2 ± √(−2) − 4 (−6) (13)
=
−12
2 ± 2√79 1 ± √79
= =
−12 −6
Therefore

1 + √79
x1 = − = −1.65
6
OR

−1 + 1√79
x2 = = 1.31
6
Applications of Differentiation 609

Since these points are on the function, we can get the y-coordinates by substitution in the original
function as:

y = (1 − 2x) (x + 3) (x − 2)

1+1√79
At x1 = −
6

1 + √79 1 + √79 1 + √79 1 + √79

y (− ) = [1 − 2 (− )] [(− ) + 3] [(− ) − 2]
6 6 6 6
= −21.19

If this point is E, then the coordinates of E are (−1.65, − 21.19)

−1+1√79
At x2 =
6

−1 + √79 −1 + √79 −1 + √79 −1 + √79

y( ) = [1 − 2 ( )] [( ) + 3] [( ) − 2]
6 6 6 6
= 4.82

If this point is F, then the coordinates of F are (1.31, 4.82)

Now we can determine the nature of the turning points (E and F) by finding the second derivative as:

y″ = −12x − 2

d2 y
The value of at the turning point E x1 = −1.65 is
dx2

y″ (−1.65) = −12 (−1.65) − 2 = 17.8 > 0

As this is positive, then there is a minimum at E (−1.65, − 21.19).

d2 y
Similarly, the value of at the turning point F x1 = 1.31 is
dx2

y″ (1.31) = −12 (1.31) − 2 = −17.72 < 0

As this is negative, then there is a maximum at F (1.31, 4.82).

● Increasing/decreasing

The function is increasing when

y′ > 0
−6x2 − 2x + 13 > 0
6x2 + 2x − 13 < 0
∴ − 1.65 < x < 1.31
610 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

It is decreasing when

y′ < 0
−6x2 − 2x + 13 < 0
6x2 + 2x − 13 > 0
∴ x < −1.65 OR x > 1.31

The above information is sufficient to accurately plot the graph (Figure 14.18). Still, we can check
the behaviour (Table 14.1) of the function beyond x < −1.65 and x > 1.31.

FIGURE 14.18 Solution to Example 11(c).

TABLE 14.1
Solution to Example 11(c)
Condition Behaviour
x ≪ −1.65 At this instant, −2x3 becomes the dominant term of y = −2x3 − x2 + 13x − 6.
The cube of a negative value is negative; hence, we have −2 (negative) =
positive = y. In other words, the function remains positive above the horizontal
axis.

x ≫ 1.31 At this instant, again −2x3 dominates. The cube of a positive value is positive;
hence, we have −2 (positive) = negative = y. In other words, the function
remains negative below the horizontal axis.
Applications of Differentiation 611

14.7 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Velocity (a vector quantity) is the time rate of change of position. If s = f (t), where s
and t are position and time, respectively, velocity (v) is the differential coefficient of s
wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
v= [s]
dt

2) Acceleration (also a vector quantity) is the time rate of change of velocity. If v = f (t),
where v and t are velocity and time, respectively, acceleration (a) is the differential
coefficient of v wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
a= [v]
dt

Alternatively, given that s = f (t), where s and t are position and time, respectively,
velocity is the second derivate of s wrt t.

d ds d2 s
a= [ ]= 2
dt dt dt

3) Jerk (also known as Jolt) is the time rate of change of acceleration and is a vector quan-
tity. If a = f (t), where a and t are acceleration and time, respectively, jerk (j) is the
differential coefficient of a wrt t. This is expressed as:

d
j= [a]
dt

Alternatively, given that s = f (t), where s and t are position and time, respectively, jerk
is the third derivate of s wrt t.

d d2 s d3 s
a= [ 2]= 3
dt dt dt

4) A straight line L1 drawn tangential to the curve at point A is called the tangent at the
given point. Similarly, a straight line L2 drawn perpendicularly to L1 and passes through
point A is called the normal at the same point A.
5) A function y = f (x) is said to be increasing, often in a particular interval, if y increases
as x increases and vice versa.
6) A function y = g (x) is said to be decreasing, often in a particular interval, if y increases
as x decreases and vice versa.
612 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

7) Stationary points fall into one of these categories, namely:

● Minimum point,
● Maximum point, and
● Point of inflexion
8) A point of inflexion is a point on a curve where there is a change in the magnitude of
the gradient without a change in its sign, i.e., the curve changes from being concave to
convex to a particular direction or vice versa.

****

14.8 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 15 Indefinite Integration
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Explain integration as an inverse of differentiation

● Discuss the importance of the constant of integration
● Use the notations associated with integration
● Integrate the power of x
● Integrate standard functions
● Determine the equation of a curve when given its gradient and a point
on the curve

15.1 INTRODUCTION
Integration is the second part of calculus and a direct inverse of differentiation (or anti-derivative).
Integration is primarily used in applications that require finding the area and volume under a function.
In fact, we can say that the formulas for finding areas of many standard shapes (triangle, rectangle,
trapezium, circle, etc.) are or can be obtained using integration. We will, in this chapter, start with
indefinite integration, covering the constant of integration, determining the integral of functions, and
finding the equation of a curve.

15.2 INDEFINITE INTEGRAL

Integration can be either indefinite or definite. The former is the subject of discussion in this chapter,
whilst the latter will be considered in the subsequent chapter. However, it will be helpful to set out
the fundamental differences between the two.

Note 1 An indefinite integration is represented by ∫ y dx. The notation ∫, which looks like an
elongated S (denoting sum), is called ‘the integral of’. It implies that the reverse of dif-
ferentiation should be performed, just like the notation √, is used to undo the square. ∫ y dx
is read as ‘the integral of y with respect to x’. y is the integrand and ‘dx’ shows the variable
to which the integrand is being computed with respect to, which must be included otherwise
the integration is meaningless. In this case, x is the independent variable. If the independent
variable is time (t), we will have dt and if it is volume (V), we will have dV and so on.
b
Note 2 On the other hand, a definite integration is represented by ∫a y dx. We say a and b are,
respectively, the lower and upper limits of the integration. We shall come back to this soon.
Note 3 The operation of an indefinite integration is always a function of a variable, whilst the
operation of a definite integration results in a numerical value or constant.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-15 613
614 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Note 4 An indefinite integration is the anti-derivative or inverse of differentiation. On the other hand,
a definite integration represents an area covered by the upper and lower limits.
Note 5 A function that undergoes an indefinite integration can be recovered by taking the derivative
of the integral function. However, if a definite integration is carried out on a function, it
cannot be recovered by simply finding the differential coefficient of the result.

15.2.1 CONSTANT OF INTEGRATION

So far, we’ve been made aware that integration will undo what differentiation does. Let’s investigate
this concept further by finding the derivatives of the following quadratic functions y1 , y2 , y3 , and y4 ,
as detailed in Table 15.1.
From the functions in Table 15.1, of the form ax2 + bx + c, we notice that all the four functions are
the same but differ only in the value of the constant c. In other words, the value of c in y1 is 17 and
in y2 , y3 , and y4 are 8, 0, and −20, respectively. We equally note that the differential coefficient of
all of them is the same, i.e., 6x − 5. The derivative will remain the same as 6x − 5 for any function of
the above form such that only c has changed. In fact, they represent a family of functions that have
only been translated along the y-axis, i.e., moved up/down. The plots of the four functions, vertically
translated, are shown in Figure 15.1.
The problem here is, if we were asked to integrate 6x − 5, to recover the original function, how do
we know which of the above four functions initially produced this integral? In other words, is the
integral of 6x − 5 with respect to x, technically written as ∫ (6x − 5) dx, equal to 3x2 − 5x + 17 or
3x2 − 5x + 8 or 3x2 − 5x or 3x2 − 5x − 20 or even another family member? Obviously, we have lost
the constant value in the process of finding the derivative, and we have no trace of what it was or a
hint to inform us of what to do to recover it.
For the above reason, we always add a constant C to the result of any integration. This is called the
constant of integration or arbitrary constant, and it stands in place of a constant that has been lost
when differentiating. It is common to use capital letter C, but it is not restricted. We shall also see
other letters being used later in this chapter and subsequent ones.
Let’s write our quadratic function family above as 3x2 − 5x + C, where C represents any numerical
constant. It follows that if:
d
(3x2 − 5x + c) = 6x − 5
dx

TABLE 15.1
Constant of Integration Illustrated

dy dy
Function f (x) Derivative Function f (x) Derivative
dx dx

y1 = 3x2 − 5x + 17 6x − 5 y2 = 3x2 − 5x + 8 6x − 5

y3 = 3x2 − 5x 6x − 5 y4 = 3x2 − 5x − 20 6x − 5
Indefinite Integration 615

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-20

-40

y1 y2 y3 y4

FIGURE 15.1 A family of functions with the same derivatives illustrated.

then

∫ (6x − 5) dx = 3x2 − 5x + C

In other words, when we differentiate a function, the constant term disappears but when we inte-
grate, a constant (i.e., constant of integration) appears. This is the gist! We have illustrated this in
Figure 15.2.
As we’ve lost the original constant when a function is differentiated, adding the constant of integra-
tion is therefore mandatory in indefinite integration, otherwise the function cannot be 100 percent
recovered. An expression with a constant of integration is called the general solution.

Integraon Differenaon

FIGURE 15.2 Integration as an anti-derivative illustrated.

616 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

15.2.2 INTEGRATING TO DETERMINE THE EQUATION OF A CURVE

We discussed integrating a function and adding an arbitrary constant C, which means that the func-
tion represents any member of a family of functions. To find the value of constant C, we need to be
given an additional information, usually a point (x1 , y1 ) on the curve. When this is substituted back
into the general solution, we would be able to determine the value of C. This gives the actual function
in a family of functions. An expression obtained, having replaced C with a numerical value, is called
a particular solution.
There is an essential aspect that needs to be made clear: How do we determine the integral of a func-
tion? In the example above, how do we know that 3x2 − 5x + c is the integral of 6x − 5 if we do not
have the prior knowledge? Right, this is the journey that we are about to set out for.

15.2.3 STANDARD INTEGRAL FORMS

By standard integrals, we mean the integrals of the common functions in their simplest forms. These
are typically found in a table of integrals and can be used to integrate complex functions. Integration
domain is seemingly wide, but we will take it bit by bit.

15.2.3.1 Integrating Power of x or xn (n ≠ −1)

This is used for power functions, and it states that

1 n+1
If y = xn then ∫ xn dx = x +C (15.1)
n+1

where n is any real number excluding −1.

Here is the gist: for differentiation, we multiply then subtract, while in integration we add then divide.
This is an exact inverse situation, as illustrated in Figure 15.3.

Differentiation
Integral

Inverse

Integration

FIGURE 15.3 Determining derivatives and integrals illustrated.

Indefinite Integration 617

At this stage, let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Determine the integral of the following functions with respect to x.

1
a) y = x3 b) y = x−4 c) y = x−1 d) y = √x e) y = 5 f) y = x2.1
√x3
1 2
cos 𝜋 x−8 −
g) y = x h) y = 7 i) y = x 6 j) y = k) y = x 7 l) y = x√2
x8

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

Hint

● Understanding the laws of indices will be helpful.

● Also, do not forget to add the constant of integration C.

a) y = x3
Solution

y = x3
1 3+1
∫ y dx = ∫ x3 dx = x +C
3+1
1 4
=
x +C
4
1
∴ ∫ x3 dx = x4 + C
4

b) y = x−4
Solution

y = x−4
1
∫ y dx = ∫ x−4 dx = x−4+1 + C
−4 + 1
1 −3
= x +C
−3
1
∴ ∫ x−4 dx = − x−3 + C
3

Note
1
● For this, we could have written the final answer as − using one of the laws of indices.
3x3

● One common error is to think that the power should be ‘increased’ from −4 to −5. This will
be true for positive power x4 where the power will go from 4 to 5. However, when the power is
618 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

−4, the new power will be −3 as this is an increase of 1 on the number line. It will be desirable
to go with the formula.

c) y = x−1
Solution

y = x−1
1
∫ y dx = ∫ x−1 dx = x−1+1 + C
−1 + 1
1 1
= x0 + C = + C = ∞ + C
0 0
∴ ∫ x−1 dx = ?

Note
Hold on a moment! It seems the formula states that it cannot be used when n = −1. But what do we
do or how do we solve this type of problem? This will be covered by another integral standard that
we will be looking at shortly.

d) y = √x
Solution

y = √x

This is not in the right format, so we need to transform this as:

1
y = √x = x 2
1
1 1
( +1)
∫ y dx = ∫ x 2 dx = x 2 +C
1
+1
2
1 3
2 3
= x +C=
2 x2 + C
3 3
( )
2

2 3
∴ ∫ √x dx = x 2 + C
3
Note
2
For this, we could have written the final answer as √x3 + C using one of the laws of indices.
3

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
If you find it easier to work in decimal, we have:

1
∫ y dx = ∫ x0.5 dx = x(0.5+1) + C
0.5 + 1
1 1.5
= x +C
1.5
1 1.5
∴ ∫ x0.5 dx = x +C
1.5
Indefinite Integration 619

1
e) y = 5
√x3
Solution
1
y= 5
√x3

This is not in the right format, so we need to apply relevant laws of indices as:
1 1 −
3
y= 5
= 3
=x 5
√x3 x 5
3
− 1 3
(− +1)
∫ y dx = ∫ x 5 dx = x 5 +C
3
− +1
5
1 2
5 2
= x +C=
5 x5 + C
2 2
( )
5

1 5 2
∴ ∫ 5
dx = x5 + C
√x3 2

Note
5
For this, we could have written the final answer as 2.5√x2 + C using one of the laws of indices.

f) y = x2.1
Solution

y = x2.1
1
∫ y dx = ∫ x2.1 dx = x2.1+1 + C
2.1 + 1
1 3.1 10 3.1
= x +C= x +C
3.1 31
10 3.1
∴ ∫ x2.1 dx = x +C
31

g) y = x
Solution

y = x = x1
1 1+1
∫ y dx = ∫ x dx = x +C
1+1
1 2
=
x +C
2
1
∴ ∫ x dx = x2 + C
2
620 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

h) y = 7
Solution

y = 7 = 7x0

1
∫ y dx = ∫ 7x0 dx = 7x0+1 + C
0+1
1
= 7x + C
1
∴ ∫ 7 dx = 7x + C

Note
Recall that we used the style above when discussing differentiation. The same trick is used here too.
A number or constant disappears when differentiated, while in integration a number comes with x
(or any independent variable used) attached to it.

1
cos 𝜋
i) y = x 6

Solution
1
cos 𝜋
y=x 6

1
This looks like the power format, except that we have cos 𝜋 as the power. Recall that the power n
6
1
can be any real number and cos 𝜋 is a real number. Hence, just consider it as a number.
6

1
cos 𝜋
∫ y dx = ∫ x 6 dx
1 1
(cos 𝜋+1)
= x 6 +C
1
cos 𝜋 + 1
6

cos
1
𝝅 1 1
(cos 𝝅+1)
∴ ∫x 6 dx = x 6 +C
1
cos 𝝅 + 1
6
Indefinite Integration 621

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
1 √3
We can simplify the power as cos 𝜋 = and then proceed as:
6 2

1 √3
cos 𝜋
∫ y dx = ∫ x 6 dx = ∫ x 2 dx
√3
1 ( +1)
= x 2
+C
√3
+1
2
√3+2
( )
= (4 − 2√3) x 2
+C
1 √3+2
cos 𝝅 ( )
∴ ∫x 6 dx = (4 − 2√3) x 2
+C

Note
This alternative method is even more complicated than the first method. This said, it will be required
to know how to handle such a case without the need to simplify it first, as simplification might be
impossible or difficult.

x−8
j) y =
x8
Solution
x−8
y=
x8
We need to apply indices here

x−8
y= = x−8 .x−8 = x−16
x8
Good to go now as:

x−8
∫ y dx = ∫ dx = ∫ x−16 dx
x8
1
= x−16+1 + C
−16 + 1
1 −15
= x +C
−15
1 1
∴ ∫ x−16 dx = − x−15 + C OR − +C
15 15x15
622 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
−
k) y = x 7

Solution
2
−
y=x 7

−
2
1 2
(− +1)
∫ y dx = ∫ x 7 dx = x 7 +C
2
− +1
7
1 5
7 (5)
= x +C=
7 x 7 +C
5 5
( )
7

−
2
7 5
∴ ∫x 7 dx = x7 + C
5

l) y = x√2
Solution

y = x√2
1 (√2+1)
∫ y dx = ∫ x√2 dx = x +C
√2 + 1
= (√2 − 1) x√2+1 + C

1
When we rationalise we will arrive at √2 − 1, but we can use our calculator here and leave the
√2+1
answer without rationalising.

∴ ∫ x√2 dx = (√2 − 1) x√2+1 + C

We’ve managed to get started on integration. Before we try more examples, we need to talk about
some fundamental rules that will help us with the integration of power functions and many other
functions that we will be covering.
Rule 1 A constant multiplier
The rule states that

∫ k.f (x) dx = k ∫ f (x) dx (15.2)

In other words, if a constant k multiplies a function f (x) and the product is integrated, the result is the
same as the product of the constant and the integral of the function. Reverse is also possible. With
this rule, it is possible to take out the constant from the integral notation. Let’s illustrate this very
quickly as:
1 n+1 a n+1
∫ axn dx = a ∫ xn dx = a [ x ]+C= x +C
n+1 n+1
This rule allows us to modify our power function integral as:

a n+1
If y = axn for n ≠ −1 then ∫ axn dx = x +C (15.3)
n+1
Indefinite Integration 623

Rule 2 Sum and difference of functions

This is also known as the ‘linearity rule of integration’; it states that:

∫ [ f (x) ± g (x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g (x) dx (15.4)

In other words, the integral of the sum or difference of functions f (x) and g (x) is equal to the sum (or
difference) of integrals of the functions. This will be useful for evaluating polynomials and functions
that are made up of two or more terms, where the integral of each term will be taken in turn and
summed up together.

Let’s try some examples.

Example 2

A function is defined as y = b−4 r3 x4 . Determine the following:

a) ∫ y dx b) ∫ y dr c) ∫ y db d) ∫ y dt e) ∫ y dA

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Hint

These examples could be tricky, so do pay attention to some subtle details.

a) ∫ y dx
Solution

y = b−4 r3 x4

As we are integrating wrt x, the function can be re-written as:

y = (b−4 r3 ) x4

Thus, our constant k here is b−4 r3 and can be taken out of the integral notation as:

∫ y dx = ∫ (b−4 r3 ) x4 dx

= b−4 r3 ∫ x4 dx
1 4+1
= b−4 r3 [ x ]+C
4+1
1
= b−4 r3 [ x5 ] + C
5
b−4 r3 5
= x +C
5
624 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Note
Here, we did not multiply the constant of integration with k, the multiplier. We do not need to, and
where it unavoidably happens for a reason, we may change the letter from C to another letter. We
can simplify the above and write the final answer as:

r3 5
∴ ∫ b−4 r3 x4 dx = x +C
5b4

b) ∫ y dr
Solution

y = b−4 r3 x4

As we are integrating wrt r, the function can be re-written as:

y = (b−4 x4 ) r3

Thus, our constant k here is b−4 x4 and can be taken out of the integral notation. Thus we have

∫ y dr = ∫ (b−4 x4 ) r3 dr

= b−4 x4 ∫ r3 dr
1 3+1
= b−4 x4 [ r ]+C
3+1
1
= b−4 x4 [ r4 ] + C
4
b−4 x4 4
= r +C
4
x4
∴ ∫ b−4 r3 x4 dr = 4 r4 + C
4b

c) ∫ ydb
Solution

y = b−4 r3 x4

As we are integrating wrt b, the function can be re-written as:

y = (r3 x4 ) b−4

Thus, our constant k here is r3 x4 and can be taken out of the integral notation. Here we go.

∫ y db = ∫ (r3 x4 ) b−4 db

= r3 x4 ∫ b−4 db
1
= r3 x4 [ b−4+1 ] + C
−4 + 1
Indefinite Integration 625

1 −3
= r3 x4 [ b ]+C
−3
r3 x4 −3
=− b +C
3
r3 x4
∴ ∫ b−4 r3 x4 db = − 3 + C
3b

d) ∫ y dt
Solution

y = b−4 r3 x4

As we are integrating wrt t, the function can be re-written as:

y = (b−4 r3 x4 ) × 1
= (b−4 r3 x4 ) t0

Notice that we have introduced t0 in the expression, since t0 = 1. We’ve chosen t as we are integrating
wrt this variable and want to be able to map our solution with the standard integral given. It is also
valid to introduce variable t when integrating the constant 1 here. As a result, our constant k here is
b−4 r3 x4 and can be taken out of the integral notation. We therefore have

∫ y dt = ∫ (b−4 r3 x4 ) t0 dt

= b−4 r3 x4 ∫ t0 dt
1 0+1
= b−4 r3 x4 [ t ]+C
0+1
= b−4 r3 x4 [t1 ] + C
= b−4 r3 x4 t + C
r3 x4 t
∴ ∫ b−4 r3 x4 dt = +C
b4

e) ∫ ydA
Solution

y = b−4 r3 x4

As we are integrating wrt A, the function can be re-written as:

y = (b−4 r3 x4 ) × 1
= (b−4 r3 x4 ) A0

Here, we introduced A0 for the same reason mentioned above. Thus:

∫ y db = ∫ (b−4 r3 x4 ) A0 dA

= b−4 r3 x4 ∫ A0 db
626 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
= b−4 r3 x4 [ A0+1 ] + C
0+1
= b−4 r3 x4 [A1 ] + C
= b−4 r3 x4 A + C
r3 x4 A
∴ ∫ b−4 r3 x4 dA = +C
b4

The last two examples show that when integrating with respect to a variable that is not in the expres-
sion of the function then it is as though we are integrating a constant. Therefore, the integral in this
case will be the constant multiplied by the variable raised to power 1. Also, this underscores the
significance and inevitability of placing dx, dt, etc. after the expression in integral notation. Note this
down.
Let’s now look at examples of the second rule on the ‘integral of sum and difference’.

Example 3

Solve the following integrals.

a) ∫ (x2 + 3x + 1) dx b) ∫ (4t3 − 9t2 − 5) dt

c) ∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dr d) ∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dh

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

a) ∫ (x2 + 3x + 1) dx
Solution
We will apply the second rule here to illustrate it.

∫ (x2 + 3x + 1) dx = ∫ x2 dx + ∫ 3x dx + ∫ 1 dx
1 2+1 3 1+1 1 0+1
=( x + c1 ) + ( x + c2 ) + ( x + c3 )
2+1 1+1 0+1
1 3
= ( x3 + c1 ) + ( x2 + c2 ) + (x1 + c3 )
3 2
1 3
= ( x3 + x2 + x) + (c1 + c2 + c3 )
3 2
1 3
= x3 + x2 + x + C
3 2
1 3
∴ ∫ (x2 + 3x − 1) dx = x3 + x2 + x + C
3 2
Indefinite Integration 627

Note
We’ve collected the sub-functions in one place and the constants in one place. In general, we only
need to show one arbitrary constant per integration. We obtained three constants here because we
wanted to illustrate the second rule. This is not really needed, but we will ignore it moving forward
and assume the rule allows us to do so.

b) ∫ (4t3 − 9t2 − 5) dt
Solution
In this case, the two rules will be needed; do spot their applications.

4 3+1 9 2+1 5 0+1

∫ (4t3 − 9t2 − 5) dt = ( t )−( t )−( t )+C
3+1 2+1 0+1
4 9
= ( t4 ) − ( t3 ) − 5 (t1 ) + C
4 3
= t4 − 3t3 − 5t + C

∴ ∫ (4t3 − 9t2 − 5) dt = t4 − 3t3 − 5t + C

c) ∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dr
Solution
In this case, the two rules will be needed. Also, we need to pay attention to the variable we are inte-
grating with respect to, as there are a few letters in this expression. In the current case, our target is
variable r, and we will maintain just one constant of integration from the start.

∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dr = ∫ (2𝜋rh) dr + ∫ (2𝜋r2 ) dr

We have applied the sum of integral rule. We can then apply the multiplier rule to have

= 2𝜋h ∫ (r) dr + 2𝜋 ∫ (r2 ) dr

Now integrate and just assign a single constant as:

r2 r3
= 2𝜋h ( ) + 2𝜋 ( ) + C
2 3

We’ve skipped a few steps, but it is necessary as we need to get up to speed. Now let’s tidy this up
as:
2
= 𝜋hr2 + 𝜋r3 + C
3
2
∴ ∫ (2𝝅rh + 2𝝅r2 ) dr = 𝝅hr2 + 𝝅r3 + C
3
628 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

d) ∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dh
Solution
In the current case, we’re integrating wrt h, so take note of this.

∫ (2𝜋rh + 2𝜋r2 ) dh = ∫ (2𝜋rh) dh + ∫ (2𝜋r2 ) dh

= ∫ (2𝜋r) h dh + ∫ (2𝜋r2 ) dh

= 2𝜋r ∫ (h) dh + 2𝜋r2 ∫ dh

Note that dh is the same as writing 1 × dh.

h2 h
= 2𝜋r ( ) + 2𝜋r2 ( ) + C
2 1

Now let’s tidy this up

= 𝜋rh2 + 2𝜋r2 h + C

∴ ∫ (2𝝅rh + 2𝝅r2 ) dh = 𝝅rh2 + 2𝝅r2 h + C

OR

∴ ∫ (2𝝅rh + 2𝝅r2 ) dh = 𝝅rh (h + 2r) + C

More examples to try.

Example 4

In each of the following cases, find the function f (x) whose first derivative is stated below.

𝜔
a) ax − bx0.8 + x−5 b) − 𝛼√x − 𝛽
x2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

We know that integration will undo differentiation, so this is another way of asking us to
integrate.
Indefinite Integration 629

a) ax − bx0.8 + x−5
Solution
x2 x1.8 x−4
∫ (ax − bx0.8 + x−5 ) dx = a ( ) − b( )+( )+C
2 1.8 −4
a b 1.8 1 −4
= x2 − x − x +C
2 1.8 4
a 2 5b 1.8 1 −4
= x − x − x +C
2 9 4
a 2 5 1.8 1
∴ ∫ (ax − bx + x−5 ) dx = x − bx − x−4 + C
0.8
2 9 4

𝜔
b) − 𝛼√x − 𝛽
x2
Solution
𝜔
∫( − 𝛼√x − 𝛽) dx = ∫ (𝜔x−2 − 𝛼x0.5 − 𝛽) dx
x2
x−1 x1.5
= 𝜔( ) − 𝛼( ) − 𝛽 (x) + C
−1 1.5
𝛼 1.5
= −𝜔x−1 − x − 𝛽x + C
1.5
1
= −𝜔x−1 − 𝛼x1.5 − 𝛽x + C
1.5
𝝎 2
∴ ∫ ( 2 − 𝜶√x − 𝛽) dx = −𝝎x−1 − 𝜶x1.5 − 𝜷x + C
x 3

Another set of examples to try.

Example 5

Solve the following integrals.

9 u−5
a) ∫ x3 (x + − 4) dx b) ∫ (3t + 5) (t − 2)dt c) ∫ [(√u + 1) (√u − 1) − ] du
x √u
630 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

9
a) ∫ x3 (x + − 4) dx
x
Solution
9
This does not look like what we have covered and definitely seems unsolvable. You’re partially
x
9
right, especially with regard to . We will express this question differently by expanding and applying
x
the sum-difference rule. Let’s go.

9
∫ x3 (x + − 4) dx = ∫ (x4 + 9x2 − 4x3 ) dx
x
x5 x3 x4
=( ) + 9( ) − 4( ) + C
5 3 4
x5
+ 3x3 − x4 + C
=
5
9 1
∴ ∫ x3 (x + − 4) dx = x5 − x4 + 3x3 + C
x 5

b) ∫ (3t + 5) (t − 2)dt
Solution
Like the previous example, we need to expand this before proceeding.

∫ (3t + 5) (t − 2)dt = ∫ (3t2 − t − 10) dt

t3 t2 t1
= 3 ( ) − ( ) − 10 ( ) + C
3 2 1
t2
= t3 −− 10t + C
2
1
∴ ∫ (3t + 5) (t − 2)dt = t3 − t2 − 10t + C
2
Indefinite Integration 631

u−5
c) ∫ [(√u + 1) (√u − 1) − ] du
√u
Solution
Let’s expand this first.

u−5 u −5
∫ [(√u + 1) (√u − 1) − ] du = ∫ [(u − 1) − − ] du
√u √u √u
1 1
−
= ∫ [u − 1 − u 2 + 5u 2 ] du
3 1
u2 ⎛u2 ⎞ ⎛u2 ⎞
= ( ) − (u) − ⎜ ⎟ + 5 ⎜ ⎟ + C
2 ⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠ ⎝ 2 ⎠
2
u 2 3 1
= − u − u 2 + 10u 2 + C
2 3

u−5 u2 2 3 1
∴ ∫ [(√u + 1) (√u − 1) − ] du = − u − u 2 + 10u 2 + C
√u 2 3

Before moving to another standard integral, we need to illustrate how to find a particular solution
of integration. Up to this point, we have only obtained general solutions, where the constant of
integration remains as C. Let’s go for an example.

Example 6

1
1−3x 2
The gradient of a curve C is such that f’ (x) = √x ( ) . Find the equation of the curve in the
x
form y = f (x), given that it passes through point P (4, − 1).

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

This will require the second rule.

1

’ 1 − 3x 2
y = ∫ f (x) dx = ∫ √x ( ) dx
x
1 1 1 1
1 3x 2 1
x2 3x 2 .x 2 −
1
= ∫x ( − ) dx = ∫
2 − dx = ∫ x 2 − 3 dx
x x x x
1
⎛x2 ⎞
= ⎜ ⎟ − 3 (x) + C
⎜ 1 ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
632 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Therefore,
1
y = 2x 2 − 3x + C

The above represents the general solution, so let’s plug in the coordinates of point P as follows:
1
−1 = 2(4) 2 − 3 (4) + C
−1 = 4 − 12 + C
∴C=7

Now let’s replace C with its numerical value to find the equation of the curve as:
1
y = 2x 2 − 3x + 7
∴ f (x) = 2√x − 3x + 7

This has indeed been a good test of our understanding of integral standards; let’s now take another
one.

1 1
15.2.3.2 Integrating Rational and
x ax+b

Recall that we mentioned that the power integral standard is invalid when n = −1. We will now
consider the rule that can be used for this, which states that

1
y = ∫ dx = ln |x| + C (15.5)
x

Natural logarithmic is not valid for negative values. We’ve therefore used the modulus sign to ensure
that only positive values of the logarithmic are taken.
1
A more general standard is when the denominator is a linear function of the form (ax + b), i.e., .
ax+b
For this, we have two cases:

1
Case 1 When b = 0 (i.e., )
ax

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |ax| + C (15.6)
ax a

Or simply

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |x| + C (15.7)
ax a
Indefinite Integration 633

d 1
Notice that we have removed the constant a from the natural logarithm. This is because (ln x) =
dx x
d 1 1
and similarly (ln ax) = × a = . The latter is based on the chain rule, but we can show that this
dx ax x
is true using a different approach as:

d d d
(ln ax) = (ln a) + (ln x)
dx dx dx
1
=0+
x
1
=
x
Here we have simplified the expression using the product rule of logarithm and take the derivative.
We can use a similar approach in integration as:

1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( ) dx
ax a x
1 1 1
= ∫ dx = ln |x| + C
a x a
a
This is a case of considering 1/a as the coefficient, just like a is the coefficient in ∫ dx. In each case,
x
the coefficient can be taken out of the integral sign to be a constant multiplier. The issue, however,
is that if we simplify the first result of the integral, we will not recover the second result. Let’s show
this.
1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |ax| + C
ax a

Using the logarithmic rule for the RHS as:

1 1 1
(ln |a| + ln |x|) + C = ln |a| + ln |x| + C
a a a
1 1
= ln |x| + ln |a| + C
a a
1
But ln |a| is just a constant like C, the constant of integration. We can combine them together and
a
represent them with A, another constant as:
1 1
ln |ax| + C = ln |x| + A
a a
Changing from one constant to another is typical in integration. We will arrive at the same result
using the two options, and you can try this with definite integration to confirm that the numerical
value of both options is the same. There is another approach to get us the second option, but this will
be covered in the next chapter.

1
Case 2 When b ≠ 0 (i.e., )
ax+b

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |ax + b| + C (15.8)
ax + b a
634 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s make the following notes about the above two cases:

Note 1 This is a function of a function style expression. The inner function must be linear.
1 1 1
Note 2 We will integrate or as we do for . We will then divide our answer with the derivative
ax ax+b x
of the inner function (ax + b) or simply a, whichever is easier to spot.

We will show later under the section on definite integration the two possible methods.

15.2.3.3 Integrating Exponential Functions ex

The rule for this is

y = ∫ ex dx = ex + C (15.9)

This is unique because it aligns with its derivative, but it’s not surprising since we are looking for an
antiderivative. If the base is not e, then we have

ax
y = ∫ ax dx = +C (15.10)
ln a

What happens if the power is a linear function of the form ax + b, i.e., eax+b . For this, we have two
cases:

Case 1 When b = 0 (i.e., eax )

1 ax
y = ∫ eax dx = e +C (15.11)
a

Case 2 When b ≠ 0 (i.e., eax+b )

1 ax+b
y = ∫ eax+b dx = e +C (15.12)
a

Let’s make the following notes:

Note 1 This is a function of a function style expression. The inner function must be linear. In other
2
words, this standard is not valid for use in the case of e3x −1 for example.
Note 2 We will integrate this eax or eax+b as we do for ex . We will then divide our answer with the
derivative of the inner function (ax + b) or the coefficient of x.
Indefinite Integration 635

Let’s try some examples involving exponential and rational functions.

Example 7

Evaluate the following:

1 4 1
a) ∫ (3ex + ) dx b) ∫ 6e1−2x dx c) ∫ dx d) ∫ ( ) dx
3x 5x−1 √ex−2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

In this example, we will go straight to the solution since we’ve illustrated how to apply the
standard when there is a function of a function.
1
a) ∫ (3ex + ) dx
3x
Solution
1 1 1
∫ (3ex + ) dx = ∫ [3 (ex ) + ( )] dx
3x 3 x
1
= 3 (ex ) + ln |x| + C
3
1 1
∴ ∫ (3ex + ) dx = 3ex + ln |x| + C
3x 3

b) ∫ 6e1−2x dx
Solution

∫ 6e1−2x dx = 6 ∫ e1−2x dx

e1−2x 6 1−2x
= 6[ ]+C= [e ]+C
−2 −2

∴ ∫ (6e1−2x dx) dx = −3e1−2x + C

4
c) ∫ dx
5x−1
Solution
4 1
∫ dx = 4 ∫ dx
5x − 1 5x − 1
ln |5x − 1|
= 4[ ]+C
5
4 4
∴ ∫( ) dx = (ln |5x − 1|) + C
5x − 1 5
636 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
d) ∫ ( ) dx
√ex−2
Solution
The expression will need to be simplified first before being mapped to the exponential integral
standard above.

1 1
∫( ) dx = ∫ [ 0.5
] dx
√ex−2 (ex−2 )
−0.5
= ∫ [(ex−2 ) ] dx = ∫ e1−0.5x dx
1 1−0.5x
= e + C = −2e1−0.5x + C
−0.5
1
∴ ∫( ) dx = −2e1−0.5x + C
√ex−2

15.2.3.4 Integrating Trigonometric Functions

Since integration is anti-derivative, it is easy to establish the integral of trigonometric functions.

1) sin x, sin ax, and sin (ax + b)

The rule for this is

y = ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C (15.13)

when x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1 1
y = ∫ sin ax dx = − cos ax + C AND y = ∫ sin (ax + b) dx = − cos (ax + b) + C
a a
(15.14)

2) cos x, cos ax and cos (ax + b)

The rule for this is

y = ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C (15.15)

when x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1 1
y = ∫ cos ax dx = sin ax + C AND y = ∫ cos (ax + b) dx = sin (ax + b) + C
a a
(15.16)
Indefinite Integration 637

FIGURE 15.4 Cyclic process of the sine and cosine functions illustrated.

The diagram (Figure 15.4) shows the cyclic process of the sine and cosine functions.

3) tan x, tan ax, and tan (ax + b)

The rule for this is

y = ∫ tan x dx = ln |sec x| + C (15.17)

When x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1 1
y = ∫ tan ax dx = ln |sec ax| + C AND y = ∫ tan (ax + b) dx = ln |sec (ax + b)| + C
a a
(15.18)

In the above integrals of the tangent function, we can remove the modulus sign and state that the
𝜋 𝜋
integral is valid only for − <x< , as this is where the secant function is positive. This is because
2 2
the natural logarithm of negative numbers yields complex numbers. The same for the integral of the
secant function. As for cosecant and cotangent functions, the validity of the variable is 0 < x < 𝜋.
Note that ∫ tan x dx can also be given as − ln |cos x|, by simplifying the above as

| 1 || −1
ln |sec x| = ln || = ln ||(cos x) || = − ln |cos x|
cos x |
Alternatively, we can say that

sin x 1
∫ tan xdx = ∫ dx = − ∫ (− sin x) × dx = − ln |cos x| + C
cos x cos x
638 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This is based on the rule that will be covered in the next chapter.
The above are the standard integrals of the three trigonometric functions. Let’s try some examples.

Example 8

Solve the following integrals.

a) ∫ (cos 𝜑 − sin 𝜑 + tan 𝜑) d𝜑 b) ∫ [cos 3𝜃 + 4 sin (2𝜃 − 3)] d𝜃

𝜋
c) ∫ [𝜋 − 10 tan ( − 2x)] dx
3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

a) ∫ (cos 𝜑 − sin 𝜑 + tan 𝜑) d𝜑

Solution

∫ (cos 𝜑 − sin 𝜑 + tan 𝜑) d𝜑 = sin 𝜑 − (− cos 𝜑) + ln |sec 𝜑| + C

= sin 𝜑 + cos 𝜑 + ln |sec 𝜑| + C

∴ ∫ (cos 𝝋 − sin 𝝋 + tan 𝝋) d𝝋 = sin 𝝋 + cos 𝝋 + ln |sec 𝝋| + C

b) ∫ [cos 3𝜃 + 4 sin (2𝜃 − 3)] d𝜃

Solution
1 cos (2𝜃 − 3)
∫ [cos 3𝜃 + 4 sin (2𝜃 − 3)] d𝜃 = sin 3𝜃 − 4 × +C
3 2
1
= sin 3𝜃 − 2 cos (2𝜃 − 3) + C
3
1
∴ ∫ [cos 3𝜽 + 4 sin (2𝜽 − 3)] d𝜽 = sin 3𝜽 − 2 cos (2𝜽 − 3) + C
3

𝜋
c) ∫ [𝜋 − 10 tan ( − 2x)] dx
3
Solution
| 𝜋 |
𝜋 ⎛ ln ||sec ( 3 − 2x)|| ⎞
∫ [𝜋 − 10 tan ( − 2x)] dx = 𝜋x − 10 ⎜ ⎟+C
3 ⎜ −2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
| 𝜋 |
= 𝜋x + 5 ln |sec ( − 2x)| + C
3
𝝅 𝝅
∴ ∫ [𝝅 − 10 tan ( − 2x)] dx = 𝝅x + 5 ln ||sec ( − 2x)|| + C
3 3
Indefinite Integration 639

TABLE 15.2
Standard Integrals

y ∫ y dx y ∫ y dx
1
sin x − cos x + C sin ax − cos ax + C
a
1
cos x sin x + C cos ax sin ax + C
a
1
tan x ln | sec x| + C tan ax ln | sec ax| + C
a
ln|tan ax+sec ax|
sec x ln |tan x + sec x| + C sec ax +C
a

ln|cot ax+cosec ax|

cosec x − ln |cot x + cosec x| + C cosec ax − +C
a

ln|sin ax|
cot x ln |sin x| + C cot ax +C
a

tan ax
sec2 x tan x + C sec2 ax +C
a

1
cosec2 x − cot x + C cosec2 ax − cot ax + C
a

1
sec x tan x sec x + C sec ax tan ax sec ax + C
a

1
cosec x cot x − cosec x + C cosec ax cot ax − cosec ax + C
a

1 −1 −1
sin x+C cosec−1 x + C
√1−x2 x√x2 −1

−1 1
cos−1 x + C sec−1 x + C
√1−x2 x√x2 −1

1 −1
tan−1 x + C cot−1 x + C
1+x2 1+x2

There is integration of trigonometric functions that would be difficult to do without relying on the
derivatives of their inverse. Nevertheless, it is important that we know these integrals. It would there-
fore be helpful to provide a list of the common integral standards, usually called the table of standard
integrals (Table 15.2). The main gist is that one needs to be able to map the relationship between
a function and its integral and observe the transformation that ensues. We will also add others that,
though we may not use them here, they are useful for integration.

Let’s try some examples.

640 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Example 9

Solve the following:

1 1
a) ∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx b) ∫ ( + 2 ) dx
cos2 x sin x
cos x
c) ∫ ( 2 ) dx d) ∫ sec2 x (1 + cot2 x) dx
sin x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

a) ∫ sec2 x − cosec2 x dx
Solution

∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx = tan x − (− cot x) + C

= tan x + cot x + C

∴ ∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx = tan x + cot x + C

Note
We could have obtained ∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx = 2 cosec 2x + C. Starting with the expression in
the integral, we have
2
1 1 sin x − cos2 x
sec2 x − cosec2 x = − =
cos2 x sin2 x 2
cos2 x. sin x
2
− (cos2 x − sin x) − (cos 2x)
= 2
= 2
(sin x cos x) 1
( sin 2x)
2
− cos 2x −4 cos 2x
= =
1
(sin 2x) (sin 2x) (sin 2x) (sin 2x)
4
cos 2x 1
= −4 ( )( ) = −4 cot 2x cosec 2x
sin 2x sin 2x
Thus

∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx = ∫ (−4 cot 2x cosec 2x) dx

= −4 ∫ (cot 2x cosec 2x) dx

cosec 2x
= −4 (− )+C
2
∴ ∫ (sec2 x − cosec2 x) dx = 2 cosec 2x + C
Indefinite Integration 641

Note
This example shows that the answer to integral can vary depending on the approach used, though
they represent the same. We can equally take the first answer obtained and express it as 2 cosec 2x.
Also note that, if you use a calculating device to check your answer, do not be alarmed if it is very
different from yours!

1 1
b) ∫ ( + 2 ) dx
cos2 x sin x
Solution
Notice that this is quite similar to the previous example, but let’s go through it together as:

1 1
∫( + ) dx = ∫ (sec2 x + cosec2 x) dx
cos x sin2 x
2

= tan x + (− cot x) + C = tan x − cot x + C

1 1
∴ ∫( + ) dx = tan x − cot x + C
cos x sin2 x
2

1 1
By the same method, you should be able to show that ∫ ( + 2 ) dx = −2 cot 2x + C.
cos2 x sin x

cos x
c) ∫ ( 2 ) dx
sin x
Solution
cos x cos x 1
∫( 2
) dx = ∫ ( × ) dx
sin x sin x sin x

= ∫ (cot x. cosec x) dx

= − cosec x + C
cos x
∴ ∫( 2
) dx = − cosec x + C
sin x

d) ∫ sec2 x (1 + cot2 x) dx
Solution

∫ sec2 x (1 + cot2 x) dx = ∫ sec2 x + sec2 x.cot2 x dx

1 cos2 x
= ∫ sec2 x + . dx
cos2 x sin2 x
1
= ∫ sec2 x + 2
dx
sin x
= ∫ sec2 x + cosec2 x dx

= tan x − cot x + C

∴ ∫ sec2 x (1 + cot2 x) = tan x − cot x + C

642 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another set of examples to try.

Example 10

Determine y in the following:

dy dy
a) = 10 sec 5x tan 5x b) = sec2 (7𝜃 − 1) + cosec2 (𝜋 − 5𝜃)
dx d𝜃
dy dy
c) = cosec (2𝜔t − 𝛼) cot (2𝜔t − 𝛼) d) = 5 cosec (2x − 1)
d𝜔 dx
dy
e) = 10 cot 5x − sec (x + 6)
dx

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

Hint

This is another way to ask us to integrate. Let’s illustrate this using question (a). Given that
dy
= 10 sec 5x tan 5x then (by multiplying both sides by dx)
dx

dy = (10 sec 5x tan 5x) dx

Taking the integral of both sides, we have

∫ dy = ∫ (10 sec 5x tan 5x) dx

∴ y = ∫ (10 sec 5x tan 5x) dx

Since

∫ dy = ∫ 1 × dy = y

We will not show this for each example; we are only illustrating this to show that the instruction
is the integration of the RHS.
Indefinite Integration 643

dy
a) = 10 sec 5x tan 5x
dx
Solution

y = ∫ (10 sec 5x tan 5x ) dx

= 10 ∫ (sec 5x tan 5x ) dx

sec 5x
= 10 ( )+C
5
∴ ∫ (10 sec 5x tan 5x) dx = 2 sec 5x + C

dy
b) = sec2 (7𝜃 − 1) + cosec2 (𝜋 − 5𝜃)
d𝜃
Solution

y = ∫ sec2 (7𝜃 − 1) + cosec2 (𝜋 − 5𝜃) d𝜃

= ∫ sec2 (7𝜃 − 1) d𝜃 + ∫ cosec2 (𝜋 − 5𝜃) d𝜃

tan (7𝜃 − 1) − cot (𝜋 − 5𝜃)

=( )+( )+C
7 −5
1 1
∴ ∫ sec2 (7𝜽 − 1) + cosec2 (𝝅 − 5𝜽) d𝜽 = tan (7𝜽 − 1) + cot (𝝅 − 5𝜽) + C
7 5

dy
c) = cosec (2𝜔t − 𝛼) cot (2𝜔t − 𝛼)
d𝜔
Solution

y = ∫ cosec (2𝜔t − 𝛼) cot (2𝜔t − 𝛼) d𝜔

− cosec (2𝜔t − 𝛼)
= +C
2t
1
∴ ∫ cosec (2𝝎t − 𝜶) cot (2𝝎t − 𝜶) d𝝎 = − cosec (2𝝎t − 𝜶) + C
2t

dy
d) = 5 cosec (2x − 1)
dx
Solution

y = ∫ 5 cosec (2x − 1) dx

= 5 ∫ cosec (2x − 1) dx

ln |cot (2x − 1) + cosec (2x − 1)|

= −5 ( )+C
2
5
∴ ∫ 5 cosec (2x − 1) dx = − ln |cot (2x − 1) + cosec (2x − 1)| + C
2
644 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

dy
e) = 10 cot 5x − sec (x + 6)
dx
Solution

y = ∫ 10 cot 5x − sec (x + 6) dx

= 10 ∫ cot 5x − sec (x + 6) dx
10
= ln |sin 5x| − (ln |sec (x + 6) + tan (x + 6)|) + C
5
= 2 ln |sin 5x| − (ln |sec (x + 6) + tan (x + 6)|) + C
2
= ln ||sin 5x|| − (ln |sec (x + 6) + tan (x + 6)|) + C
2
| sin 5x |
= ln | |+C
| sec (x + 6) + tan (x + 6) |
| sin2 5x |
∴ ∫ 10 cot 5x − sec (x + 6) dx = ln | |+C
| sec (x + 6) + tan (x + 6) |

15.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Integration is a direct inverse of differentiation (or anti-derivative).

2) An indefinite integration is represented by ∫ y dx. The notation ∫ , which looks like
an elongated S (denoting sum), is called ‘the integral of’. It implies that the reverse of
differentiation should be performed, just like the notation √, is used to undo the square.
∫ y dx is read as ‘the integral of y with respect to x’. The ‘dx’ must be included oth-
erwise the integration is meaningless. In this case, x is the independent variable. If the
independent variable is time (t), we will have dt and if it is volume (V), we will have
dV and so on.
3) We always add a constant C to the result of any integration. This is called the constant
of integration or arbitrary constant, and it stands in place of a constant that has been
lost when differentiating. It is common to use capital letter C, but other letters can be
used.
4) An expression with a constant of integration is called the general solution.
5) An expression obtained, having replaced C with a numerical value, is called a partic-
ular solution.
6) The standard integrals:
a) Integrating powers of x or xn (n ≠ −1)

1 n+1
If y = xn then ∫ xn dx = x +C
n+1

a n+1
If y = axn for n ≠ −1 then ∫ axn dx = x +C
n+1
Indefinite Integration 645

b) Sum and difference of functions

∫ [f (x) ± g (x)] dx = ∫ f (x) dx ± ∫ g (x) dx

1 1
c) Integrating rational and
x ax+b

1
y = ∫ dx = ln |x| + C
x

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |ax| + C
ax a

Or simply

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |x| + C
ax a

1 1
y=∫ dx = ln |ax + b| + C
ax + b a

d) Integrating exponential functions ex

y = ∫ ex dx = ex + C

ax
y = ∫ ax dx = +C
ln a

1 ax
y = ∫ eax dx = e +C
a

1 ax+b
y = ∫ eax+b dx = e +C
a

e) sin x, sin ax, and sin (ax + b)

y = ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C

when x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1
y = ∫ sin ax dx = − cos ax + C AND
a

1
y = ∫ sin (ax + b) dx = − cos (ax + b) + C
a

f) cos x, cos ax, and cos (ax + b)

y = ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
646 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

when x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1
y = ∫ cos ax dx = sin ax + C AND
a

1
y = ∫ cos (ax + b) dx = sin (ax + b) + C
a

g) tan x, tan ax, and tan (ax + b)

y = ∫ tan x dx = ln |sec x| + C

when x is replaced by a linear function, we have

1
y = ∫ tan ax dx = ln |sec ax| + C AND
a

1
y = ∫ tan (ax + b) dx = ln |sec (ax + b)| + C
a

****

15.4 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 16 Definite Integration
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Discuss definite integrals

● Determine the area bounded by a curve and a line
● Determine the area bounded by two curves
● Discuss integrating to infinity

16.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter will, in continuation of our discussion on integration, focus on definite integration. This
is used to determine the area under a curve between two specified limits and the area bounded by
two curves, linear or non-linear.

16.2 DEFINITE INTEGRAL

At the start of Chapter 15, we briefly introduced the definite integral as the second type of integra-
tion. Suppose we have a function f (x) and we are required to integrate it from x = a to x = b, we
will represent this as:
b
∫ f (x) dx
a

The above represents an area covered by the curve f (x), x = a, x = b, and the horizontal axis as
shown in Figure 16.1.
To determine the definite integral above, follow these steps:

Step 1: Find ∫ f (x) dx.

Step 2: Replace x with the upper limit b in the integral found in step 1. Do the same with the lower
limit a.
Step 3: Subtract the lower limit value from the upper limit. This process will cancel out the constant
of integration and as such we do not generally include the C in definite integration. Hence,
step 1 is done without C.
Step 4: The result of step 4 represents the area under the curve.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-16 647
648 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

( )

( )

FIGURE 16.1 Definite integral illustrated.

More compactly, we write this process as:

b b b a
∫ f (x) dx = [∫ f (x) dx] = [∫ f (x) dx] − [∫ f (x) dx] (16.1)
a a

The choice of the square brackets [ ] is in line with the standard notation and should be used in this
case. Subsequent calculations, including substitution of the limits, are generally carried out using
round brackets ( ).
In Chapter 14, we learned that when we differentiate the function of position s(t) with respect to
time, we obtain a function of velocity v(t). Similarly, if we differentiate v(t), we get the function of
acceleration. The reverse holds too. In other words, when we integrate the function of acceleration
a(t) with respect to time, we obtain a function of velocity. The same can be said about velocity:
when it’s integrated, we obtain displacement. What is more important is that as differentiation gives
a slope, the integration gives us the area.
Given that s, v, a, and j represent displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk, respectively, Table
16.1 provides a summary of the differentiation and integration of these physical quantities.
Consider an object which starts with an initial velocity of u ms−1 at point A and accelerates uni-
formly until it reached a final velocity v ms−1 . It maintained this velocity between point B and point
C before decelerating to a rest position at point D. The journey is illustrated using a velocity–time
graph, as shown in Figure 16.2. From our studies on mechanics, we know that the slope of AB is
the acceleration, and the slope of CD is the deceleration. In calculus, this is the derivative of line AB
and CD. Similarly, the area under the curve ABCD is used to find displacement in mechanics. If the
t
curve is defined by a function f (x), we can find displacement using the definite integral ∫0D f (x) dx,
where tD is the time at point D. We use 0 as our lower limit because the time at point A is zero, i.e.
tA = 0.
Definite Integration 649

TABLE 16.1
Application of Calculus in Mechanics Illustrated

Differentiation Integration
d
[s] Velocity ∫ v dt Displacement
dt

d
[v] Acceleration ∫ a dt Velocity
dt

d
[a] Jerk ∫ j dt Acceleration
dt

FIGURE 16.2 Velocity–time graph analysed.

We will find this type of problem in mechanics, where the area under the curve represents a physical
quantity. Often, this is limited to when we have straight lines that bound the area. Calculations typ-
ically involve splitting the shapes into multiple parts and using formulas for standard shapes, such
as trapeziums, triangles, and rectangles. We will prove our use of definite integration to find such an
area and compare this with the answer we get from the analytical or numerical calculation.
Let’s try an example to illustrate this.

Example 1

An object on a straight frictionless road starts with an initial velocity of 2 ms−1 and accelerates uni-
formly for 3 s until it reaches a velocity of 8 ms−1 . The object maintains this velocity for 7 s before
it starts to decelerate uniformly until it comes to rest after spending a total of 14 s in this journey.
Determine the total distance covered by the object using:

a) graphical method
b) integration
650 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

a) Using graphical method

Solution
We first need to sketch the motion as shown in Figure 16.3.
The overall shape defined by the journey is not one of the standards and we’ve decided to divide this
into three shapes with area A1 (trapezium), A2 (rectangle), and A3 (triangle).
The area in v − t graph represents the distance (ideally, we say the displacement). Therefore
A = A1 + A2 + A3
1 1
= ( (a + b) h) + (bh) + ( bh)
2 2
1 1
= ( (2 + 8) × 3) + (8 × 7) + ( × 4 × 8)
2 2
= (15) + (56) + (16)
= 87 m2
Hence, the displacement covered by the object is
s = 87 m
Note
We give A in m2 because it represents area and s in m as it is a displacement.

velocity-me graph
9

6
velocity (m/s)

0
0 5 10 15
me (s)

FIGURE 16.3 Solution to Example 1(a).

Definite Integration 651

b) Using integration
Solution
We have re-reproduced the graph of the motion in Figure 16.4.
In this case, we note that the entire graph is formed from three different linear functions, similar to
the three shapes in the first method described above. The functions are:

f1 (t) = 2t + 2
f2 (t) = 8
f1 (t) = −2t + 28

We now need to find the integral of each function within their limits, as follows.
First function
3 3
3
∫ f1 (t) dx = ∫ (2t + 2) dt = [t2 + 2t ]0
0 0
3 0
= [t + 2t] − [t2 + 2t]
2

= {32 + 2 (3)} − {02 + 2 (0)}

= {15} − {0}
3
∴ ∫ f1 (t) dt = 15
0

Second function
10 10
10
∫ f2 (t) dt = ∫ (8) dt = [8t ]3
3 3
10 3
= [8t] − [8t]
= {8 (10)} − {8 (3)}
= {80} − {24}
10
∴ ∫ f2 (t) dt = 56
3

Third function
14 14
14
∫ f3 (t) dt = ∫ (−2t + 28) dt = [−t2 + 28t]10
10 10
14 10
= [−t2 + 28t] − [−t2 + 28t]
2 2
= {−14 + 28 (14)} − {−10 + 28 (10)}
= {196} − {180}
14
∴ ∫ f3 (t) dt = 16
10
652 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

velocity-me graph
9

6
velocity (m/s)

0
0 5 10 15
me (s)

FIGURE 16.4 Solution to Example 1(b).

Thus, the area covered by the function combined is

14 3 10 14
∫ f (t) dt = ∫ f1 (t) dt + ∫ f2 (t) dt + ∫ f3 (t) dt
0 0 3 10
= 15 + 56 + 16 = 87
14
∴ ∫ f (t) dt = 87
0

16.2.1 AREA UNDER A CURVE

This is indeed the primary use of definite integration: to find the area covered by a shape for which
we do not have a standard formula, even though we know the function that defines the curve. ‘Under
a curve’ implies the area between the curve, the x-axis, and the two ordinates of the y-axis, defined
by the upper and lower limits of integration. We just illustrated and proved its use for a compound
function consisting of linear functions. Let’s extend this to various functions.
Let’s try some examples.

Example 2

Evaluate the following definite integrals.

2 5 1
a) ∫−2 (x2 ) dx b) ∫3 √x (3 − + 2√x) dx
x
Definite Integration 653

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

2
a) ∫−2 (x2 ) dx
Solution
2 2
x3
∫ (x2 ) dx = [ ]
−2
3 −2
2 −2
x3 x3
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
3
23 (−2)
=( )−( )
3 3
8 8 8 8 16
= ( ) − (− ) = + =
3 3 3 3 3
2
16
∴∫ (x2 ) dx = unit2
−2
3
This is shown in Figure 16.5.
Note
In this case, we can see that the function is symmetric about the y-axis. As such, the area in
0 2
the region −2 to 0 is the same as that from 0 to 2. In other words, ∫−2 (x2 ) dx = ∫0 (x2 ) dx or
2 0 2
∫−2 (x2 ) dx = 2 [∫−2 (x2 ) dx] = 2 [∫0 (x2 ) dx]. We can thus choose one and double the answer. This
will be applicable in evaluating periodic functions, such as sine and cosine functions.

7
=
6

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

FIGURE 16.5 Solution to Example 2(a).

654 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5 1
b) ∫3 √x (3 − + 2√x) dx
x
Solution
Let’s quickly expand the function as:
1 1 1
√x (3 − + 2√x) = x 2 (3 − x−1 + 2x 2 )
x
1 1
−
= 3x 2 − x 2 + 2x

Thus
5 5
1 1
−
1
∫ √x (3 − + 2√x) dx = ∫ (3x 2 − x 2 + 2x) dx
3
x 3
5
3x1.5 x0.5 5
=[ − + x2 ] = [2x1.5 − 2x0.5 + x2 ]3
1.5 0.5 3
5 3
= [2x1.5 − 2x0.5 + x2 ] − [2x1.5 − 2x0.5 + x2 ]
1.5 0.5 2 1.5 0.5 2
= {2(5) − 2(5) + (5) } − {2(3) − 2(3) + (3) }
= (42.8885 … ) − (15.9282 … ) = 26.96 …
5
1
∴ ∫ √x (3 − + 2√x) dx = 27 unit2 (2 s.f.)
3
x

This is shown in the graph in Figure 16.6.

30

25 = ( − + )

20

15

10

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-5

FIGURE 16.6 Solution to Example 2(b).

Definite Integration 655

1 1 1
We will now show that the result for the two possible integrals of ∫ dx (i.e., ∫ dx = ln ax+C =
ax ax a
1
ln x + C), as stated on page 632, is the same. Let’s illustrate this.
a

Example 3

10 1 1
Show that ∫2 ( ) dx = ln 5 using the following two standards.
5x 5

1 1 1 1
a) ∫ dx = ln |x| + C b) ∫ dx = ln |ax| + C
ax a ax a

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

1 1
a) ∫ dx = ln |x| + C
ax a
Solution
10 10
1 1
∫ ( ) dx = [ ln |x| ]
2
5x 5 2
10 2
1 1
= [ ln |x|] − [ ln |x|]
5 5
ln 10 ln 2
=( )−( )
5 5
1
= (ln 10 − ln 2)
5
1 10 1
= [ln ( )] = ln 5
5 2 5
10
1 1
∴∫ ( ) dx = ln 5
2
5x 5
656 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 16.7 Solution to Example 3(b).

1 1
b) ∫ dx = ln |ax| + C
ax a
Solution
10 10
1 1
∫ ( ) dx = [ ln |5x| ]
2
5x 5 2
10 2
1 1
= [ ln |5x|] − [ ln |5x|]
5 5
ln 50 ln 10
=( )−( )
5 5
1
= (ln 50 − ln 10)
5
1 50 1
= [ln ( )] = ln 5
5 10 5
10
1 1
∴∫ ( ) dx = ln 5
2
5x 5

This is shown in Figure 16.7.

Another example to try.

Example 4

Determine the area between the curve f (x) = 15e2x , the x-axis, and the lines x = −1 and x = 1.
Present the answer correct to 1 d.p.
Definite Integration 657

350

300

=
250

200

150

100

50

0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-50

FIGURE 16.8 Solution to Example 4.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Solution
x2 =1 1
2x 15e2x
∫ (15e ) dx = [ ]
x =−1
2 −1
1
1 −1
15e2x 15e2x
=[ ] −[ ]
2 2
15e2 15e−2 15 2 1
=( )−( )= (e − 2 )
2 2 2 e
x2 =1
∴∫ (15e2x ) dx = 54.4 unit2
x1 =−1

We’ve so far looked at situations where the curve is above the x-axis in the intervals of interest. What
happens if the curve is below the graph? Let us investigate this.

Example 5

Determine the area of the finite region R bounded by the curve y = (x + 1) (2x − 5) and the x-axis.
658 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

Here we have not been given the lower and upper limits, but we’re told that the region of interest is
between the curve and the x-axis. Hence, we need to find the zeros of the function. Given that:

y = (x + 1) (2x − 5)

The zeros of the function are obtained when y = 0 as:

(x + 1) (2x − 5) = 0

Therefore

x+1=0 2x − 5 = 0
OR
∴ x = −1 ∴ x = 2.5
Thus, the lower and upper limits are −1 and 2.5, respectively. Now let’s get going.
2.5 2.5
2
∫ (x + 1) (2x − 5) dx = ∫ (2x − 3x − 5) dx
−1 −1
3 2 2.5
2x 3x
=[ − − 5x ]
3 2
−1
3 2 2.5 3 2 −1
2x 3x 2x 3x
=[ − − 5x] −[ − − 5x]
3 2 3 2
3 2 3 2
2 (2.5) 3 (2.5) 2 (−1) 3 (−1)
={ − − 5 (2.5)} − { − − 5 (−1)}
3 2 3 2
275 17 343
= (− )−( )=−
24 6 24
Note
We obtained a negative value here; however, it is known that area is a scalar quantity, and therefore
a negative value is invalid. When we look at the graph of this function (Figure 16.9), it is observed
that the area of interest is below the x-axis and thus the negative value.
In cases like the above, we will ignore the negative sign and use the number. Technically, we say
we’ve taken the absolute value of the answer and thus we have
2.5
343
∴∫ (2x2 − 3x − 5) dx = unit2
−1
24
It is important to note that the area evaluated is the one above the curve and below the x-axis, bounded
to the left by the lower limit and to the right by the upper limit. This is a finite value. However, the
area below the curve, which is bounded by the limits is infinite.
3
It would be helpful to state that ∫−1 (2x2 − 3x − 5) dx represents the area that covers both below and
above the x-axis, as shown in Figure 16.9.
We will deal with this in the next section.
Definite Integration 659

6 = − −

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2

-4

-6

-8

FIGURE 16.9 Solution to Example 5 – Part I.

= − −
6

0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-2

-4

-6

-8

FIGURE 16.10 Solution to Example 5 – Part II.

660 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s look at another example.

Example 6

1 10
The region R is enclosed by the curve y = , x≠ , the x-axis, and the lines x = −3 and x = 1.
3x−10 3
Determine the area of R and present the answer correct to 3 s.f.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

The lower and upper limits are −3 and 1, respectively. We therefore have
1 1
1 1
∫ ( ) dx = [ ln |3x − 10| ]
−3
3x − 10 3 −3
1 −3
1 1
= [ ln |3x − 10|] − [ ln |3x − 10|]
3 3
1 1
= ( ln |3 (1) − 10|) − ( ln |3 (−3) − 10|)
3 3
1
= {(ln |−7|) − (ln |−19|)} = −0.333
3
Again, this is a negative value for the same reason as evident in Figure 16.11.
1
1
∴∫ ( ) dx = 0.333 unit2
−3
3x − 10

0
-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3

= 0
−

FIGURE 16.11 Solution to Example 6.

Definite Integration 661

Before we move to another section on definite integration, it will be helpful to introduce an important
rule. We previously covered two rules under indefinite integration; these rules also apply to definite
integration. We will however need more rules as follows.
Rule 1 Order of limits
The rule states that
c a
∫ f (x) dx = −∫ f (x) dx (16.2)
a c

In other words, swapping the limits (the upper limit becomes the lower limit and vice versa) changes
the sign of the integral.
Rule 2 Zero width interval
The rule states that
a
∫ f (x) dx = 0 (16.3)
a

In other words, the area covered by a line is zero.

Rule 3 Decomposition of limits
The rule states that
c b c
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx (16.4)
a a b

This is because
c
∫ f’(x) dx = f (c) − f (a)
a
= f (c) − f (a) + f (b) − f (b)
= f (c) − f (b) + f (b) − f (a)
= ⏟⎵ − f⎵⏟
f (b)⎵⏟⎵ (a) + ⏟⎵ − f⎵⏟
f (c)⎵⏟⎵ (b)
b c
= ∫ f’ (x) dx + ∫ f’ (x) dx
a b

In other words, the integration of a function between the lower limit a and the upper limit c is equal to
the integral between point a and an intermediate point b, plus the integral of the same function from
the intermediate point b and the original upper limit c. This intermediate point is such that a < b < c.
This rule is illustrated with an example below.
2 0 2
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx
−2 −2 0
662 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

This makes sense since we’re looking for an area between point a and c. This rule is very important,
especially when a part of a curve falls below and the other above the x-axis, which will be shown
later. It can also be helpful to make the calculation simple, especially when we take one of the limits
as zero in certain functions.

For now, let’s try a few examples to prove the above rule.

Example 7

In each of the following, show that the LHS integral is equal to the sum of the RHS integrals.
1 0 1
a) ∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = ∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx + ∫0 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx
𝜋 𝜋
0
b) ∫−2 𝜋 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫− 𝜋 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫02 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
0
c) ∫− 𝜋 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫− 𝜋 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫02 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃
2

2 2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

1 0 1
a) ∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = ∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx + ∫0 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx
Solution
LHS
1 2 1
2 x3 3x
∫ (x + 3x − 4) dx = [ + − 4x ]
−4
3 2
−4
2 1 2 −4
x3 3x x3 3x
=[ + − 4x] − [ + − 4x]
3 2 3 2
3 2 3 2
(1) 3 (1) (−4) 3 (−4)
={ + − 4 (1)} − { + − 4 (−4)}
3 2 3 2
13 56 125
= (− )−( )=−
6 3 6

1
125
∴∫ (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = unit2
−4
6
Definite Integration 663

RHS (1) RHS (2)

0 1
0 x3 3x2 1 x3 3x2
∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = [ + − 4x ] ∫0 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = [ + − 4x ]
3 2 −4 3 2 0
0 −4 1 0
x3 3x2 x3 3x2 x3 3x2 x3 3x2
=[ + − 4x] − [ + − 4x] =[ + − 4x] − [ + − 4x]
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
3 2 3 2
(0) 3(0) (1) 3(1)
={ + − 4 (0)} ={ + − 4 (1)}
3 2 3 2
3 2 3 2
(−4) 3(−4) (0) 3(0)
−{ + − 4 (−4)} −{ + − 4 (0)}
3 2 3 2

56 56 13 13
= (0) − ( ) = − = (− ) − (0) = −
3 3 6 6

0 56 1 13
∴ ∫−4 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = unit2 ∴ ∫0 (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = unit2
3 6

Hence, for RHS we have

0 1
56 13 125
∴∫ (x2 + 3x − 4) dx + ∫ (x2 + 3x − 4) dx = + = unit2
−4 0
3 6 6

We have therefore shown that the LHS = RHS.

𝜋 𝜋
0
b) ∫−2 𝜋 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫− 𝜋 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫02 (cos 𝜃) d𝜃
2 2

Solution

LHS RHS(1) RHS(2)

𝜋
𝜋 0 𝜋
2 𝜋
0 2
∫ (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 = [sin 𝜃 ]− 𝜋 2
∫ (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 = [sin θ ]− 𝜋 ∫ (cos 𝜃) d𝜃 = [sin 𝜃 ]02
𝜋 𝜋 2
− 2 −
2 2 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− 0 − 0
= [sin 𝜃] − [sin 𝜃]2 2 = [sin 𝜃] − [sin 𝜃] 2 = [sin 𝜃] 2 − [sin 𝜃]

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= {sin ( )} − {sin (− )} = {sin (0)} − {sin (− )} = {sin ( )} − {sin (0)}
2 2 2 2

= (1) − (−1) = 2 = (0) − (−1) = 1 = (1) − (0) = 1

𝝅 0 𝝅
2 2
2
∴∫ (cos 𝜽) d𝜽 = 2 unit 2 ∴∫ (cos 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 unit ∴ ∫ (cos 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 unit2
𝝅 𝝅
− − 0
2 2

Hence, for RHS we have

𝝅
0
2
∴∫ (cos 𝜽) dx + ∫ (cos 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 + 1 = 2 unit2
𝝅
− 0
2

We have therefore shown that the LHS = RHS.

664 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

𝜋 𝜋
0
c) ∫−2 𝜋 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫− 𝜋 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫02 (sin 𝜃) d𝜃
2 2
Solution

LHS RHS (1) RHS (2)

𝜋
𝜋 0 𝜋
2 0 𝜋
2
∫ (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 = [− cos 𝜃 ]−2 𝜋 ∫ (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 = [− cos 𝜃 ]− 𝜋 ∫ (sin 𝜃) d𝜃 = [− cos 𝜃 ]02
𝜋 𝜋 2
− 2 −
2 2 0
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− 0 − 0
= [− cos 𝜃] 2 − [− cos 𝜃] 2 = [− cos 𝜃] − [− cos 𝜃] 2 = [− cos 𝜃] 2 − [− cos 𝜃]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= {− cos ( )} − {− cos (− )} = {− cos (0)} − {− cos (− )} = {− cos ( )} − {− cos (0)}
2 2 2 2

= (0) − (0) = 0 = (−1) − (0) = −1 = (0) − (−1) = 1

𝝅 0 𝝅
2 2
∴∫ (sin 𝜽) d𝜽 = 0 unit2 ∴∫ (sin 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 unit2 ∴ ∫ (sin 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 unit2
𝝅 𝝅
− − 0
2 2

It looks strange to say that Hence, for RHS, we have

𝝅
the area covered is zero. 0
2

Let’s wait and see. ∴∫ (sin 𝜽) dx + ∫ (sin 𝜽) d𝜽 = 1 + 1 = 2 unit2

𝝅
− 0
2

Gush! LHS ≠ RHS. Let’s investigate this by looking at the graph of both sine and cosine in the
𝜋 𝜋
− ≤𝜃≤ range as shown in Figure 16.12.
2 2

If you look at the graph in Figure 16.12, you will notice that for cosine, the entire function is above
the x-axis. For the sine function, however, a part is above and another part is below the x-axis. In fact,
it is equally split above and below the horizontal line. Hence, the areas cancel out, and this is where
the application of the above rule is important. This can only be achieved if we have the information
about the function or if we are requested to sketch the curve. Based on this, we can conclude that 2
units squared is the correct answer for both sine and cosine functions in this example.

Sine and Cosine Funcons

-100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100

sin x cos x

FIGURE 16.12 Solution to Example 7(c).

Definite Integration 665

We have noted above that care must be taken when using definite integration between two given
limits. It will be necessary or required in some cases to split the area using the rule above. While the
rule splits the integral into two, considering only one intermediate point, we can extend this to create
three or more integrals. This involves taking two or more intermediate points, as demonstrated below
for three integrals.

d b c d
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx (16.5)
a a b c

such that a < b < c < d.

The above will be useful, for example, where a curve switches from above to below and back to
above the x-axis within the limits of interest.

16.2.2 AREA OF A CURVE ABOVE AND BELOW x-AXIS

From our example above, we can conclude that when a curve is above and below the x-axis in the
region of upper and lower limits, we need to split the integral and evaluate each part separately. The
portion above the horizontal axis should be evaluated and the same is done for the portion below the
x-axis. The absolute values of the results are thereafter added together. Let’s try some examples.

Example 8

In each of the following functions, determine the area bounded by the function.
5 5
𝜋 𝜋
a) ∫ 61 (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 b) ∫ 61 (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋 𝜋
6 4

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

5
𝜋
a) ∫ 61 (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋
6
Solution
It will be nice to sketch the graph if it is not given before proceeding. But let’s assume everything is
alright and proceed without plotting the graph as:
5 5
𝜋 𝜋
6 −2 cos 3𝜃 6
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
1
𝜋
3 1
𝜋
6 6
5 1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 6 −2 cos 3𝜃 6
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
666 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5 1
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 6 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 6 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5 1
⎛ −2 cos ( 2 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos ( 2 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 5 1
= − [cos ( 𝜋) − cos ( 𝜋)]
3 2 2
2
= − [0 − 0] = 0
3
5
𝝅
6
∴∫ (2 sin 3𝜽) d𝜽 = 0
1
𝝅
6

This cannot be right. Now let us look at the graph, as shown in Figure 16.13.
Looking at the graph in Figure 16.13, we can see that there are three sections that form the area.
Two regions are above the x-axis and are equal, and one is below the x-axis and is equal to the sum
1 1 1 2
of the two above. Instead of looking for the three intervals (i.e., 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, 𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋, and
6 3 3 3
2 5
𝜋 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋), we can take the area of the first section to the left and quadruple the answer. Let us
3 6
do just that.

2
=
2

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

FIGURE 16.13 Solution to Example 8(a).

Definite Integration 667

1 1
𝜋 𝜋
3 −2 cos 3𝜃 3
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
1
𝜋
3 1
𝜋
6 6
1 1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 3 −2 cos 3𝜃 6
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
1 1
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 3 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 6 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1
−2 cos (𝜋) ⎛ −2 cos ( 2 𝜋) ⎞
=( )−⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 2
= ( ) − (0) =
3 3
2 8
We then need to multiply this by 4 to get ×4=
3 3

5
𝝅
6 8
∴∫ (2 sin 3𝜽) d𝜽 = unit2
1
𝝅
3
6

5
𝜋
b) ∫ 61 (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋
4
Solution
We have tried to change the interval here to highlight a crucial point in applying the decomposition
rule. Again, we’ll assume everything is alright and proceed without sketching the curve as:
5 5
𝜋 𝜋
6 −2 cos 3𝜃 6
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
1
𝜋
3 1
𝜋
4 4
5 1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 6 −2 cos 3𝜃 4
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
5 1
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 6 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 4 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5 3
⎛ −2 cos ( 2 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos ( 4 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
√2 √2
= (0) − ( )=−
3 3

Although this looks like we just need to remove the sign, and everything should be fine. But no, it’s
not just that. The area we found in the previous example is only slightly larger than the current one
(Figure 16.14).
668 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2 =

0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270
-1

-1

-2

-2

-3

FIGURE 16.14 Solution to Example 8(b).

For this case we will consider the three intervals.

5 1 2 5
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 3 3 6
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃
1 1 1 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 3 3

Section 1
1 1
𝜋 𝜋
3 −2 cos 3𝜃 3
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
1
𝜋
3 1
𝜋
4 4
1 1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 3 −2 cos 3𝜃 4
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
1 1
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 3 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 4 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
3
−2 cos (𝜋) ⎛ −2 cos ( 4 𝜋) ⎞
=( )−⎜ ⎟
3 ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 √ 2 2− 2√
=( )−( )=
3 3 3
Definite Integration 669

Section 2
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
3 −2 cos 3𝜃 3
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
1
𝜋
3 1
𝜋
3 3
2 1
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 3 −2 cos 3𝜃 3
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
2 1
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 3 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 3 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
−2 cos (2𝜋) −2 cos (𝜋)
=( )−( )
3 3
−2
= [(cos (2𝜋)) − (cos (𝜋))]
3
−2
= [(1) − (−1)]
3
−2 4
= [1 + 1] = −
3 3
It is a negative, hence
2
𝜋
3 4
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 =
1
𝜋
3
3

Section 3
5 5
𝜋 𝜋
6 −2 cos 3𝜃 6
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = [ ]
2
𝜋
3 2
𝜋
3 3
5 2
𝜋 𝜋
−2 cos 3𝜃 6 −2 cos 3𝜃 3
=[ ] −[ ]
3 3
5 2
⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 6 𝜋) ⎞ ⎛ −2 cos 3 ( 3 𝜋) ⎞
=⎜ ⎟−⎜ ⎟
⎜ 3 ⎟ ⎜ 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5
⎛ −2 cos ( 2 𝜋) ⎞ −2 cos (2𝜋)
=⎜ ⎟−( )
⎜ 3 ⎟ 3
⎝ ⎠
2 2
= (0) − (− ) =
3 3
670 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

We now need to add them up.

5 1 2 5
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6 3 3 6
∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃 + ∫ (2 sin 3𝜃) d𝜃
1 1 1 2
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
4 4 3 3

2 − √2 4 2 2 − √2 + 4 + 2
= + + =
3 3 3 3
8 − √2
=
3
5
𝝅
6 8 − √2
∴∫ (2 sin 3𝜽) d𝜽 = unit2
1
𝝅
3
4

16.2.3 AREA BOUNDED BY A CURVE AND A LINE

We may be interested in an area bounded by a curve and a straight line, such as the region R shown
in Figure 16.15.
In Figure 16.15, a curve of f (x) intersects a straight line of function g (x) at two points A(x1 , y1 ) and
B (x2 , y2 ). This is one of the ways a curve and a linear function can intersect, but the procedure for
finding the bounded area is similar. We will consider two ways of finding area R.
Method 1
To find the area R, follow these steps:
Step 1: Solve for x in f (x) = g (x) to obtain x-coordinate of the points of intersection of the two
functions. Let’s denote these as x1 and x2 , and they represent the lower and upper limits.
Step 2: Simplify the combined function y = f (x) − g (x). Note that it is irrelevant which of the two
is taken as subtrahend or minuend. The only consequence is that the area might be negative
instead of positive.
y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 16.15 Area bounded by a curve and a straight line illustrated.

Definite Integration 671

Step 3: The area R is found using:

x2 x2 x2

∫ {y} dx = ∫ { f (x) − g (x)} dx = [∫ {f (x) − g (x)} dx] (16.6)

x1 x1 x1

This method can be used irrespective of whether the region is wholly or partially above or below the
x-axis, provided that what is required is the entire area bounded by the two functions. Otherwise,
method 2 below will be the only option.
Method 2
To find the area R, follow these steps:
Step 1: Solve for x in f (x) = g (x) to obtain the x-coordinate of the points of intersection of the two
functions. Let’s denote these as x1 and x2 , and they represent the lower and upper limits.
Step 2: Find the definite integrals of the two functions separately and then subtract as appropriate.
Note that the subtrahend and minuend will be determined by the shape formed by the two
functions.
Step 3: The area R is found using:

x2 x2
∫ {g (x)} dx − ∫ {f (x)} dx (16.7)
x1 x1

This is illustrated in Figure 16.16.

FIGURE 16.16 Determining the area bounded by a curve and a straight line.
672 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

The sketch of the functions will help in deciding the evaluation process. Let’s try one or two examples
to illustrate this.

Example 9

Determine the area of the finite region bounded by y = x2 + 1 and y = 3x + 5.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

We need to find the points of intersection of the curve and the straight line, which represent our limits.
Given that y = x2 + 1 and y = 3x + 5 implies that:

x2 + 1 = 3x + 5
x2 − 3x − 4 = 0
(x + 1) (x − 4) = 0

Therefore

x+1=0 x−4=0
OR
x = −1 x=4
Hence, the lower and upper limits are −1 and 4, respectively.
Method 1

4 4
2 x3 3x2
∫ (x − 3x − 4) dx = [ − − 4x ]
−1
3 2 −1
4 −1
x3 3x2 x3 3x2
=[ − − 4x] − [ − − 4x]
3 2 3 2
2 3 2
43 3(4) (−1) 3(−1)
=( − − 4 (4)) − ( − − 4 (−1))
3 2 3 2
−56 13
=( )−( )
3 6
125
=−
6
4
∴∫ (x2 − 3x − 4) dx = 20.8 unit2
−1
Definite Integration 673

Method 2

We need to find the area of the curve and the straight line separately. Let’s start with the curve.
4 4
x3
∫ (x2 + 1) dx = [ +x]
−1
3 −1
4 −1
x3 x3
=[ + x] − [ + x]
3 3
3 3
(4) (−1)
={ + (4)} − { + (−1)}
3 3
76 4
=( ) − (− )
3 3
80
=
3
4
80
∴∫ (x2 + 1) dx = unit2
−1
3

Now the straight line.

4 4
3x2
∫ (3x + 5) dx = [ + 5x ]
−1
2 −1
4 −1
3x2 3x2
=[ + 5x] − [ + 5x]
2 2
2 2
3(4) 3(−1)
=( + 5 (4)) − ( + 5 (−1))
2 2
7
= (44) − (− )
2
95
=
2
4
95
∴∫ (3x + 5) dx = unit2
−1
2

Based on method 1 above, we can guess which one to subtract from which. Hence the area bounded is:
4 4
95 80 125
∫ (3x + 5) dx − ∫ (x2 + 1) dx = − = unit2 = 20.8 unit2
−1 −1
2 3 6

This can be trickier in some cases and would require sketching the curves. For this example, the plot
is shown in Figure 16.17 to confirm that the subtraction is right.

That’s the gist for this.

674 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

45

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
-4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
-5

-10

FIGURE 16.17 Solution to Example 9.

16.2.4 AREA BOUNDED BY TWO CURVES

This is treated in the same way as when working with a curve and a straight line. Let’s illustrate this
too in the following examples.

Example 10

Determine the area of the area bounded by y = x (x2 − 2) and y = x2 in the positive x-axis region.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

We need to find the points of intersection of the two curves, which represent our limits. Given that
y = x (x2 − 2) and y = x2 implies that:

x (x2 − 2) = x2
x3 − 2x = x2
x3 − x2 − 2x = 0
x (x2 − x − 2) = 0
x (x + 1) (x − 2) = 0
Definite Integration 675

Therefore

x+1=0 x−2=0
x=0 OR
x = −1 x=2

x = −1, x = 0, x = 2

Hence, the two curves intersect at three points, namely x = −1, x = 0, and x = 2. Since we are only
interested in the area of the positive x-axis, we will take only x = 0 and x = 2 as the lower and upper
limits, respectively. Here we go.
2 2
x4 x3
∫ (x3 − x2 − 2x) dx = [ − − x2 ]
0
4 3 0
2 0
x4 x3 x4 x3
=[ − − x2 ] − [ − − x2 ]
4 3 4 3
24 23 04 03
=( − − 22 ) − ( − − 02 )
4 3 4 3
−8 8
= ( ) − (0) = −
3 3
2
8
∴ ∫ (x3 − x2 − 2x) dx = unit2
0
3

This can be trickier in some cases and would require sketching the curves. For this question, the plot
is shown in Figure 16.18 to confirm that the subtraction is right.
Although the region straddles the x-axis, the above method has accounted for this.

0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
-1

-2

-3

FIGURE 16.18 Solution to Example 10.

676 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
The region can be found as:

2 | √2 | 2
∫ (x2 ) dx + ||∫ (x3 − 2x) dx|| − ∫ (x3 − 2x) dx
0 | 0 | √2

A couple of points here:

a) We use modulus sign to show that we need the absolute value, as the region of interest
falls below the x-axis line.
b) The upper and lower limits are obtained by solving x (x2 − 2) = 0.

So, let’s see if it works.

First interval
2 2
2 x3
∫ (x ) dx = [ ]
0
3 0
2 0
x3 x3 23 03
=[ ] −[ ] =( )−( )
3 3 3 3
8
=
3
Second interval

| √2 | | 4 √2 |
|∫ (x3 − 2x) dx| = |[ x − x2 ] |
| | | 4 |
| 0 | | 0 |

| 4 √2 0| | (√2)4 |
| x x4
2 |
|⎛ 2⎞ 04 |
2
= |[ − x ] − [ − x ] | = |⎜ − (√2) ⎟ − ( − 0 )|
2

| 4 4 | ||⎜ 4 ⎟ 4 |
|
⎝ ⎠
= |(1 − 2) − (0)| = 1

Third interval
2 2
3 x4
∫ (x − 2x) dx = [ − x2 ]
√2 4 √2
4
x4
2
x4
√2
24 ⎛ (√2) 2⎞
= [ − x2 ] − [ − x2 ] = ( − 22 ) − ⎜ − (√2) ⎟
4 4 4 ⎜ 4 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
= (0) − (1 − 2) = 1

Therefore,
2
| 2 | 2
∫ (x2 ) dx + ||∫ (x3 − 2x) dx|| − ∫ (x3 − 2x) dx
0 | 0 | √2
8 8
= +1−1=
3 3
Definite Integration 677

16.2.5 INTEGRATING TO INFINITY

Integrating to infinity is a situation where one of the two limits is infinity, i.e., ±∞. Essentially, when
there is no boundary on one side, as shown below.
a ∞
∫ {y} dx OR ∫ {y} dx (16.8)
−∞ a

The above implies that we are interested in an area covered by the curve y in the range x ≤ a, (i.e.,
from a and everything to the left) or in the range x ≥ a, (i.e., from a and everything to the right).
In general, the area in either of these two cases is expected to be infinity itself. However, when the
function being integrated tends to zero as x becomes extremely small (Figure 16.19a) or extremely
large (Figure 16.19b), then the area is finite and can thus be approximated.
Let’s try an example.

Example 11

Determine the area under the curve y = 3e−2x when x ≥ 1. Present the answer in the exact form.
y-axis
y-axis

x-axis x-axis

(a) (b)
FIGURE 16.19 Integrating to infinity illustrated: (a) from negative infinity to a given point, and (b) from a
given point to positive infinity.
678 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 11

Hint

Recall that when a number is divided by an infinity the result is zero. Also, multiplying an infinity
with a constant k results in another infinity, i.e., k×∞ = ∞ for all positive real k or k×∞ = −∞
for all negative real k.

The integral expression for this is:

∞ ∞ ∞
3e−2x 3
∫ 3e−2x dx = [ ] = [− 2x ]
1
−2 1 2e 1
∞ 1
3 3
= [− ] − [− 2x ]
2e2x 2e
3 3
= (− 2×∞ ) − (− 2×1 )
2e 2e
3 3 3
= (− ) − (− 2 ) = (−0) + 2
∞ 2e 2e
3
= 2
2e
∞
3
∴ ∫ 3e−2x dx = 2 unit2
1 2e

16.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) Definite integration is used to determine the area under a curve between two specified
limits and the area bounded by two curves, linear or non-linear.
2) Suppose we have a function f (x) and we are required to integrate it from x = a to x = b,
we will represent this as:
b
∫ f (x) dx
a

More compactly, we can write this process as:

b b b a
∫ f (x) dx = [∫ f (x) dx] = [∫ f (x) dx] − [∫ f (x) dx]
a a
Definite Integration 679

The choice of the square brackets [ ] is in line with the standard notation and should
be used in this case. Subsequent calculations, including substitution of the limits, are
generally carried out using round brackets ( ).
3) Given that s, v, a, and j represent displacement, velocity, acceleration, and jerk, respec-
tively, we have:

s = ∫ v dt v = ∫ a dt a = ∫ j dt

4) The rule of decomposition of limits states that:

c b c
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx
a a b

This intermediate point is such that a < b < c. Also by extension, we have

d b c d
∫ f (x) dx = ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx + ∫ f (x) dx
a a b c

such that a < b < c < d.

5) When a curve is above and below the x-axis in the region of upper and lower limits, we
need to split the integral and evaluate separately. The portion above the horizontal axis
should be evaluated and the same is done for the portion below the x-axis. The absolute
value of the results is thereafter added together.
6) If a curve of f (x) intersects a straight line of function g (x) at two points A(x1 , y1 ) and
B (x2 , y2 ), the area A is found using:

x2 x2 x2

∫ {y} dx = ∫ {f (x) − g (x)} dx = [∫ {f (x) − g (x)} dx]

x1 x1 x1

Alternatively
x2 x2 x2
∫ {y} dx = ∫ {g (x)} dx − ∫ {f (x)} dx
x1 x1 x1
680 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

7) Integrating to infinity is a situation where one of the two limits is infinity, i.e., ±∞.
Essentially, when there is no bound on one side. This is shown below.
a ∞
∫ {y} dx OR ∫ {y} dx
−∞ a

The above implies that we are interested in an area covered by the curve y in the range
x ≤ a (i.e., from a and everything to the left) or in the range x ≥ a (i.e., from a and
everything to the right). In general, the area in either of these two cases is expected to
be infinity itself.

****

16.4 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 17 Advanced Integration I
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:
n
● Integrate functions of the form (ax + b)
● Use the principle of reverse of the chain rule to solve complicated
integrals
f ′ (x)
● Integrate functions of the form
f(x)
n
● Integrate functions of the form [ f ′ (x)] . [ f (x)] and [ f ′ (x)] .[ f (x)]
● Integrate rational expressions with linear denominators when it can
be reduced to its partial fractions
● Use trigonometrical identities to solve complicated integrals
● Apply the technique of integration by substitution to resolve com-
plicated expressions

17.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters, we delved into the world of integration and covered basic integral standards.
We did this with both definite and indefinite integration. However, we encounter functions that need
to be integrated but do not fit into any of the standard cases covered. We’re lucky that a significant
number of them share a similar form and become a family of functions that we can find a way of
solving them – thanks to the fact that integration is the inverse of differentiation. In this chapter,
we won’t demonstrate how we’ve used differentiation to establish the integral of a function. Instead,
we’ll focus on solving these challenging families of functions.

17.2 INTEGRATION OF COMPLICATED FUNCTIONS

We are just about to kick start on taking common families of difficult functions that need integrat-
ing. They will be grouped under the heading that will explain the procedure to follow in resolving
them. While we are making an effort to cover as many principles of solving complicated functions
as possible, it will be impractical to cover all. Consequently, we may encounter functions that do not
fit into any of the ‘to-be-covered’ families. In such cases, alternative methods, including numerical
approaches, will be necessary.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-17 681
682 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

n
17.2.1 BINOMIAL OF THE FORM (ax + b)
n
This rule is used for any function that takes the form of (ax + b) , and it states that

n 1 n+1
y = ∫ (ax + b) dx = (ax + b) +C (17.1)
a (n + 1)

where n is any real number excluding −1.

There is a special rule for when n = −1, and this will be covered shortly. Let’s make the following
notes about the above rule:

Note 1 This is a function of a function style expression. It is required that the inner function is linear.
In other words, we cannot use this to integrate a function with the inner function being a
quadratic or another higher order.
n
Note 2 We will integrate this (ax + b) as we do for xn . We will then divide our answer with the
derivative of the inner function (ax + b) or the coefficient of x, whichever is easier to spot.

That’s all. Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

Determine y in the following:

1
dy 5 dy 1 dy dy 10
a) = (3x − 5) b) = 4 c) = (7 − x) 2 d) = 3
dx dx (1−2x) dx dx √5x+1

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

dy 5
a) = (3x − 5)
dx
Solution
dy 5
= (3x − 5)
dx
Let’s take the integral of both sides with respect to x.
dy 5
∫ dx = ∫ (3x − 5) dx
dx
We can assume, though not technically correct, that dx cancels out, and we have
5
∫ dy = ∫ (3x − 5) dx

The integral of the left-hand side wrt y is y. Hence, we have

5
y = ∫ (3x − 5) dx
Advanced Integration I 683

Note
This is just to highlight how we’ve arrived at this conclusion and will be skipped in the subsequent
examples.
The right-hand side matches the current binomial standard with n = 5 and a = 3. Thus

5
y = ∫ (3x − 5) dx
5+1
(3x − 5)
= +C
3 (5 + 1)
6
(3x − 5)
= +C
3 (6)
6
5 (3x − 5)
∴ ∫ (3x − 5) dx = +C
18

dy 1
b) = 4
dx (1−2x)
Solution
dy 1
= 4
dx (1 − 2x)
which implies
1
y=∫ 4
dx
(1 − 2x)
−4
= ∫ (1 − 2x) dx

In the above modified form, we can then say that n = −4 and a = −2, thus
−4+1
(1 − 2x)
y= +C
−2 (−4 + 1)
−3
(1 − 2x)
= +C
−2 (−3)
−3
(1 − 2x)
= +C
6
1 1
∴ ∫ 4
dx = 3
+C
(1 − 2x) 6(1 − 2x)

1
dy
c) = (7 − x) 2
dx
Solution
dy 1
= (7 − x) 2
dx
which implies
1
y = ∫ (7 − x) 2
684 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1
n= and a = −1, thus
2

1
+1
(7 − x) 2
y= +C
1
−1 × ( + 1)
2
3
(7 − x) 2
=− +C
3
2
3
2 (7 − x) 2
1
∴ ∫ (7 − x) dx = − 2 +C
3

dy 10
d) = 3
dx √5x+1
Solution
dy 10
= 3
dx √5x + 1

which implies

10
y=∫ 3
dx
√5x + 1
1
10 −
=∫ 1
dx = ∫ 10(5x + 1) 3 dx
(5x + 1) 3
1
−
= 10 ∫ (5x + 1) 3 dx

1
In the above modified form, we can then say that n = − and a = 5, thus
3

1
⎡ (5x + 1)− 3 +1 ⎤
y = 10 ⎢ ⎥+C
⎢ 1 ⎥
5 (− + 1)
⎣ 3 ⎦
2
⎡ (5x + 1) 3 ⎤
= 10 ⎢ ⎥+C
⎢ 2 ⎥
5( )
⎣ 3 ⎦
2
3(5x + 1) 3
= 10 [ ]+C
5 (2)

2
10
∴ ∫ 3
dx = 3(5x + 1) 3 + C
√5x + 1
Advanced Integration I 685

17.2.2 LINEAR FUNCTIONS OF THE FORM f ′ (ax + b)

The linear function rule is used when integrating a function of a linear function such that the inner
function is a linear expression of the form ax + b, where a and b are real numbers and a ≠ 0. In
general, the function is of the form f ′ (ax + b).
If b ≠ 0, then we have f ′ (ax + b). We can state that:

1
∫ f ′ (ax + b) dx = f (ax + b) + C (17.2)
a

and if b = 0, we have

1
∫ f ′ (ax) dx = f (ax) + C (17.3)
a

Here is the summary of this rule.

If a function shares the format with a standard integral but has an inner linear function,
denote the inner function as u. Then determine the integral wrt to u when the inner function
has been replaced with u and divide the answer with u′ i.e. the derivative of u.

Let’s make the following notes about this standard:

Note 1 Given that y = f [u (x)], where y is a function of u and u is in turn a function of x, we can
say that the differentiation coefficient equals f ′ (u) × u′ (x). In other words, the derivative
of the function is the derivative of y wrt u (as a variable) multiplied by the derivative of u
wrt x.
Note 2 For integration, given that ∅ = g [u (x)], where ∅ is a function of u and u is in turn a func-
∫ g(u).dx
tion of x, we say that the integration is equal to . In other words, the integral of the
u′ (x)
function is the integral of ∅ wrt u (as a variable) divided by the derivative of u wrt to x.
Note 3 In both cases, we treat the inner function u (x) as an independent variable and find the
derivative (or integral) of the resulting function.
Note 4 We also find the derivative of the inner function u′ (x) and we multiply it with the result in
3 if it is differentiation or divide if it is integration.
Note 5 In integration, u (x) must be a linear function, such that u = ax + b. However, for differenti-
ation, the inner function can be any function. For example, we can differentiate or integrate
a function e2x−3 because the inner function 2x − 3 is linear. However, it is not possible to
2
integrate ex −3x+1 or esin x using this rule, as the inner functions (x2 − 3x + 1 and sinx) are
not linear. Nevertheless, both can be differentiated.

Some of the integral standards we outlined in Chapter 15 were based on this rule. In fact,
n 1 n+1
∫ (ax + b) dx = (ax + b) + C that we just covered is a special form of this rule, as it
a(n+1)
is a function of a function expression.
Before we move to examples, the previously mentioned standards are re-produced here in Table
17.1. Although, we will stick to this rule and possibly compare the two, there will also be inevitable
situations when we find ourselves making use of the standards.
686 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 17.1
Standard Integrals for a Linear Expression of the Form ax + b

y ∫ ydx y ∫ ydx
1 1 1 1
ln |ax + b| + C ln |ax| + C
ax+b a ax a

1 ax+b 1 ax
eax+b e +C eax e +C
a a

zax+b zax
zax+b +C zax +C
a ln z a ln z

b
ln (ax + b) (x + ) ln (ax + b)− ln (ax) x ln (ax) − x + C
a
x+C
1 1
sin (ax + b) − cos (ax + b) sin (ax) − cos (ax) + C
a a
+C
1 1
cos (ax + b) sin (ax + b) + C cos (ax) sin (ax) + C
a a

1 1
tan (ax + b) ln |sec (ax + b)| tan (ax) ln |sec (ax)| + C
a a
+C
1 1
ln |tan (ax + b) ln |tan (ax)
sec (ax + b) a sec (ax) a
+ sec (ax + b)| + C + sec (ax)| + C
1 1
− ln |cot (ax + b) − ln |cot (ax)
cosec (ax + b) a cosec (ax) a
+ cosec (ax + b)| + C + cosec (ax)| + C
1 1
cot (ax + b) ln |sin (ax + b)| cot (ax) ln |sin (ax)| + C
a a
+C
1 1
sec2 (ax + b) tan (ax + b) + C sec2 (ax) tan (ax) + C
a a

1 1
cosec2 (ax + b) − cot (ax + b) + C cosec2 (ax) − cot (ax) + C
a a

1 1
sec (ax + b) tan (ax + b) sec (ax + b) + C sec (ax) tan (ax) sec (ax) + C
a a

1 1
cosec (ax + b) cot (ax + b) − cosec (ax + b) cosec (ax) cot (ax) − cosec (ax) + C
a a
+C
Advanced Integration I 687

That’s all. Let’s try some examples.

Example 2

Solve the following integrals.

a) ∫ 3 sin (5x − 1) dx b) ∫ cosec2 (7𝜑 − 𝜋) d𝜑 c) ∫ 8e2x−3 dx

1
d) ∫ 52−3x dx e) ∫ sec (4𝜃 + 𝜋) d𝜃 f) ∫ 12 ln (4x − 15) dx
3
1
2 3 sin( x−5)−1
g) ∫ (e3x − e1−x ) dx h) ∫ 2
1 dx
cos2 ( x−5)
2

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Hint

In this case, we will work through the problem with little explanation unless it is essentially
necessary. Do pay attention to the subtle skills or techniques being used.

a) ∫ 3 sin (5x − 1) dx
Solution

∫ 3 sin (5x − 1) dx = 3 ∫ sin (5x − 1) dx

1
= 3 [ × − cos (5x − 1)] + C
5
3
∴ ∫ 3 sin (5x − 1) dx = − cos (5x − 1) + C
5

b) ∫ cosec2 (7𝜑 − 𝜋) d𝜑
Solution
1
∫ cosec2 (7𝜑 − 𝜋) d𝜑 = × − cot (7𝜑 − 𝜋) + C
7

1
∴ ∫ cosec2 (7𝝋 − 𝝅) d𝝋 = − cot (7𝝋 − 𝝅) + C
7
688 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

c) ∫ 8e2x−3 dx
Solution

∫ 8e2x−3 dx = 8 ∫ e2x−3 dx
1
= 8 [ × e2x−3 ] + C
2
2x−3
∴ ∫ 8e2x−3 dx = 4e +C

d) ∫ 52−3x dx
Solution
1 52−3x
∫ 52−3x dx = − × +C
3 ln 5
52−3x
∴ ∫ 52−3x dx = − +C
3 ln 5

1
e) ∫ sec (4𝜃 + 𝜋) d𝜃
3
Solution
1 1 | 1 1 |
∫ sec (4𝜃 + 𝜋) d𝜃 = ln ||tan (4𝜃 + 𝜋) + sec (4𝜃 + 𝜋)|| + C
3 4 3 3
1 1 | 1 1 |
∴ ∫ sec (4𝜽 + 𝝅) = ln |tan (4𝜽 + 𝝅) + sec (4𝜽 + 𝝅)|| + C
3 4 | 3 3

f) ∫ 12 ln (4x − 15) dx
Solution

∫ 12 ln (4x − 15) dx = 12 ∫ ln (4x − 15) dx

(4x − 15) ln (4x − 15) − 4x

= 12 [ ]+C
4
= 3 [(4x − 15) ln (4x − 15) − 4x] + C

∴ ∫ 12 ln (4x − 15) dx = 3 [(4x − 15) ln (4x − 15) − 4x] + C

2
g) ∫ (e3x − e1−x ) dx
Solution
The integral expression needs to be simplified first as:
2 2 2
(e3x − e1−x ) = (e3x ) − 2 (e3x ) (e1−x ) + (e1−x )
= e6x − 2e3x+1−x + e2(1−x)
= e6x − 2e2x+1 + e2−2x
Advanced Integration I 689

Thus
2
∫ (e3x − e1−x ) dx = ∫ (e6x − 2e2x+1 + e2−2x ) dx
1 1 1
× e6x − 2 ( × e2x+1 ) + (− × e2−2x ) + C
=
6 2 2
1 1
= e6x − e2x+1 − × e2−2x + C
6 2
2 1 1
∴ ∫ (e3x − e1−x ) dx = e6x − e2x+1 − × e2−2x + C
6 2

1
3 sin( x−5)−1
h) ∫ 2
1 dx
cos2 ( x−5)
2
Solution
The integral expression needs to be simplified first as:
1 1
3 sin ( x − 5) − 1 3 sin ( x − 5)
2 2 1
= −
1 1 1
cos2 ( x − 5) cos2 ( x − 5) cos2 ( x − 5)
2 2 2
1
⎡ sin ( 2 x − 5) ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤ 1
= 3⎢ ⎥×⎢ ⎥−
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥ 2 1
cos ( x − 5) cos ( x − 5) cos ( x − 5)
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦ 2
1 1 2 1
= 3 tan ( x − 5) sec ( x − 5) − sec ( x − 5)
2 2 2
Thus
1
3 sin ( x − 5) − 1
2 1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ 3 tan ( x − 5) sec ( x − 5) − sec2 ( x − 5) dx
1 2 2 2
cos2 ( x − 5)
2
1 1
⎡ sec ( 2 x − 5) ⎤ ⎡ tan ( 2 x − 5) ⎤
= 3⎢ ⎥−⎢ ⎥+C
⎢ 1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦ ⎣ 2 ⎦
1 1
= 6 sec ( x − 5) − 2 tan ( x − 5) + C
2 2
1
3 sin ( x − 5) − 1
2 1 1
∴ ∫ dx = 6 sec ( x − 5) − 2 tan ( x − 5) + C
1 2 2
cos2 ( x − 5)
2
690 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

f ′ (x)
17.2.3 INTEGRATION OF THE FORM ∫ dx
f(x)

Rational functions are generally difficult to handle, and their integration comes with a greater chal-
lenge. However, when the dividend (or numerator) is a derivative of the divisor (or denominator),
then the integral is quite easy. The rule for this case states that:

f ′ (x)
y=∫ dx = ln | f (x)| + C (17.4)
f (x)

This makes sense because when we differentiate ln | f (x)| wrt x, using the chain rule, we will arrive
f ′ (x)
at . The main challenge in using this standard is to recognise that such a relationship exists. One
f(x)
will need to give special attention to a possible modification that would be necessary to get the form
above. Let’s try some examples.

Example 3

Integrate the following functions wrt the indicated variables.

2 1 4x−3
a) , [x] b) , [t] c) , [x]
2x−7 5t−3 2x2 −3x+1

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

2
a) , [x]
2x−7
Solution
f ′ (x)
The numerator, 2, is the derivative of the denominator 2x − 7, hence we have the relation.
f(x)
Therefore,

2
∫ dx = ln |2x − 7| + C
2x − 7
2
∴ ∫ dx = ln |2x − 7| + C
2x − 7

This is straightforward.

1
b) , [t]
5t−3
Solution
The numerator, 1, is NOT the derivative of the denominator 5t − 3, and it seems as though we cannot
f ′ (x)
use the relation. We will show this shortly, but before that we can use the standard for integrating
f(x)
Advanced Integration I 691

1
rational functions (Table 17.1). Therefore,
ax+b

1 ln |5t − 3|
∫ dt = +C
5t − 3 5
f ′ (x)
To use the format , we need to tweak the expression as follows:
f(x)

1 5 1
∫ dt = ∫ dt
5t − 3 5 5t − 3
1 5
= ∫ dt
5 5t − 3
f ′ (x)
Now the format is established. Proceed as per standard, and we have:
f(x)

1
[ln |5t − 3|] + C
=
5
1 ln |5t − 3|
∴ ∫ dt = +C
5t − 3 5

Not as straightforward as the first, but equally good.

4x−3
c) , [x]
2x2 −3x+1
Solution
4x − 3
∫ dx = ln |2x2 − 3x + 1| + C
2x2 − 3x + 1
4x − 3
∴ ∫ 2 dx = ln |2x2 − 3x + 1| + C
2x − 3x + 1

Let’s try another set of examples.

Example 4

Evaluate the following integrals.

3x−1 2x(3x−2)
a) ∫ dx b) ∫ cot 𝜃 d𝜃 c) ∫ tan 𝜃 d𝜃 d) ∫ dx
(3x−5)(x+1) (x+1)(x2 −2x+2)

5sec2 2𝜃 e−2x sin 3x+ex

e) ∫ d𝜃 f) ∫ dx g) ∫ dx
tan 2𝜃−3 3e−2x −5 3ex −cos 3x
692 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

Hint

In this case, we will work through the problem with little explanation unless it is essentially
necessary. Do pay attention to the subtle skills or techniques being used.

3x−1
a) ∫ dx
(3x−5)(x+1)
Solution
3x − 1 3x − 1
∫ dx = ∫ 2
(3x − 5) (x + 1) 3x − 2x − 5
2 3x − 1
= ∫ 2 dx
2 3x − 2x − 5
1 2 (3x − 1)
= ∫ 2 dx
2 3x − 2x − 5
1 6x − 2
= ∫ 2 dx
2 3x − 2x − 5
1
= ln |3x2 − 2x − 5| + C
2
3x − 1 1
∴ ∫ dx = ln |3x2 − 2x − 5| + C
(3x − 5) (x + 1) 2

b) ∫ cot 𝜃 d𝜃
Solution
cos 𝜃
∫ cot 𝜃 d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
sin 𝜃
= ln |sin 𝜃| + C

∴ ∫ cot 𝜽 d𝜽 = ln |sin 𝜽| + C

c) ∫ tan 𝜃 d𝜃
Solution
sin 𝜃
∫ tan 𝜃 d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
cos 𝜃
− sin 𝜃
= −∫ d𝜃 = − ln |cos 𝜃| + C
cos 𝜃

∴ ∫ tan 𝜽 d𝜽 = − ln |cos 𝜽| + C

OR
| 1 ||
∴ ∫ tan 𝜽 d𝜽 = − ln |cos 𝜽| + C = ln || + C = ln |sec 𝜽| + C
cos 𝜽 |
These are two versions that you would find in the Table of Standard Integrals for the tangent function.
Advanced Integration I 693

Let us quickly add a couple of notes here:

Note 1 Sometimes we may need or be asked to express this standard (or any similar integral) in a
single logarithmic term. Using the first answer for this, we will proceed as:

− ln |cos 𝜃| + C = − ln |cos 𝜃| + ln k

C is constant, hence ln k, when k is constant, is also a constant. Thus

− ln |cos 𝜃| + C = − ln |cos 𝜃| + ln k
= ln k − ln |cos 𝜃|
| k ||
= ln ||
cos 𝜃 |
Alternatively, we can avoid the fraction by stating that

− ln |cos 𝜃| + C = − ln |cos 𝜃| − ln k
= − [ln |cos 𝜃| + ln k]
= − ln |k cos 𝜃|

| 1 ||
Note 2 If we modify the last answer, we will arrive at − ln |k cos 𝜃| = ln || . You may wonder
k cos 𝜃 |
| k ||
that it does not look exactly like the first answer, i.e., ln || . You are quite right; how-
cos 𝜃 |
ever, in the first case, we replace C with ln k, whilst in the second case, it was replaced with
− ln k.

2x(3x−2)
d) ∫ dx
(x+1)(x2 −2x+2)
Solution
2x (3x − 2) 2x (3x − 2)
∫ dx = ∫ dx
(x + 1) (x2 − 2x + 2) (x + 1) (x2 − 2x + 2)
6x2 − 4x 2 (3x2 − 2x)
=∫ 3 dx = ∫ dx
x − x2 + 2 x3 − x2 + 2
3x2 − 2x
= 2∫ 3 dx
x − x2 + 2
= 2 ln |(x3 − x2 + 2)| + C
x(3x − 2)
∴ ∫ dx = 2 ln |(x3 − x2 + 2)| + C
(x + 1) (x2 − 2x + 2)
694 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5sec2 2𝜃
e) ∫ d𝜃
tan 2𝜃−3
Solution
5sec2 2𝜃 2 5sec2 2𝜃
∫ d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
tan 2𝜃 − 3 2 tan 2𝜃 − 3
5 2sec2 2𝜃
= ∫ d𝜃
2 tan 2𝜃 − 3
5
= ln |tan 2𝜃 − 3| + C
2
5sec2 2𝜽 5
∴ ∫ d𝜽 = ln |tan 2𝜽 − 3| + C
tan 2𝜽 − 3 2

e−2x
f) ∫ dx
3e−2x −5
Solution
e−2x 1 −6e−2x
∫ dx = − ∫ −2x dx
3e−2x
−5 6 3e −5
1
= − ln |3e−2x − 5| + C
6
e−2x 1
∴ ∫ −2x dx = − ln |3e−2x − 5| + C
3e −5 6

sin 3x+ex
g) ∫ dx
3ex −cos 3x
Solution
sin 3x + ex 1 3 (sin 3x + ex )
∫ dx = ∫ dx
3e − cos 3x
x 3 3ex − cos 3x
1 3ex + 3 sin 3x
= ∫ x dx
3 3e − cos 3x
1
= ln |3ex − cos 3x| + C
3
sin 3x + ex 1
∴ ∫ x dx = ln |3ex − cos 3x| + C
3e − cos 3x 3

n
17.2.4 INTEGRATION OF THE FORM ∫ [f ′ (x)].[f (x) ] dx AND ∫ [f ′ (x) ].[f (x) ] dx
This is another rule to integrate a product of two functions. It states that:

n 1 n+1
y = ∫ [f ′ (x)] .[f (x)] dx = [f (x)] +C (17.5)
n+1

where n is any real number. If n = 1, we have a modified version as:

1 2
y = ∫ f ′ (x) .f (x) dx = [f (x)] + C (17.6)
2
Advanced Integration I 695

It seems the rule is self-explanatory, which is similar to the previous rule and based on the reverse
chain rule. Nonetheless, let’s provide these notes to guide us in applying it.

Note 1 Establish that there is a product of two functions, say f (x) and g (x), where one is a derivative
of the other. Say g (x) = f ′ (x).
Note 2 Based on Note 1, treat this as though you are integrating a power function, ∫ xn dx.

Note that sometimes we need to modify the expression to ensure that the rule can be used. That’s
everything for now. Let’s try some examples.

Example 5

Solve the following:

4 5x−3 12
a) ∫ 3x2 (x3 − 8) dx b) ∫ dx c) ∫ 3 dx
√5x2 −6x+1 e2x (e−2x −5)

3 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
d) ∫ 8 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 e) ∫ cot x. cosec2 x dx f) ∫ d𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

4
a) ∫ 3x2 (x3 − 8) dx
Solution
f (x) = x3 − 8, f ′ (x) = 3x2 , n = 4, and n + 1 = 5. Hence

1 3
4 5
∫ 3x2 (x3 − 8) dx = (x − 8) + C
5
4 1 5
∴ ∫ 3x2 (x3 − 8) dx = (x3 − 8) + C
5

5x−3
b) ∫ dx
√5x2 −6x+1
Solution
This is a rational function and looks like we cannot use the current rule. Let’s modify this a bit as:

5x − 3 5x − 3
∫ dx = ∫ 1
dx
√5x2 − 6x + 1 (5x2 − 6x + 1) 2
1
−
= ∫ (5x − 3) (5x2 − 6x + 1) 2
dx

The above shows that it’s a product of two functions.

696 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1 1
Hence, f (x) = 5x2 − 6x + 1, f ′ (x) = 10x − 6 , n = − , and n + 1 = . Thus
2 2
1
5x − 3 1 −
∫ dx = ∫ 2 (5x − 3) (5x2 − 6x + 1) 2 dx
√5x2 − 6x + 1 2
1
1 −
= ∫ (10x − 6) (5x2 − 6x + 1) 2 dx
2
1

1 ⎡ (5x − 6x + 1) 2 ⎤
2 1
= ⎢ ⎥ + C = (5x2 − 6x + 1) 2 + C
2⎢ 1 ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
5x − 3
∴ ∫ dx = √5x2 − 6x + 1 + C
√5x2 − 6x + 1

12
c) ∫ 3 dx
e2x (e−2x −5)
Solution
This looks similar to the one above; let’s modify this a bit as:
12 −3
∫ 3
dx = ∫ 12e−2x (e−2x − 5) dx
e2x (e−2x − 5)
Hence, f (x) = e−2x − 5, f ′ (x) = −2e−2x , n = −3 and n + 1 = −2. Thus
12 −3
∫ 3
dx = ∫ 12e−2x (e−2x − 5) dx
e2x (e−2x − 5)
−3
= −6 ∫ −2e−2x (e−2x − 5) dx
−2
(e−2x − 5) 3
= −6 [ ]+C= +C
−2 (e−2x − 5)
2

12 3
∴ ∫ 3
dx = 2
+C
e2x (e−2x − 5) (e−2x − 5)

3
d) ∫ 8 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 d𝜃
Solution
Let’s modify this a bit as:
3 3
∫ 8 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 = 8 ∫ cos 𝜃[sin 𝜃] d𝜃

Hence, f (𝜃) = sin 𝜃, f ′ (𝜃) = cos 𝜃, n = 3, and n + 1 = 4. Thus

3 3
∫ 8 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 d𝜃 = 8 ∫ cos 𝜃[sin 𝜃] d𝜃
4
[sin 𝜃] 4
= 8[ ] + C = 2 sin 𝜃 + C
4
3 4
∴ ∫ 8 cos 𝜽 sin 𝜽 d𝜽 = 2 sin 𝜽 + C
Advanced Integration I 697

e) ∫ cot x. cosec2 x dx
Solution
Hence, f (x) = cot x, f ′ (x) = − cosec2 x , n = 1, and n + 1 = 2. Thus

∫ cot x. cosec2 x dx = − ∫ [− cosec2 x] [cot x] dx

2
[cot x]
= −[ ]+C
2
1 2
= − [cot x] + C
2
1
∴ ∫ cot x. cosec2 x dx = − cot2 x + C
2

sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
f) ∫ d𝜃
1+tan2 𝜃
Solution
Let’s modify this a bit as:

sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃

∫ 2
d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
1 + tan 𝜃 sec2 𝜃
−2
= ∫ [sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃] .[sec 𝜃] .d𝜃

Hence, f (x) = sec 𝜃, f ′ (x) = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃, n = −2, and n + 1 = −1. Thus

sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 −2
∫ d𝜃 = ∫ [sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃] .[sec 𝜃] .d𝜃
1 + tan2 𝜃
−1
[sec 𝜃]
=[ ]+C
−1
1
=− +C
sec 𝜃
sec 𝜽 tan 𝜽 1
∴ ∫ d𝜽 = − + C = − cos 𝜽 + C
1 + tan2 𝜽 sec 𝜽

Note
We could have simplified this further and avoid using this rule, as follows:

sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃

∫ 2
d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
1 + tan 𝜃 sec2 𝜃
sin 𝜃
( )
tan 𝜃 cos 𝜃
=∫ d𝜃 = ∫ d𝜃
sec 𝜃 (
1
)
cos 𝜃

= ∫ sin 𝜃 d𝜃 = − cos 𝜃 + C

sec 𝜽 tan 𝜽
∴ ∫ d𝜽 = − cos 𝜽 + C
1 + tan2 𝜽
698 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

du
17.2.5 INTEGRATION OF THE FORM ∫[ ].[ f ′ (u) ].dx
dx

This is used to find the integral of a product of two functions. It states that

du
y = ∫[ ] . [ f ′ (u)] dx = f (u) + C
dx

This rule is based on the

a) function of a function rule, and that

b) integration is a direct inverse of differentiation, and vice versa.

Before we show this, let’s quickly cover the following points, which are relevant to the use of this
rule:

Note 1 Establish that there is a product of two functions, say f ′ (x) and g (x).
Note 2 One of the functions, f ′ (x), is a function of function with inner function u (x), such that
g (x) = u′ (x).
Note 3 Integrate f ′ (u) to obtain f (u), ignoring the fact it is a function of a function, then replace u.
Note 4 Hence, ∫ [g (x)] . [ f ′ (x)] dx = f (u) + C.

Recall that taking the integral will undo differentiation. Given a function of function y = f (x), such
that y = f (u) and u = g (x), then we can differentiate this function by applying the chain rule as:

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
This is a forward process. Let us reverse this by integrating the result on the RHS wrt x. Remember
that we need to apply the same to the LHS as:

dy dy du
∫[ ] dx = ∫ ([ ] × [ ]) dx
dx du dx

Swap the LHS and RHS of the equation, we have

dy du dy
∫ ([ ] × [ ]) dx = ∫ [ ] dx
du dx dx
dy du
∫ ([ ] × [ ]) dx = ∫ dy
du dx
du dy
∫ [ ] × [ ] dx = y + C
dx du
du
∫ [ ] × [ f ′ (u)] dx = f (u) + C
dx

The subtle difference between this rule and the previous one is that, unlike in this where the function
of function does not have power, in the previous rule, the power is what brought the function of a
function (and thus the chain rule) into being.
That’s all for this rule. Note that you can always differentiate the answer to confirm if the differential
coefficient matches the original question.
Advanced Integration I 699

Let’s try some examples to illustrate.

Example 6

Evaluate the following:

a) ∫ 4e4x−5 dx b) ∫ 2x sin (x2 − 1) dx c) ∫ sec2 3𝜃etan 3𝜃 d𝜃

d) ∫ 6 tan (e2x ) e2x dx e) ∫ cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃e𝜋−cosec 𝜃 d𝜃

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

a) ∫ 4e4x−5 dx
Solution
We start with this question to illustrate this rule, though we could have solved this easily using a
different method.
1
Method 1 Using ∫ eax+b dx = eax+b + C
a

∫ 4e4x−5 dx = 4 ∫ e4x−5 dx
1
= 4 [ e4x−5 ] + C
4
∴ ∫ 4e4x−5 dx = e4x−5 + C

Method 2 Using ∫ [g (x)] [ f ′ (x)] dx = f (u) + C

du
Given that ∫ 4e4x−5 dx, our two functions of interest are 4 and e4x−5 . Thus, if u = 4x − 5, then = 4.
dx
′ u u
If f (u) = e , then f (u) = e . Hence

∫ 4e4x−5 dx = eu + C = e4x−5 + C

∴ ∫ 4e4x−5 dx = e4x−5 + C

Note

1) When we integrate f ′ (u) or eu , we did not consider u as a function of x, otherwise the result
1
will be eu and not simply eu . This is a very important point to consider in this rule.
u′ (x)
2) We consider 4 as a function here for illustration. For this rule, a function should have a variable
included.
700 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

b) ∫ 2x sin (x2 − 1) dx
Solution
du
Two functions of interest are 2x and sin (x2 − 1). Thus, if u = x2 − 1, then = 2x. If f ′ (u) = sin u,
dx
then f (u) = − cos u. Hence

∫ 2x. sin (x2 − 1) dx = − cos u + C

= − cos (x2 − 1) + C

∴ ∫ 2x sin (x2 − 1) dx = − cos (x2 − 1) + C

c) ∫ sec2 3𝜃etan 3𝜃 d𝜃
Solution
du
Two functions of interest are sec2 3𝜃 and etan 3𝜃 . Thus, if u = tan 3𝜃, then = 3 sec2 3𝜃. If
d𝜃
f ′ (u) = eu , then f (u) = eu . For this case, we will modify the expression a bit before proceeding,
hence:
1
∫ sec2 3𝜃.etan 3𝜃 d𝜃 =∫ 3 sec2 3𝜃.etan 3𝜃 d𝜃
3
1 1
= [eu ] + C = etan 3𝜃 + C
3 3
1
∴ ∫ sec2 3𝜽etan 3𝜽 d𝜽 = etan 3𝜽 + C
3

d) ∫ 6 tan (e2x ) e2x dx

Solution
du
Two functions of interest are e2x and tan (e2x ). Thus, if u = e2x , then = 2e2x . If f ′ (u) = tan u, then
dx
f (u) = ln |sec u|. For this case, we will modify the expression a bit before proceeding, hence:

∫ 6 tan (e2x ) e2x dx = 3 ∫ 2e2x . tan (e2x ) dx

= 3 [ln |sec u|] + C = 3 ln |sec (e2x )| + C

∴ ∫ 6 tan (e2x ) e2x dx = 3 ln |sec (e2x )| + C

e) ∫ cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃e𝜋−cosec 𝜃 d𝜃

Solution
du
Two functions of interest are cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃 and e𝜋−cosec 𝜃 . Thus, if u = 𝜋 − cosec 𝜃, then =
d𝜃
′ u u
cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃. If f (u) = e , then f (u) = e . For this case, we do not need further modification,
hence:

∫ cosec 𝜃 cot 𝜃e𝜋−cosec 𝜃 d𝜃 = eu + C

= e𝜋−cosec 𝜃 + C

∴ ∫ cosec 𝜽 cot 𝜽e𝝅−cosec 𝜽 d𝜽 = e𝝅−cosec 𝜽 + C

Advanced Integration I 701

17.3 INTEGRATION BY PARTIAL FRACTION

Partial fraction, covered in Chapter 7, is a great tool in integrating some rational expressions. An
f(x)
expression of the form can be split into partial fractions, such that the denominator of each of
g(x)
the resulting fractions is a linear function. Once split, we can apply the integral standards for rational
1 1
expressions (i.e., and ) to solve the problem. We can deduce that we only need to spot the
x ax+b
expression that requires this approach and work through the steps. Let’s try one or two examples.

Example 7

6x−1 7
Evaluate ∫ dx, where x > . Give your answer in the simplest form as a single logarithm.
3x2 −x−14 3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

Hint

● This example will be solved using partial fractions, but can easily be solved using
f ′ (x)
∫ dx.
f(x)
7
● It is not immediately clear here why the question states x > , but it will be in the second
3
method.

6x − 1
∫ dx
3x2− x − 14
f ′ (x)
Method 1 Using ∫ dx
f(x)

f ′ (x)
This expression is of the form ∫ dx and we know that this should be
f(x)

6x − 1
∫ dx = ln |3x2 − x − 14| + C
3x2 − x − 14
Method 2 Using partial fractions
Let’s use partial fractions and compare the answers. Here we go.

6x − 1 6x − 1
=
3x2 − x − 14 (3x − 7) (x + 2)
A B
≡ +
3x − 7 x + 2
A (x + 2) + B (3x − 7)
≡
(3x − 7) (x + 2)
702 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s now equate the numerators of both sides as:

6x − 1 ≡ A (x + 2) + B (3x − 7)

Substituting x = −2, we have:

−12 − 1 = A (−2 + 2) + B (−6 − 7)

−13 = −13B
∴B=1

Substituting x = 0, we have:

0 − 1 = A (0 + 2) + B (0 − 7)
−1 = 2A − 7B
−1 = 2A − 7 (1)
2A = −1 + 7
6
∴A= =3
2
Hence
6x − 1 3 1
= +
3x2 − x − 14 3x − 7 x + 2
Let’s go back to the question, and we have

6x − 1 3 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( + ) dx
3x2 − x − 14 3x − 7 x + 2
1 1
= 3∫( ) dx + ∫ ( ) dx
3x − 7 x+2
1
= 3 ( ln |3x − 7|) + ln |x + 2| + C
3
= ln |3x − 7| + ln |x + 2| + C

7
We can see here that when x = , both (3x − 7) and (x + 2) are positive, so we can remove the
3
modulus sign since we are sure that the value will always be positive. Thus:

6x − 1
∫ dx = ln (3x − 7) + ln (x + 2) + C
3x2 − x − 14
Combine this using the product rule of logarithms to have

6x − 1
∫ dx = ln (3x − 7) (x + 2) + C
− x − 14
3x2
6x − 1
∴ ∫ 2 dx = ln [(3x − 7) (x + 2)] + C
3x − x − 14
Advanced Integration I 703

If we open the brackets, we will obtain:

6x − 1
∫ dx = ln (3x2 − x − 14) + C
3x2 − x − 14
f ′ (x)
This is the same as what we obtained when we used ∫ dx in the first method above.
f(x)

Let’s work through another example, but now a definite integral.

Example 8

4 5
Evaluate ∫3 dx. Present the answer in the exact form.
4x2 −25

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

4
5
∫ 2 − 25
dx
3 4x

f ′ (x)
This is not of the form ∫ dx, so let’s use partial fractions. Thus:
f(x)

5 5 5
= =
4x2 − 25 2
(2x) − 52 (2x + 5) (2x − 5)
A B
≡ +
2x + 5 2x − 5
A (2x − 5) + B (2x + 5)
≡
(2x + 5) (2x − 5)
Let’s now equate the numerators of both sides as:

5 ≡ A (2x − 5) + B (2x + 5)

5
Substituting x = − , we have
2

5 = A (−5 − 5) + B (5 − 5)
5 = −10A
1
∴A=−
2
704 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

5
Substituting x = , we have
2

5 = A (5 − 5) + B (5 + 5)
5 = 10B
1
∴B=
2
Hence
1 1
(− ) ( )
5 2 2
= +
4x − 25
2 2x + 5 2x −5
1 1 1 1
=− ( )+ ( )
2 2x + 5 2 2x − 5
1 1 1 1
= ( )− ( )
2 2x − 5 2 2x + 5
We therefore have
4 4
5 1 1 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ( )− ( ) dx
3 4x − 25
2
3
2 2x − 5 2 2x +5
4
1 1 1 1
= [ ( ln |2x − 5|) − ( ln |2x + 5|)]
2 2 2 2 3
4
1 1
= [ ln |2x − 5| − ln |2x + 5|]
4 4 3
4 3
1 1 1 1
= [ ln |2x − 5| − ln |2x + 5|] − [ ln |2x − 5| − ln |2x + 5|]
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
= { ln |2 × 4 − 5| − ln |2 × 4 + 5|} − { ln |2 × 3 − 5| − ln |2 × 3 + 5|}
4 4 4 4
1 1 1 1
= ( ln |3| − ln |13|) − ( ln |1| − ln |11|)
4 4 4 4
1 1 3 × 11
= (ln 3 − ln 13 − ln 1 + ln 11) = [ln ( )]
4 4 13 × 1
1 33
= ln
4 13
4
5 1 33
∴∫ 2 − 25
dx = ln ( )
3 4x 4 13

17.4 INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION

We have now covered rules to solve expressions for which we may not find a direct standard integral.
Yet there are other functions, complicated or quasi-complicated, which are not members of the fam-
ilies we’ve just covered. In this regard, we rely on a technique called ‘integration by substitution’.
Here we are talking about functional substitution rather than the numerical substitution that we use
in definite integration for example.
Integration by substitution is based on and/or requires the chain rule. Here is a summary of the steps
to follow when using this technique. Identify a (sub)function, which is a part of the whole expression,
and denote this as u. What is taken as u is either stated or chosen by experience.
Advanced Integration I 705

du
Step 1: Find and re-arrange to make dx the subject of the formula.
dx
Step 2: Substitute for u and dx in the original integral.
Step 3: Simplify the original integral so that it is only in u and du.
Step 4: For a definite integral, the limits should be changed accordingly from x1 to u1 and x2 to u2 .

Integration by substitution is more ‘universal’ and can be used for any of the cases covered so far. It
is like a quadratic formula used to solve any quadratic equation. It’s as simple as this. Let’s try some
examples.

Example 9

Solve the following:

2 +1) 2
a) ∫ 6xe(3x dx b) ∫ sin (3x) cos2 (3x) dx c) ∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx
2 x−3
d) ∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx e) ∫ x√x − 3dx f) ∫ dx
x2 −6x−7

g) ∫ sin x. cos xdx

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Hint

Where it’s relevant, we will attempt these examples using the substitution method as well as any
of the following:
du
● ∫ [ ] [ f ′ (u)] dx
dx
n
● ∫ f (x) [f (x)] dx
′

f ′ (x)
●∫ dx
f(x)
● Partial fractions
706 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2 +1)
a) ∫ 6xe(3x dx
Solution
Method 1 Using substitution
du 1
We will take u = 3x2 + 1, then = 6x. Thus, dx = du. Now, let’s substitute in the original integral
dx 6x
as:
2 +1) 1
∫ 6xe(3x dx = ∫ 6xeu du
6x

= ∫ eu du = eu + C
2 +1)
= e(3x +C
2 +1) 2 +1)
∴ ∫ 6xe(3x dx = e(3x +C

du
Method 2 Using ∫ [ ] [ f ′ (u)] dx
dx
2 +1) 2 +1)
Given that ∫ 6x.e(3x dx, our two functions of interest are 6x and e(3x . Thus, if u = 3x2 + 1,
du
then = 6x. If f ′ (u) = eu , then f (u) = eu . Hence
dx

2 +1)
∫ 6xe(3x dx = eu + C
2 +1
= e3x +C
2 +1) 2 +1
∴ ∫ 6xe(3x = e3x +C

Note
This is a very simple one indeed. It is designed to illustrate the rule. We will take another ‘simple’
one.

b) ∫ sin 3x cos2 3x dx
Solution
Method 1 Using substitution

2
∫ sin 3x cos2 3x dx = ∫ sin 3x[cos 3x] dx

du 1
We will take u = cos 3x, then = −3 sin 3x. Thus, dx = − du. Now, let’s substitute in the
dx 3 sin 3x
original integral as:
1
∫ sin 3x cos2 3x dx = ∫ sin 3x u2 − du
3 sin 3x
1 1 u3
= ∫ − u2 du = − ( ) + C
3 3 3
1
= − cos3 3x + C
9
1
∴ ∫ sin 3x cos2 3x dx = − cos3 3x + C
9
Advanced Integration I 707

n
Method 2 Using ∫ f ′ (x) [f (x)] dx
f (x) = cos 3x , f ′ (x) = −3 sin 3x , n = 2 and n + 1 = 3. Hence

1 2
∫ sin 3x. cos2 3x dx = − ∫ −3 sin 3x[cos 3x] dx
3
1 1
= − [ cos3 3x] + C
3 3
1
= − cos3 3x + C
9
1
∴ ∫ sin 3x cos2 3x dx = − cos3 3x + C
9

2
c) ∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx
Solution
du 1
Using substitution, we have u = 2 − x3 , then = −3x2 . Thus, dx = − du. Now, let’s substitute
dx 3x2
in the original integral as:

2 du
∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx = ∫ x2 .u2 . −
3x2
1 1 1 u3
= ∫ − u2 du = − ∫ u2 du = − [ ] + C
3 3 3 3
1 3
= − (2 − x3 ) + C
9
2 1 3
∴ ∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx = − (2 − x3 ) + C
9

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
n
Note that we could have used the ∫ f ′ (x) [f (x)] dx technique for this. Also, we could have
opened the brackets and then integrated, as shown below.

2
∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx = ∫ x2 (4 − 4x3 + x6 ) dx

= ∫ 4x2 − 4x5 + x8 dx

4x3 4x6 x9
= − + +C
3 6 9
4x3 2x6 x9
= − + +C
3 3 9
2 4x3 2x6 x9
∴ ∫ x2 (2 − x3 ) dx = − + +C
3 3 9
708 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Note
Let’s simplify the answer obtained using substitution as:
1 3 1 2
− (2 − x3 ) + C = − (2 − x3 ) (2 − x3 ) + C
9 9
1 2 1
= − (2 − x3 ) (2 − x3 ) + C = − (2 − x3 ) (4 − 4x3 + x6 ) + C
9 9
1 3 6 9
= − (8 − 12x + 6x − x ) + C
9
8 4x3 2x6 x9 4x3 2x6 x9 8
=− + − + +C= − + + (C − )
9 3 3 9 3 3 9 9
You may notice that the answers are slightly different, but recall that the arbitrary constant C
8
can be any numerical value. Thus, we can take it to be C − for the first case.
9

2
d) ∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx
Solution
du n
Unfortunately, we cannot use either of the two methods (i.e., ∫ [ ] [ f ′ (u)] dx and ∫ f ′ (x) [f (x)] dx)
dx
covered earlier for the product of two functions. Hence, we will be using the substitution method only
du 1
here. We have u = x2 + 1, then = 2x. Thus, dx = du. Also, x2 = u − 1. Now, let’s substitute
dx 2x
into the original integral as

2 2 du du
∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx = ∫ x3 (u − 1 + 1) = ∫ x3 u2
2x 2x
1 1
= ∫ x2 u2 du = ∫ (u − 1) u2 du
2 2
1 1 1 1
= ∫ u3 − u2 du = [ u4 − u3 ] + C
2 2 4 3
1 4 1 3
= (x2 + 1) − (x2 + 1) + C
8 6
2 1 4 1 3
∴ ∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx = (x2 + 1) − (x2 + 1) + C
8 6
Advanced Integration I 709

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
We will open the brackets and integrate each term separately.

2
∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx = ∫ x3 (x4 + 2x2 + 1) dx

= ∫ (x7 + 2x5 + x3 ) dx

x8 2x6 x4
+ = + +C
8 6 4
x8 x6 x4
= + + +C
8 3 4
2 x8 x6 x4
∴ ∫ x3 (x2 + 1) dx = + + +C
8 3 4

Note
Although the answers look a bit different, but can be proved to be the same as we did on page 708.

e) ∫ x√x − 3dx
Solution
du
Using the substitution method, we have u = x − 3, then = 1. Thus, dx = du. Also, x = u + 3.
dx
Now, let’s substitute in the original integral as:

∫ x.√x − 3 dx = ∫ (u + 3) √u.du

0.5
= ∫ (u + 3) u0.5 .du ∫ u1.5 + 3u .du

u2.5 u1.5
= +3 +C
2.5 1.5
2.5
2u
= + 2u1.5 + C
5
2.5
2(x − 3) 1.5
= + 2(x − 3) + C
5
2.5
2(x − 3) 1.5
∴ ∫ x√x − 3dx = + 2(x − 3) + C
5
710 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
We can use a different substitution
1
as follows: 1
du 1 − 1
u = √x − 3 = (x − 3) 2 , then = (x − 3) 2 = . Thus, dx = 2√x − 3du. Also,
dx 2 2√x−3
u2 = x − 3 → x = u2 + 3. Now, let’s substitute in the original integral as:

∫ x√x − 3dx = ∫ (u2 + 3) u.2u du

2
= ∫ 2u2 (u2 + 3) du = ∫ 2u4 + 6u du

2u5 u3 2u5
= +6 +C= + 2u3 + C
5 3 5
5
2(√x − 3) 3
= + 2(√x − 3) + C
5
2.5
2(x − 3) 1.5
∴ ∫ x.√x − 3dx = + 2(x − 3) + C
5

Note
For this example, substitution seems to be the only viable option. Also, the alternative method
is a different version of (or approach to) substitution.

x−3
f) ∫ dx
x2 −6x−7
Solution
f ′ (x)
For this example, we could have used two other methods (i.e., partial fraction and ∫ dx), but
f(x)
we will go for substitution to highlight its universality. We therefore have u = x2 − 6x − 7, then
du 1
= 2x − 6 = 2 (x − 3). Thus, dx = du. Now, let’s substitute in the original integral as:
dx 2(x−3)

x−3 x−3 1
∫ dx = ∫ . du
x2 − 6x − 7 u 2 (x − 3)
1 1 1
= ∫ du = ∫ du
2u 2 u
1 1
= ln u + C = ln (x2 − 6x − 7) + C
2 2
x−3 1 2
∴ ∫ 2 dx = ln (x − 6x − 7) + C
x − 6x − 7 2
Advanced Integration I 711

g) ∫ sin x cos xdx

Solution
Again, for this example we could have used ∫ f (x) f ′ (x) dx. However, we will go for substitution to
highlight its universality. We will demonstrate two approaches based on what to choose as our u.
Method 1 u = sin x
du 1
Since u = sin x, then = cos x. Thus, dx = du. Now, let’s substitute in the original integral as:
dx cos x

1
∫ sin x cos xdx = ∫ u cos x du
cos x
1
= ∫ udu = u2 + C
2
1 2
= sin x + C
2
1 2
∴ ∫ sin x cos xdx = sin x + C
2
Method 2 u = cos x
du 1
Since u = cos x, then = − sin x. Thus, dx = − du. Now, let’s substitute in the original integral
dx sin x
as:
1
∫ sin x. cos x dx = ∫ u sin x −du
sin x
1
= ∫ −u.du = − u2 + C
2
1
= − cos2 x + C
2
1
∴ ∫ sin x cos xdx = − cos2 x + C
2
Note
It is interesting that we have two different results, namely:
1 2
● sin x + C
2
1
● − cos2 x + C
2

1 2 1 1
But using the trigonometric identity, we will see that sin x = − cos2 x. What this shows is
2 2 2
1
that if the constant of integration in method 1 is A, that of method 2 is A + . To confirm that the
2
1.2
two answers are equal, try a definite integral. For example, we can confirm that ∫0.2 sin x cos xdx =
1.2 1.2
1 2 1
[ sin x] = [− cos2 x] = 0.4146 (4 d.p.).
2 0.2 2 0.2

As earlier noted, when using the substitution method to solve a definite integral, the limits should be
changed to u. This removes the need to replace u with the function of x in the final stage of the solu-
tion. To do this, just find u (x1 ) and u (x2 ), where x1 and x2 are the lower and upper limits, respectively,
and x1 < x2 .
712 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

During the change of limits, it is possible to see that u1 > u2 , just swap them, i.e., make u1 the new
x u
upper limit and u2 the lower limits. For example, ∫x21 f (x) dx becomes ∫u12 g (u) du. But if you decide
u
to keep the limits, i.e., ∫u21 g (u) du, the answer will have a change of sign. We know that, for definite
integrals, we are only after the absolute value and the sign can be ignored. Otherwise, there is nothing
special in this case.
Let’s try a couple of examples.

Example 10

Use an appropriate substitution to determine the exact value of each of the following:

3 25x 𝜋 4
a) ∫0 dx b) ∫0 sin 2x (1 − cos x) dx
√16−5x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

3 25x
a) ∫0 dx
√16−5x
Solution
Step 1: Let’s start with an indefinite integral.

25x
∫ dx
√16 − 5x
du 1
Using the substitution method, we have u = 16 − 5x, then = −5. Thus, dx = − du. Also,
dx 5
1
x= (16 − u). Now, let’s substitute as:
5

25x x
∫ dx = 25 ∫ dx
√16 − 5x √16 − 5x
1
(16 − u)
5 1 16 − u
= 25 ∫ 1
× (− ) du = 25 ∫ − 1
du
5
u 2 25u 2
16 − u u − 16
= ∫− 1
du = ∫ 1
du
u2 u2
u 16 1
−
1
= ∫ 1 − 1 du = ∫ u 2 − 16u 2 du
u2 u2
Advanced Integration I 713

Step 2: Let’s bring in definite integral.

x2 =3 x2 =3
25x 1
−
1
∫ dx = ∫ u 2 − 16u 2 du
x1 =0 √16 − 5x x1 =0

Step 3: Change the limits

Right, we need to change the limits from x to u as:

● When x = 0, we have

u1 = 16 − 5 (0) = 16

● When x = 3, we have

u2 = 16 − 5 (3) = 1

Notice that the limit is now from 16 to 1, i.e., from right to left. We can keep it as it is or swap it to 1
to 16 and stick a negative sign to the integral. It does not really matter, so we will keep it. Therefore
x2 =3 u2 =1 1
25x u1.5 u0.5
∫ dx = ∫ u0.5 − 16u−0.5 .du = [ − 16 ]
x1 =0 √16 − 5x u1 =16
1.5 0.5 16
1 16
u1.5 u0.5 u1.5 u0.5
=[ − ] −[ − ]
1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5
1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5
(1) (1) (16) (16)
=( − 16 )−( − 16 )
1.5 0.5 1.5 0.5
94 256
= (− ) − (− ) = 54
3 3
x2 =3
25x
∴∫ dx = 54
x1 =0 √16 − 5x

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Alternatively, we can keep the limits in x and change the u back to function of x as follows:
x2 =3 u2
25x u1.5 u0.5
∫ dx = [ − 16 ]
x1 =0 √16 − 5x 1.5 0.5 u
1

1.5 0.5 3
(16 − 5x) (16 − 5x)
=[ − 16 ]
1.5 0.5
0
714 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

1.5 0.5
{16 − 5 (3)} {16 − 5 (3)}
=( − 16 )
1.5 0.5
1.5 0.5
{16 − 5 (0)} {16 − 5 (0)}
−( − 16 )
1.5 0.5
94 256
= (− ) − (− ) = 54
3 3
x2 =3
25x
∴∫ dx = 54
x1 =0 √16 − 5x

𝜋 4
b) ∫0 sin 2x (1 − cos x) dx
Solution
Step 1: We first need to simplify the integral expression.

4 4
sin 2x(1 − cos x) = 2 sin x cos x (1 − cos x)

Step 2: Now let’s start with indefinite integral

4
∫ 2 sin x cos x (1 − cos x) dx

du 1
Using the substitution method, we have u = 1 − cos x, then = sin x. Thus, dx = .du. Also,
dx sin x
cos x = 1 − u. Now, let’s substitute as:

4 4
∫ sin 2x(1 − cos x) dx = ∫ 2 sin x cos x(1 − cos x) dx

4
= 2 ∫ sin x cos x(1 − cos x) dx

1
= 2 ∫ sin x (1 − u) u4 du
sin x

= 2 ∫ (1 − u) u4 du = 2 ∫ u4 − u5 du

Step 3: Change of limits

We need to change the limits from x to u as:

● when x = 0, we have

u1 = 1 − cos x = 1 − cos 0 = 1 − 1 = 0

● when x = 𝜋, we have

u2 = 1 − cos x = 1 − cos 𝜋 = 1 + 1 = 2
Advanced Integration I 715

Step 4: Let’s bring in the definite integral now, thus

x2 =𝜋 x2 =𝜋
4
∫ sin 2x (1 − cos x) dx = 2∫ u4 − u5 du
x1 =0 x1 =0
u2 =2 2
u5 u6
= 2∫ u4 − u5 du = 2 [ − ]
u1 =0
5 6 0
2 0
u5 u6 u5 u6
= 2[ − ] − 2[ − ]
5 6 5 6
25 26 05 06
= 2( − ) − 2( − )
5 6 5 6
64 128
= 2 (− ) − 2 (0) = −
15 15
x2 =𝝅
4 128
∴∫ sin 2x (1 − cos x) dx = −
x1 =0
15

17.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

n
1) The rule of integrating a function that takes the form of (ax + b) is:

n 1 n+1
y = ∫ (ax + b) dx = (ax + b) +C
a (n + 1)

where n is any real number excluding −1.

2) The linear function rule is used when integrating a function of a linear function, such
that the inner function is a linear expression of the form ax + b, where a and b are real
numbers and a ≠ 0. In general, the function is of the form f ′ (ax + b). If b ≠ 0, then
we have f ′ (ax + b). We can state that:

1
∫ f ′ (ax + b) dx = f (ax + b) + C
a

and if b = 0, we have

1
∫ f ′ (ax) dx = f (ax) + C
a

3) When the dividend (or numerator) of a rational function is a derivative of the divisor
(or denominator) then the integral is given by:

f ′ (x)
y=∫ dx = ln | f (x)| + C
f (x)
716 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

4) The rule to integrate a product of two functions ∫ [f ′ (x)] . [f (x)] dx and

n
∫ [f ′ (x)] .[f (x)] dx is given by:

n 1 n+1
y = ∫ [f ′ (x)] [f (x)] dx = [f (x)] +C
n+1

where n is any real number. If n = 1, we have a modified version as:

1 2
y = ∫ f ′ (x) f (x) dx = [f (x)] + C
2

du
5) The rule to integrate a function of the form ∫ [ ] . [f ′ (u)] dx is given by:
dx

du
y = ∫[ ] [ f ′ (u)] dx = f (u) + C
dx

f(x)
6) An expression of the form can be split into partial fractions, such that the denomi-
g(x)
nator of each of the resulting fractions is a linear function. Once split, we can apply the
1 1
integral standards for rational expressions (i.e., and ) to solve the problem.
x ax+b

7) The technique called ‘integration by substitution’ is used to integrate complicated or

quasi-complicated, which are not members of the known families, and it seems to be
more ‘universal’.

****

17.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 18 Advanced Integration II
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Apply parametric integration

● Apply the technique of integration by parts to solve the product of
two functions
● Use trigonometrical identities to solve complex integrals

18.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we will continue our discussion on the integration of complicated functions, covering
parametric integration, integration by parts, and integration of trigonometric functions.

18.2 PARAMETRIC INTEGRATION

Previously, we covered parametric differentiation, where a function y = f (x) is defined parametri-
cally using a third independent variable called a parameter, t for example. As a result, y = f (x) is
given in two parametric equations y = f (t) and x = f (t). When we need to integrate a function that is
defined parametrically, we will apply parametric integration, which is based on a chain rule similar
to parametric differentiation. Like integration by substitution, it also requires changing the limits,
and in addition, differentiating one of the parametric equations.
In short, we can say that if y = f (x) is defined parametrically by y = f (t) and x = f (t), the indefinite
integration is given by

dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y dt (18.1)
dt

and the definite integral is

x2 t2
dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y dt (18.2)
x1 t1 dt

Notice how we changed dx to dt, as it is not possible to integrate y = f (t) wrt x. Also, we changed
the limits from x1 and x2 to t1 and t2 , respectively, in definite integral.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-18 717
718 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s go for an example involving indefinite integration.

Example 1

2
A curve is defined by the parametric equations x = 5 + cos2 2𝜃 and y = sin 2𝜃. Determine ∫ y dx.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

2
Given that x = 5 + cos2 2𝜃 and y = sin 2𝜃, we have
dx
= (2 cos 2𝜃) × −2 sin 2𝜃 = −4 sin 2𝜃. cos 2𝜃
d𝜃
Thus
dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y d𝜃
d𝜃
2
= ∫ (sin 2𝜃) (−4 sin 2𝜃. cos 2𝜃) d𝜃

3 3
= ∫ −4 cos 2𝜃 sin 2𝜃d𝜃 = −2 ∫ (2 cos 2𝜃) (sin 2𝜃) d𝜃
1 4 1 4
= −2 [ sin 2𝜃 + C] = − sin 2𝜃 + C
4 2
1 4
∴ ∫ y dx = − sin 2𝜽 + C
2

Another example on definite integral.

Example 2

A curve is defined by parametric equations x = 2t (t − 2) and y = 5t + 2, where t > 0. Determine

6
∫0 y dx.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

Given that x = 2t (t − 2) and y = 5t + 2, we have

d d
2t (t − 2) = (2t2 − 4t) = 4t − 4
dt dt
Advanced Integration II 719

Let’s change the limits too:

● For x1 = 0, we have

2t (t − 2) = 0

Therefore

2t = 0 t−2=0
OR
∴t=0 ∴t=2
As t > 0, the valid answer is t = 2

● For x2 = 6, we have

2t (t − 2) = 6
2
2t − 4t − 6 = 0
(2t + 2) (t − 3) = 0

Therefore

2t + 2 = 0 t−3=0
OR
∴ t = −1 ∴t=3
As t > 0, the valid answer is t = 3. Thus
x2 =6 x2 =6 2 t =3
dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y dt = ∫ (5t + 2) (4t − 4) dt
x1 =0 x1 =0
dt t =2 1
3 3
20 3
= ∫ (20t2 − 12t − 8) dt = [ t − 6t2 − 8t ]
2
3 2
3 2
20 20
= [ t3 − 6t2 − 8t] − [ t3 − 6t2 − 8t]
3 3
20 3 2 20 3 2
= ( (3) − 6(3) − 8 (3)) − ( (2) − 6(2) − 8 (2))
3 3
160
= (180 − 54 − 24) − ( − 24 − 16)
3
40 266
= (102) − ( ) =
3 3
x2 =6
266
∴∫ y dx = unit2
x1 =0
3

A final example involving definite integration.

Example 3

7
A curve is defined by the parametric equations x = 3t + 1 and y = t2 + 5. Determine ∫−2 y dx.
720 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Method 1

Given that x = 3t + 1 and y = t2 + 5, we have

dx
=3
dt
Let’s change the limits too:
● For x1 = −2, we have

3t + 1 = −2
3t = −3
∴ t = −1

● For x2 = 7, we have

3t + 1 = 7
3t = 6
∴t=2

Thus
x2 =7 x2 =7
dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y dt
x1 =−2 x1 =−2
dt
t2 =2
=∫ (t2 + 5) (3) dt
t1 =−1
2
=∫ (3t2 + 15) dt
−1
2
= [t3 + 15t ]−1
2 −1
= [t3 + 15t] − [t3 + 15t]
3 3
= {(2) + 15 (2)} − {(−1) + 15 (−1)}
= (8 + 30) − (−1 − 15) = 38 + 16 = 54
x2 =7
∴∫ y dx = 54 unit2
x1 =−2

Method 2
Given that x = 3t + 1, we have

3t = x − 1
1
t = (x − 1)
3
Advanced Integration II 721

Let’s substitute t in the y(t) as:

y = t2 + 5
2 2
1 (x − 1)
= [ (x − 1)] + 5 = +5
3 9
x2 − 2x + 1 x2 2 1
= +5= − x+ +5
9 9 9 9
2
x 2 46
= − x+
9 9 9
Thus
x2 =7 x2 =7
x2 2 46
∫ y dx = ∫ ( − x + ) dx
x1 =−2 x1 =−2
9 9 9
7 7
1 x3 2 x2 46 x3 x2 46
=[ ( )− ( )+ x] =[ − + x]
9 3 9 2 9 −2
27 9 9 −2
7 −2
x3 x2 46 x3 x2 46
=[ − + x] − [ − + x]
27 9 9 27 9 9
3 2 3 2
(7) (7) 46 (−2) (−2) 46
={ − + (7)} − { − + (−2)}
27 9 9 27 9 9
343 49 322 8 4 92
=( − + ) − (− − − )
27 9 9 27 9 9
1162 296
=( ) − (− ) = 54
27 27
x2 =7
∴∫ y dx = 54 unit2
x1 =−2

18.3 INTEGRATION BY PARTS (INTEGRATION OF PRODUCTS)

Integrating a product of two functions seems to be a tough one. Luckily, we have managed to identify
common patterns and chose two lovely rules, namely:

du
1) ∫ [ ] [f′ (u)] dx, and
dx
n
2) ∫ [f′ (x)] .[f (x)] dx.

However, we realise that there are certain products which do not follow these two forms. As a result,
we introduced the method of substitution as a more encompassing and robust approach, particularly
to solve some rather complex products that do not fit the above two descriptions. These methods are
based on the inverse chain rule, but unfortunately, they do not cover all product functions that we
may need to integrate.
722 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Following this, we are here with another method called integration by parts. It is distinctively known
for being based on the inverse product rule and for using both differentiation and integration to solve
a problem. It states that:

dv du
y = ∫ [u] [ ] dx = uv − ∫ [v] [ ] dx (18.3)
dx dx

It is often written in a compact format as:

y = ∫ [u] [v′ ] dx = uv − ∫ [v] [u′ ] dx (18.4)

dv du
where v′ = and u′ = .
dx dx

Proof of this rule is provided in Appendix N.

Before we delve into worked examples, let’s make the following notes to guide us further in our use
of this technique:

Note 1 Identify that there is a product of two functions, explicitly or implicitly expressed, and that
it is impossible to use any of the techniques stated before.
′ dv du
Note 2 One function is taken as u and the other v or . Use these to obtain u′ or and v.
dx dx
Note 3 Substitute the four variables into the RHS expressions ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu dx. ′

Note 4 We do not need to add a constant of integration when writing v.

′
Note 5 It is generally expected that the choice is made such that u and v can, respectively, be
differentiated and integrated to obtain a simpler result.
Note 6 Based on Note 5, it is customarily known that the following priority order for u should be
used: Logarithmic function – Inverse trigonometric function – Algebraic function – Trigono-
metric function – Exponential function. This is collected in LIATE. It should be mentioned
that LIAET is also valid, i.e., either a trigonometric function or an exponential function can
be taken as u first. The order is ln x, inverse trigonometric functions (sin−1 x, cos−1 x, and
tan−1 x), xn , trigonometric functions (sin x, cos x, and tan x), and then ex .
Note 7 Sometimes, a trigonometric function comes before ex in the order list. It’s as though they
are both on the same level of priority, just like multiplication and division in arithmetic
operations.
Note 8 Sometimes the integration by parts will need to be carried out two or more times.
Advanced Integration II 723

It is time to look at some examples.

Example 4

Solve the following:

ln 3x
a) ∫ 3xex dx b) ∫ 6x ln x dx c) ∫ dx
5√x

d) ∫ −12x sin (3x − 1) dx e) ∫ ln x dx f) ∫ 7x (8 − e−2x ) dx

5x−1
g) ∫ x2 ln x3 dx h) ∫ dx i) ∫ 4x cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x) dx
cos2 (3x+7)

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

a) ∫ 3xex dx
Solution
du
Using the priority order, we have u = 3x, then = 3. Similarly, v′ = ex , then v = ∫ ex dx = ex .
dx
Hence,

∫ 3xex dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

= 3xex − ∫ ex .3 dx = 3x ex − ∫ 3ex dx

= 3x ex − 3ex + C

∴ ∫ 3xex dx = 3ex (x − 1) + C

b) ∫ 6x ln x dx
Solution
du 1
Using the priority order, we have u = ln x, then = . Similarly, v′ = 6x, then v = ∫ 6x dx = 3x2 .
dx x
Hence,

∫ 6x ln x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1
= ln x. 3x2 − ∫ 3x2 dx = 3x2 ln x − ∫ 3x dx
x
3
= 3x2 ln x − x2 + C
2
2 1
∴ ∫ 6x ln x dx = 3x (ln x − ) + C
2
724 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ln 3x
c) ∫ dx
5√x
Solution
This does not explicitly look like a product of two functions, but can be modified to appear so:

ln 3x 1 1
∫ dx = ∫ ln 3x. dx = ∫ ln 3x. x−0.5 dx
5√x 5√x 5

du 1 1 −0.5
Using the priority order, we have u = ln 3x, then = . Similarly, v′ = x , then v =
dx x 5
1 1 x0.5 2
∫ x−0.5 dx = ( ) = x0.5 . Hence,
5 5 0.5 5

ln 3x
∫ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
5√x
2 2 1 2 2
= ln 3x. x0.5 − ∫ x0.5 . dx = √x. ln 3x − ∫ x−0.5 dx
5 5 x 5 5
0.5
2 2 x 2 4
= √x. ln 3x − ( )+C= √x. ln 3x − √x + C
5 5 0.5 5 5
ln 3x 2
∴ ∫ dx = √x (ln 3x − 2) + C
5√x 5

d) ∫ −12x sin (3x − 1) dx

Solution
du
Using the priority order, we have u = −12x, then = −12. Similarly, v′ = sin (3x − 1), then
dx
1 1
v = ∫ sin (3x − 1) dx = (− cos (3x − 1)) = − cos (3x − 1). Hence,
3 3

∫ −12x. sin (3x − 1) dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1 1
= −12x {− cos (3x − 1)} − ∫ − cos (3x − 1) (−12) dx
3 3

= 4x cos (3x − 1) − ∫ 4 cos (3x − 1) dx

1
= 4x cos (3x − 1) − 4 ( sin (3x − 1)) + C = 4x cos (3x − 1)
3
4
− sin (3x − 1) + C
3
4
∴ ∫ −12x sin (3x − 1) = 4x cos (3x − 1) − sin (3x − 1) . + C
3

e) ∫ ln x dx
Solution
This does not explicitly look like a product of two functions, but can be modified to appear so:

∫ ln x dx = ∫ 1. ln x dx = ∫ x0 ln x dx
Advanced Integration II 725

du 1
Using the priority order, we have u = ln x, then = . Similarly, v′ = x0 , then v = ∫ x0 dx = x.
dx x
Hence,

∫ ln x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1
= ln x. x − ∫ x. dx = x ln x − ∫ 1 dx
x

= x ln x − ∫ x0 dx = x ln x − x + C

∴ ∫ ln x dx = x ln x − x + C

f) ∫ 7x (8 − e−2x ) dx
Solution
du
Using the priority order, we have u = 7x, then = 7. Similarly, v′ = 8 − e−2x , then v =
dx
e−2x
∫ (8 − e−2x ) dx = 8x − ( ) = 8x + 0.5e−2x . Hence,
−2

du
∫ 7x (8 − e−2x ) dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx

= 7x. (8x + 0.5e−2x ) − ∫ (8x + 0.5e−2x ) .7 dx

= 7x (8x + 0.5e−2x ) − 7 ∫ (8x + 0.5e−2x ) dx

e−2x
= 7x (8x + 0.5e−2x ) − 7 [4x2 + 0.5 ( )] + C
−2
e−2x
= 7x (8x + 0.5e−2x ) − 7 [4x2 − ]+C
4
7
= 56x2 + 3.5x.e−2x − 28x2 + e−2x + C
4
2 −2x 7 −2x
= 28x + 3.5x.e + e +C
4
7 7
∴ ∫ 7x (8 − e−2x ) dx = 28x2 + x.e−2x + e−2x + C
2 4
726 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

g) ∫ x2 ln x3 dx
Solution
du 1 3
Using the priority order, we have u = ln x3 , then = 3x2 × = . Similarly, v′ = x2 , then
dx x3 x
1
v = ∫ x2 dx = x3 . Hence,
3

∫ x2 ln x3 dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1 1 3 1
= ln x3 . x3 − ∫ x3 . dx = x3 . ln x3 − ∫ x2 dx
3 3 x 3
1 3 1 1
= x . ln x3 − x3 + C = x3 (ln x3 − 1) + C
3 3 3
2 3 1 3 3
∴ ∫ x . ln x dx = x (ln x − 1) + C
3

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Alternatively, we can attempt it this way

∫ x2 . ln x3 dx = ∫ x2 . (3 ln x) dx = ∫ 3x2 . ln x dx

du 1
Using the priority order, we have u = ln x, then = . Similarly, v′ = 3x2 , then
dx x
v = ∫ 3x2 dx = x3 . Hence,

∫ 3x2 . ln x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1
= ln x. x3 − ∫ x3 . dx = x3 . ln x − ∫ x2 dx
x
1 1
= x3 . ln x − x3 + C = x3 (3 ln x − 1) + C
3 3
1
∴ ∫ 3x2 . ln x dx = x3 (3 ln x − 1) + C
3

5x−1
h) ∫ dx
cos2 (3x+7)
Solution
This does not explicitly look like a product of two functions, but can be modified to appear so:

5x − 1
∫ dx = ∫ (5x − 1) sec2 (3x + 7) dx
cos2 (3x + 7)
Advanced Integration II 727

du
Using the priority order, we have u = 5x − 1, then = 5. Similarly, v′ = sec2 (3x + 7), then
dx
1
v = ∫ sec2 (3x + 7) dx = tan (3x + 7). Hence,
3

5x − 1
∫ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx
cos2 (3x + 7)
1 1
= (5x − 1) tan (3x + 7) − ∫ tan (3x + 7) .5 dx
3 3
1 5
= (5x − 1) tan (3x + 7) − ∫ tan (3x + 7) dx
3 3
1 5 1
= (5x − 1) tan (3x + 7) − [ ln |sec (3x + 7)|] + C
3 3 3
1 5
= (5x − 1) tan (3x + 7) − ln |sec (3x + 7)| + C
3 9
5x − 1 1 5
∴ ∫ 2
dx = (5x − 1) tan (3x + 7) − ln |sec (3x + 7)| + C
cos (3x + 7) 3 9

i) ∫ 4x cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x) dx

Solution
du
Using the priority order, we have u = 4x, then = 4. Similarly, v′ = cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x),
dx
1
then v = ∫ cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x) dx = − cosec (1 − 2x). Hence,
2

∫ 4x cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x) dx

= uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1 1
= 4x. − cosec (1 − 2x) − ∫ − cosec (1 − 2x) .4 dx
2 2

= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) − ∫ −2 cosec (1 − 2x) dx

= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) + 2 ∫ cosec (1 − 2x) dx

1
= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) + 2 [− ln |cot (1 − 2x) + cosec (1 − 2x)|] + C
2
= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) − ln |cot (1 − 2x) + cosec (1 − 2x)| + C
= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) − ln |cot (1 − 2x) + cosec (1 − 2x)| + C

∴ ∫ 4x cosec (1 − 2x) cot (1 − 2x) dx

= −2x cosec (1 − 2x) − ln |cot (1 − 2x) + cosec (1 − 2x)| + C

728 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Another example to try.

Example 5

The velocity of a particle changes at the rate defined by 4t. ln(2t − 3). Find the general expression
for the velocity of the particle, such that t ≥ 2.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

From the above, we know that

dv
= 4t. ln (2t − 3)
dt
∴ v = ∫ 4t. ln (2t − 3) dt

du 2
Using the priority order, we have u = ln(2t − 3), then = . Similarly, v′ = 4t, then
dt 2t−3
v = ∫ 4t.dt = 2t2 . Hence,

du
∫ 4t. ln (2t − 3) dt = uv − ∫ v dt
dt
2
= ln (2t − 3) . 2t2 − ∫ 2t2 . dt
2t − 3
4t2
= 2t2 ln (2t − 3) − ∫ dt
2t − 3
4t2
To simplify this ∫ dt, we need the integration by partial fractions. Let’s start by decomposing
2t−3
4t2
.
2t−3

2t + 3
2t − 3 4t2
4t2 −6t

6t
6t −9

9
Advanced Integration II 729

Therefore,

4t2 9
∫ dt = ∫ 2t + 3 + dt
2t − 3 2t − 3
1
= ∫ 2t dt + ∫ 3 dt + 9 ∫ dt
2t − 3

Let’s put all this back into where we stopped above as:

4t2
∫ 4t. ln (2t − 3) dt = 2t2 ln (2t − 3) − ∫ dt
2t − 3
1
= 2t2 ln (2t − 3) − ∫ 2t dt − ∫ 3 dt − 9 ∫ dt
2t − 3
9
= 2t2 ln (2t − 3) − t2 − 3t − ln |2t − 3| + C
2
Since t ≥ 2, we may ignore the modulus sign since we are sure that the natural logarithm is positive
at all times.
9
∴ v = ∫ 4t. ln (2t − 3) = 2t2 ln (2t − 3) − t2 − 3t − ln (2t − 3) + C
2

In the above examples, we’ve been able to use the formula ∫ uv′ dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx to solve each
problem. In particular, the second part of the RHS expression (i.e., ∫ vu′ dx) has been reduced to a
single function. As a result, they were solved by simply referring to the table of integrals as/where
applicable. However, there are situations where this is not possible; in other words, ∫ vu′ dx is still a
product of two functions, though this might have been in a simpler form than the original problem
∫ uv′ dx. For this case, we will apply the integration by parts repeatedly – two or more times – until
we have a single function in ∫ vu′ dx. Note that the constant of integration can only be one and should
only be added to the last part of the integration. Let’s try some examples.

Example 6

Using integration by parts repeatedly, solve the following:

2
3x2 −6x
a) ∫ dx b) ∫ x2 sin 4x dx c) ∫ 3 dx
e2x (5−3x)
2
d) ∫ (ln 3x) dx e) ∫ e5x . cos x dx
730 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

3x2
a) ∫ dx
e2x
Solution
Step 1: Let’s arrange this in a product-like form as:

3x2
∫ dx = ∫ 3x2 e−2x dx
e2x
du
Step 2: Using the priority order, we have u = 3x2 , then = 6x. Similarly, v′ = e−2x , then
dx
1
v = ∫ e−2x dx = − e−2x . Hence,
2

∫ 3x2 e−2x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

1 1
= 3x2 (− e−2x ) − ∫ − e−2x .6x dx
2 2
3x2
= − 2x + ∫ 3xe−2x dx
2e
Step 3: In this case, we would apply integration by parts to ∫ 3x.e−2x dx. Although not a requirement,
we will use slightly different notations for this second stage. Again, based on the priority
du1 1
order we have u1 = 3x, then = 3. Similarly, v′1 = e−2x , then v1 = ∫ e−2x dx = − e−2x .
dx 2
Hence,

∫ 3x.e−2x dx = u1 v1 − ∫ v1 u′1 dx

1 1
= 3x. − e−2x − ∫ − e−2x .3 dx
2 2
3x 3
= − 2x + ∫ e−2x dx
2e 2
3x 3 1
= − 2x + ( ) (− e−2x ) + C
2e 2 2
3x 3 −2x
= − 2x − e +C
2e 4
Step 4: It is time to combine them, thus

3x2
∫ 3x2 e−2x dx = − + ∫ 3xe−2x dx
2e2x
3x2 3x 3
= − 2x − 2x − e−2x + C
2e 2e 4
3x2 3x2 3x 3
∴ ∫ 2x dx = − 2x − 2x − e−2x + C
e 2e 2e 4
Advanced Integration II 731

b) ∫ x2 sin 4x dx
Solution
du
Step 1: Using the priority order, we have u = x2 , then = 2x. Similarly, v′ = sin 4x, then
dx
1
v = ∫ sin 4x dx = − cos 4x. Hence,
4

du
∫ x2 sin 4x dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx
1 1
= x2 (− cos 4x) − ∫ − cos 4x.2x dx
4 4
1 1
= − x2 cos 4x + ∫ x cos 4x dx
4 2
1
Step 2: In this case, we would apply integration by parts to ∫ x. cos 4x dx. Again, based on the pri-
2
1 du1 1
ority order we have u1 = x, then = . Similarly, v′1 = cos 4x, then v1 = ∫ cos 4x dx =
2 dx 2
1
sin 4x. Hence,
4

1
∫ x. cos 4x dx = u1 v1 − ∫ v1 u′1 dx
2
1 1 1 1
= x. sin 4x − ∫ sin 4x. dx
2 4 4 2
1 1
= x sin 4x − ∫ sin 4x dx
8 8
1 1 1
= x sin 4x − . − cos 4x + C
8 8 4
1 1
= x sin 4x + cos 4x + C
8 32
Step 3: It is time to combine them, thus

1 1
∫ x2 sin 4x dx = − x2 cos 4x + ∫ x cos 4x dx
4 2
1 1 1
= − x2 cos 4x + x sin 4x + cos 4x + C
4 8 32

1 1 1
∴ ∫ x2 sin 4x dx = − x2 cos 4x + x sin 4x + cos 4x + C
4 8 32

−6x2
c) ∫ 3 dx
(5−3x)
Solution
Step 1: Let’s quickly re-arrange this as:

2
−6x 2 −3
∫ 3
dx = ∫ −6x (5 − 3x) dx
(5 − 3x)
732 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

du −3
Step 2: Using the priority order, we have u = −6x2 , then = −12x. Similarly, v′ = (5 − 3x) ,
dx
−3 1 −2
then v = ∫ (5 − 3x) dx = (5 − 3x) . Hence,
6

2 −3 du
∫ −6x .(5 − 3x) dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx
−2
1 −2 1
= −6x2 . (5 − 3x) − ∫ (5 − 3x) − 12x dx
6 6
−x2 −2
= 2
+ ∫ 2x.(5 − 3x) dx
(5 − 3x)
−2
Step 3: In this case, we would apply integration by parts to ∫ 2x(5 − 3x) dx. Again, based on
du1 −2
the priority order we have u1 = 2x, then = 2. Similarly, v′1 = (5 − 3x) , then
dx
−2 1 −1
v1 = ∫ (5 − 3x) dx = (5 − 3x) . Hence,
3

−2
∫ 2x(5 − 3x) dx = u1 v1 − ∫ v1 u′1 dx

1 −1 1 −1
= 2x. (5 − 3x) − ∫ (5 − 3x) .2 dx
3 3
2x 2 1
= − ∫ dx
3 (5 − 3x) 3 5 − 3x
2x 2 1
= − × − ln |5 − 3x| + C
3 (5 − 3x) 3 3
2x 2
= + ln |5 − 3x| + C
3 (5 − 3x) 9
Step 4: It is time to combine them, thus

2 −3 −x2 −2
∫ −6x (5 − 3x) dx = 2
+ ∫ 2x(5 − 3x) dx
(5 − 3x)
−x2 2x 2
= + + ln |5 − 3x| + C
(5 − 3x)
2 3 (5 − 3x) 9

2 −3 −x2 2x 2
∴ ∫ −6x (5 − 3x) dx = + + ln |5 − 3x| + C
(5 − 3x)
2 3 (5 − 3x) 9

2
d) ∫ (ln 3x) dx
Solution
Step 1: Let’s quickly re-arrange this as:

2
∫ (ln 3x) dx = ∫ ln2 3x dx
Advanced Integration II 733

2 du 1 2
Step 2: Using the priority order, we have u = ln 3x, then = 2 (ln 3x) . = ln 3x. Similarly,
dx x x
′
v = 1, then v = ∫ 1 dx = x. Hence,

2
∫ ln 3x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

2 2
= ln 3x.x − ∫ x. ln 3x dx
x
2
= ln 3x − ∫ 2 ln 3x dx

Step 3: In this case, we would apply integration by parts to ∫ 2 ln 3x dx. Again, based on the priority
du1 1 1
order we have u1 = ln 3x, then = .3 = . Similarly, v′1 = 2, then v1 = ∫ 2 dx = 2x.
dx 3x x
Hence

∫ 2 ln 3x dx = u1 v1 − ∫ v1 u′1 dx

1
= ln 3x. 2x − ∫ 2x. dx
x

= 2x ln 3x − ∫ 2 dx

= 2x ln 3x − 2x + C
= 2x ln 3x − 2x + C

Step 4: It is time to combine them, thus

∫ ln2 3x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

= xln2 3x − ∫ 2 ln 3x dx

= xln2 3x − (2x ln 3x − 2x) + C

∴ ∫ ln2 3x dx = xln2 3x − 2x ln 3x + 2x + C

e) ∫ e5x . cos x dx
Solution
du
Step 1: Using the priority order, we have u = e5x , then = 5e5x . Similarly, v′ = cos x, then
dx
v = ∫ cos x dx = sin x. Hence,

∫ e5x . cos x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

= e5x . sin x − ∫ sin x.5e5x dx

= e5x . sin x − ∫ 5e5x . sin x dx

734 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: In this case, we would apply integration by parts to ∫ 5e5x . sin x dx. Again, based on
du1
the priority order we have u1 = 5e5x , then = 25e5x . Similarly, v′1 = sin x, then
dx
v1 = ∫ sin x dx = − cos x. Hence

∫ 5e5x . sin x dx = u1 v1 − ∫ v1 u′1 dx

= 5e5x . − cos x − ∫ − cos x.25e5x dx

= −5e5x . cos x + ∫ 25e5x . cos x dx

= −5e5x . cos x + 25 ∫ e5x . cos x dx

Step 3: Now the integral is still a product of two functions. Interestingly, it is exactly the question
that we started with. If we were to repeat the method on this, we would end up with the same
answer after two repetitions, and the cycle would continue. This is called a cyclic integra-
tion. Would we give up or what to do? Well, let’s combine them first and take it a step at a
time, thus

∫ e5x . cos x dx = uv − ∫ vu′ dx

= e5x . sin x − ∫ 5e5x . sin x dx

= e5x . sin x − [−5e5x . cos x + 25 ∫ e5x . cos x dx]

= e5x . sin x + 5e5x . cos x − 25 ∫ e5x . cos x dx

Step 4: Now let I = ∫ e5x . cos x dx, therefore

I = e5x . sin x + 5e5x . cos x − 25I

I + 25I = e5x . sin x + 5e5x . cos x
26I = e5x . sin x + 5e5x . cos x
1 5x e5x
I= (e . sin x + 5e5x . cos x) + C = (sin x + 5 cos x) + C
26 26
e5x
∴ ∫ e5x . cos x dx = (sin x + 5 cos x) + C
26

Note
If we swap the priority order between exponential and trigonometric functions by taking u = cos x
and v′ = e5x , the answer will still be the same as above.

In the above examples, you will notice that we’ve kept to power of 2 (i.e., ax2 ) where a ∈ ℝ. If the
power were to be 3, the integration by parts will be carried out thrice, and if the power is 4 then we
may need to use four loops of integration by parts, and so on. In a nutshell, if the power is n, where
n ∈ ℤ+ , the integration by parts will be carried out in n times.
Advanced Integration II 735

We’ve demonstrated integration by parts based on indefinite integrals, the same will be done for
definite integrals. The specific formula for this is given in a compact format as:

b b
b
y = ∫ [u.] . [v′ ] dx = [uv]a − ∫ [v] . [u′ ] dx (18.5)
a a

Let’s try some examples.

Example 7

Determine the exact value of the following:

2 3 6x 𝜋 1
a) ∫1 10x4 . ln 7x dx b) ∫−1 2 dx c) ∫ 𝜋 x (cos x + 2) dx
(x+2) 2 3

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

2
a) ∫1 10x4 . ln 7x dx
Solution
Step 1: Indefinite integral
du 1
Using the priority order, we have u = ln 7x, then = . Similarly, v′ = 10x4 , then v = ∫ 10x4 dx =
dx x
2x5 . Let’s start with the indefinite integral

du
∫ 10x4 . ln 7x dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx
1
= ln 7x. 2x5 − ∫ 2x5 . dx = 2x5 . ln 7x − ∫ 2x4 dx
x
2
= 2x5 . ln 7x − x5 + C
5
Step 2: Definite integral
Thus,
2 2
2
∫ 10x4 . ln 7x dx = [2x5 . ln 7x − x5 ]
1
5 1
2 1
2 2
= [2x5 . ln 7x − x5 ] − [2x5 . ln 7x − x5 ]
5 5
5 2 5 5 2 5
= (2(2) . ln 7 (2) − (2) ) − (2(1) . ln 7 (1) − (1) )
5 5
736 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

64 2 64 2
= (64 ln 14 − ) − (2 ln 7 − ) = 64 ln 14 − 2 ln 7 − +
5 5 5 5
62
= 64 ln 14 − 2 ln 7 −
5
2
62
∴ ∫ 10x4 . ln 7x dx = 64 ln 14 − 2 ln 7 −
1
5

3 6x
b) ∫−1 2 dx
(x+2)
Solution
Step 1: This looks a bit different, but we can apply the technique to it with a bit of modification as:

3 3
6x −2
∫ 2
dx = ∫ 6x(x + 2) dx
−1 (x + 2) −1

Step 2: Indefinite integral

du −2
Using the priority order, we have u = 6x, then = 6. Similarly, v′ = (x + 2) , then v =
dx
−2 −1
∫ (x + 2) dx = −(x + 2) . Let’s start with the indefinite integral

−2 du
∫ 6x(x + 2) dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx
1 1 6x 1
= 6x. − − ∫− .6 dx = (− ) + (6 ∫ dx)
x+2 x+2 x+2 x+2
6x
= (− ) + (6 ln |x + 2|) + C
x+2
Step 3: Definite integral
Thus,
3 3
−2 6x
∫ 6x(x + 2) dx = [6 ln |x + 2| − ]
−1
x + 2 −1
3 −1
6x 6x
= [6 ln |x + 2| − ] − [6 ln |x + 2| − ]
x+2 x+2
6×3 6 × −1
= (6 ln |3 + 2| − ) − (6 ln |−1 + 2| − )
3+2 −1 + 2
18
= (6 ln |5| − ) − (6 ln |1| + 6)
5
18
= 6 ln |5| − −0−6
5
48 8
= 6 ln |5| − = 6 (ln |5| − )
5 5
3
6x 8
∴∫ dx = 6 (ln |5| − )
−1 (x + 2)
2 5
Advanced Integration II 737

ALTERNATIVE METHOD

3 3
−2 3 du
∫ 6x(x + 2) dx = [uv]−1 − [∫ v dx]
−1
dx −1
3
6x 3
= [− ] − [−6 ln |x + 2|]−1
x + 2 −1
3 −1
6x 6x 3 −1
= {[− ] − [− ] } − {[−6 ln |x + 2|] − [−6 ln |x + 2|] }
x+2 x+2
6×3 6 × −1
= {(− ) − (− )} − {(−6 ln |3 + 2|) − (−6 ln |−1 + 2|)}
3+2 −1 + 2
18
= (− − 6) − (−6 ln 5 + 6 ln 1)
5
48
= − + 6 ln 5
5
8
= 6 (ln 5 − )
5
3
6x 8
∴∫ dx = 6 (ln |5| − )
−1 (x + 2)
2 5

b b
The above alternative approach is based on the actual integral ∫a [u.] . [v′ ] dx = [uv]a −
b
∫a [v] . [u′ ] dx, but can be long-winded, as seen in the case above.

𝜋 1
c) ∫ 𝜋 x (cos x + 2) dx
2 3
Solution
Step 1: Indefinite integral
du 1
Using the priority order, we have u = x, then = 1. Similarly, v′ = cos x + 2, then v =
dx 3
1
1 sin x 1
∫ cos x + 2 dx = 1
3
+ 2x = 3 sin x + 2x. Let’s start with the indefinite integral
3 3
3

1 du
∫ x (cos x + 2) dx = uv − ∫ v dx
3 dx
1 1
= x. (3 sin x + 2x) − ∫ (3 sin x + 2x) .1 dx
3 3
1 1
= x (3 sin x + 2x) − ∫ (3 sin x + 2x) dx
3 3
1 1
= x (3 sin x + 2x) − (−9 cos x + x2 ) + C
3 3
1 1
= 3x sin x + 2x2 + 9 cos x − x2 + C
3 3
1 1
= 3x sin x + 9 cos x + x2 + C
3 3
738 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Step 2: Definite integral

Thus,
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
∫ x (cos x + 2) dx = [3x sin x + 9 cos x + x2 ] 𝜋
𝜋 3 3 3
2 2
𝜋
𝜋
1 1 1 1 2
= [3x sin x + 9 cos x + x2 ] − [3x sin x + 9 cos x + x2 ]
3 3 3 3
1 1
= (3 × 𝜋 sin 𝜋 + 9 cos 𝜋 + 𝜋2 )
3 3
𝜋 1 𝜋 1 𝜋 𝜋 2
− (3 × . sin . + 9 cos . + ( ) )
2 3 2 3 2 2
1 1 3𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋2
= (3𝜋 sin 𝜋 + 9 cos 𝜋 + 𝜋2 ) − ( . sin + 9 cos + )
3 3 2 6 6 4
√3 1 3𝜋 1 √3 𝜋2
= (3𝜋 × + 9 × + 𝜋2 ) − ( . + 9 × + )
2 2 2 2 2 4
3𝜋√3 9 3𝜋 9√3 𝜋2
= + + 𝜋2 − − −
2 2 4 2 4
𝜋 2 3𝜋√3 3𝜋 9 9√3
= 𝜋2 − + − + −
4 2 4 2 2
3𝜋 2 2√3 − 1 9
= + 3𝜋 ( ) + (1 − √3)
4 4 2
𝝅
1 3𝝅2 2√3 − 1 9
∴ ∫ x (cos x + 2) dx = + 3𝝅 ( ) + (1 − √3)
𝝅 3 4 4 2
2

18.4 INTEGRATION OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

We have covered various techniques essential for dealing with complex integrals, including those
involving trigonometric functions. However, there are trigonometric functions that cannot be inte-
grated without being modified or simplified, using the trigonometric identities at our disposal. We
will cover this under three headings, but this does not imply in any way that it’s exhaustive.

18.4.1 POWER OF SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS

n
In this section, we will cover sin x and cosn x for 2 ≤ n ≤ 5, as n = 1 (i.e., sin x and cos x) is already
established and well known.
2
CASE 1 n = 2: sin x and cos2 x

For this case, we will need two out of the three variants of the cosine double-angle formula, namely

2 2 1 1
cos 2x = 1 − 2sin x → sin x = − cos 2x
2 2
1 1
2
cos 2x = 2cos x − 1 → 2
cos x = cos 2x +
2 2
Advanced Integration II 739

TABLE 18.1
Standard of Integrals for Powers of Sine and Cosine Functions n = 2

2
sin x cos2 x
2 1 1 1 1
∫ sin x dx = ∫ ( − cos 2x) dx ∫ cos2 x dx = ∫ ( + cos 2x) dx
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= x − sin 2x + C = x + sin 2x + C
2 4 2 4

The integrals for n = 2 are shown in Table 18.1.

3
CASE 2 n = 3: sin x and cos3 x

For this case, we will need the following trigonometric identity and technique:

2
● sin x + cos2 x = 1
n 1 n+1
● ∫ f′ (x) . [f (x)] dx = [f (x)] +C
n+1

The integrals for n = 3 are shown in Table 18.2.

TABLE 18.2
Standard of Integrals for Powers of Sine and Cosine Functions n = 3

3
sin x cos3 x
3
∫ sin x dx = ∫ sin x.sin x dx
2 ∫ cos3 x dx = ∫ cos x.cos2 x dx
2
= ∫ sin x (1 − cos2 x) dx = ∫ cos x (1 − sin x) dx
2
= ∫ (sin x − sin x.cos2 x) dx = ∫ (cos x − cos x sin x) dx
2
= ∫ sin x dx − ∫ sin x.cos2 x dx = ∫ cos x dx − ∫ cos x.sin x dx
2 2
= ∫ sin x dx + ∫ (− sin x) .(cos x) dx = ∫ cos x dx − ∫ (cos x) .(sin x) dx
1 2+1 1 2+1
= − cos x + (cos x) +C = sin x − (sin x) +C
2+1 2+1
1 1 3
= − cos x + cos3 x +C = sin x − sin x + C
3 3
740 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 18.3
Standard of Integrals for Powers of Sine and Cosine Functions n = 4

4
sin x cos4 x
2 2
4 2
∫ sin x dx = ∫ (sin x) dx ∫ cos4 x dx = ∫ (cos2 x) dx
2 2
1 1
1
= ∫ ( − cos 2x) dx
1 = ∫ ( + cos 2x) dx
2 2 2 2
1 1 1
1 1
= ∫ ( − cos 2x + cos2 2x) dx
1 = ∫ ( + cos 2x + cos2 2x) dx
4 2 4 4 2 4
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
= ∫ ( − cos 2x + [ cos 4x + ]) dx
1 1 = ∫ ( + cos 2x + [ + cos 4x]) dx
4 2 4 2 2 4 2 4 2 2
1 1 1 1
1 1
= ∫ ( − cos 2x + cos 4x + ) dx
1 1 = ∫ ( + cos 2x + cos 4x + ) dx
4 2 8 8 4 2 8 8
3 1 1
3 1
= ∫ ( − cos 2x + cos 4x) dx
1 = ∫ ( + cos 2x + cos 4x) dx
8 2 8 8 2 8
3 1 1
3
= x − sin 2x +
1 1
sin 4x + C = x + sin 2x + sin 4x + C
8 4 32 8 4 32

4
CASE 3 n = 4: sin x and cos4 x

For this case, we will use the following cosine double-angle formula:

2 2 1 1
cos 2x = 1 − 2sin x → sin x = − cos 2x
2 2
1 1
cos 2x = 2cos x − 1 2
→ 2
cos x = cos 2x +
2 2
2 2 1 1
cos 4x = 1 − 2sin 2x → sin 2x = − cos 4x
2 2
1 1
cos 4x = 2cos 2x − 1 2
→ 2
cos 2x = cos 4x +
2 2

The integrals for n = 4 are shown in Table 18.3.

5
CASE 4 n = 5: sin x and cos5 x

For this case, we will use the following:

2
● sin x + cos2 x = 1
n 1 n+1
● ∫ f′ (x) . [f (x)] dx = [f (x)] +C
n+1

The integrals for n = 5 are shown in Table 18.4.

What has been covered are not stand-alone formulas, but approaches to solve powers of common
trigonometric functions up to power 5, which can still be applied to powers above 5.
Advanced Integration II 741

TABLE 18.4
Standard of Integrals for Powers of Sine and Cosine Functions n = 5

5
sin x cos5 x
5 4
∫ sin x dx = ∫ sin x. sin x dx ∫ cos5 x dx = ∫ cos4 x. cos x dx
2 2
2
= ∫ (sin x) . sin x dx = ∫ (cos2 x) . cos x dx
2 2
2
= ∫ (1 − cos2 x) . sin x dx = ∫ (1 − sin x) . cos x dx
2 4
= ∫ (1 − 2cos2 x + cos4 x) . sin x dx = ∫ (1 − 2sin x + sin x) . cos x dx
2 4
= ∫ (sin x − 2cos2 x. sin x + cos4 x. sin x) dx = ∫ (cos x − 2sin x. cos x + sin x. cos x) dx
2
= ∫ sin x dx − 2 ∫ cos2 x. sin x dx = ∫ cos x dx − 2 ∫ sin x. cos x dx
+ ∫ cos4 x. sin x dx 4
+ ∫ sin x. cos x dx
2 2
= ∫ sin x dx + 2 ∫ − sin x(cos x) dx = ∫ cos x dx − 2 ∫ cos x.(sin x) dx
4 4
− ∫ − sin x(cos x) dx + ∫ cos x.(sin x) dx
1 1
= − cos x + 2 [ cos3 x] − [ cos5 x] 1
= sin x − 2 [ sin x] + [ sin x]
3 1 5
3 5 3 5
2 1
= − cos x + cos3 x − cos5 x + C 2 3
= sin x − sin x + sin x + C
1 5
3 5 3 5

18.4.2 PRODUCT OF SINE AND COSINE FUNCTIONS

To integrate a function of a product of sine and cosine functions, we will use the following identities:

1 1
2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x − y) OR sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x − y)
2 2
1 1
2 cos x sin y = sin (x + y) − sin (x − y) OR cos x sin y = sin (x + y) − sin (x − y)
2 2
1 1
2 cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x − y) OR cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x − y)
2 2
1 1
2 sin x sin y = cos (x − y) − cos (x + y) OR sin x sin y = cos (x − y) − cos (x + y)
2 2

The product can be in one of the three following cases:

1) a product of sine and cosine

2) a product of sine and another sine
3) a product of cosine and another cosine

When the multiplier and multiplicand are the same function (sine or cosine), such as in 2 and 3,
the argument must be different; otherwise, it will be a power case. To illustrate, sin 3x. sin 6x and
cos x. cos 5x are examples of cases 2 and 3, respectively with arguments 3x, 6x, x, and 5x. However,
cos 2x. cos 2x is not to be treated as an example of case 3, as the argument is the same, i.e., 2x, and
the product can be written as cos2 2x.
742 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

18.4.3 OTHER TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

This category includes all trigonometric functions that require special substitutions, including sine
and cosine functions too. It can be powers of the functions, such as tan2 x, product of functions, and
addition of a function with a numerical constant, such as 1 + cosec2 x. It could also come as a ratio-
nal function. We have come across some of these cases when we discussed various techniques in
this chapter or even the chapter before this. It is brought here to give it its due relevance as a fam-
ily of integrable functions and emphasise the need to employ substitution of relevant trigonometric
identities.
That’s all for the family of trigonometric functions. Let’s try some examples.

Example 8

Solve the following:

cos2 x 2
a) ∫ 2 dx b) ∫ (1 + cos x) dx c) ∫ sin 2x. cos 2x dx
sin x
2
d) ∫ sin x. cos2 x dx e) ∫ sin 4x. sin 6x dx f) ∫ cos x. cos 5x dx

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

Hint

In this section and, obviously, the subsequent ones, we need to recall and apply the trigonometric
identities.

cos2 x
a) ∫ 2 dx
sin x
Solution
cos2 x
∫ 2
dx = ∫ cot2 x dx
sin x
= ∫ cosec2 x − 1 dx

Because cot2 x + 1 = cosec2 x, thus we have

cos2 x
∫ 2
dx = ∫ cosec2 x − 1 dx
sin x
= − cot x − x + C
2
cos x
∴ ∫ 2
dx = −x − cot x + C
sin x
Advanced Integration II 743

2
b) ∫ (1 + cos x) dx
Solution
2
∫ (1 + cos x) dx = ∫ (1 + 2 cos x + cos2 x) dx

1 1
= ∫ (1 + 2 cos x + cos 2x + ) dx
2 2
3 1
= ∫ ( + 2 cos x + cos 2x) dx
2 2
1 1
Because cos 2x = 2cos2 x − 1 which implies that cos2 x = cos 2x + . Thus, we have
2 2

2 3 1
∫ (1 + cos x) dx = ∫ ( + 2 cos x + cos 2x) dx
2 2
3 1
= x + 2 sin x + sin 2x + C
2 4
2 3 1
∴ ∫ (1 + cos x) dx = x + 2 sin x + sin 2x + C
2 4

c) ∫ sin 2x. cos 2x dx

Solution
1
∫ sin 2x. cos 2x dx = ∫ sin (2x + 2x) + sin (2x − 2x) dx
2
1
= ∫ sin 4x dx
2

Because 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) + sin (x − y), thus we have

1
∫ sin 2x. cos 2x dx = ∫ sin 4x dx
2
1 1
= [− cos 4x] + C
2 4
1
∴ ∫ sin 2x. cos 2x dx = − cos 4x + C
8

Note
In this question, we could have used 2 sin x cos y = sin (x + y) − sin (x − y) to suggest that cosine
function is greater than the sine part. However, it will be irrelevant, as the second part of the identity
will always give zero since the argument is the same for both sine and cosine in this question, i.e. 2x.
Take this a general rule for when the argument is the same for both.
744 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
d) ∫ sin x. cos2 x dx
Solution
2 2 2
∫ sin x. cos2 x dx = ∫ sin x. (1 − sin x) dx

2 4
= ∫ sin x − sin x dx

1 1 3 1 1
= ∫[ − cos 2x] − [ − cos 2x + cos 4x] dx
2 2 8 2 8
1 1
= ∫( − cos 4x) dx
8 8
2 2 1 1
Because cos 2x = 1 − 2sin x, which implies that sin x = − cos 2x, and we’ve demonstrated this
2 2
2 4
for sin x and sin x on pages 739 and 740. Hence, we have

2 1 1
∫ sin x. cos2 x dx = ∫ ( − cos 4x) dx
8 8
1 1
= x− sin 4x + C
8 32
2 1 1
∴ ∫ sin x. cos2 x dx = x− sin 4x + C
8 32
Note
2
In this example, we could have substituted for sin x and the result will still be the same. Give it a
try.

e) ∫ sin 4x. sin 6x dx

Solution
1 1
∫ sin 4x. sin 6x dx = ∫ cos (6x − 4x) − cos (4x + 6x) dx
2 2
1 1
= ∫ cos 2x − cos 10x dx
2 2
1 1
Because sin x sin y = cos (x − y) − cos (x + y), thus we have
2 2

1
∫ sin 4x. sin 6x dx =
∫ cos 2x − cos 10x dx
2
1 1 1
= [ sin 2x − sin 10x] + C
2 2 10
1 1
∴ ∫ sin 4x. sin 6x dx = sin 2x − sin 10x + C
4 20

f) ∫ cos x. cos 5x dx
Solution
1 1
∫ cos x. cos 5x dx = ∫ cos (x + 5x) + cos (5x − x) dx
2 2
1 1
= ∫ cos 6x + cos 4x dx
2 2
Advanced Integration II 745

1 1
Because cos x cos y = cos (x + y) + cos (x − y), thus we have
2 2

1
∫ cos x. cos 5x dx = ∫ cos 6x + cos 4x dx
2
1 1 1
= [ sin 6x + sin 4x] + C
2 6 4
1 1
∴ ∫ cos x. cos 5x dx = sin 6x + sin 4x + C
12 8
Note
1 1 1
In this example, we could have used cos (x − 5x) = cos (−4x), but this is the same as cos (4x)
2 2 2
due to the symmetry of the cosine function about the y-axis.

Let’s try another set of examples.

Example 9

Solve the following:

4 sin 2x 2 2
a) ∫ dx b) ∫ (tan x − cot x) dx c) ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx
1−cos2 x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

4 sin 2x
a) ∫ dx
1−cos2 x
Solution
4 sin 2x 4 sin 2x
∫ 2
dx = ∫ 2
dx
1 − cos x sin x
4 sin 2x
=∫ dx
1 1
− cos 2x
2 2

2 2 1 1
Because cos 2x = 1 − 2sin x which implies that sin x = − cos 2x. Notice here that
2 2
d 1 1 f′ (x)
( − cos 2x) = sin 2x. Here we will use ∫ dx, thus we have
dx 2 2 f(x)

4 sin 2x sin 2x
∫ dx = 4 ∫ dx
1 − cos2 x 1 1
− cos 2x
2 2
1 1 2
= 4 [ln ( − cos 2x)] + C = 4 [ln (sin x)]
2 2
4 sin 2x
∴ ∫ dx = 4 [ln (sin2 x)] + C
1 − cos2 x
746 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

2
b) ∫ (tan x − cot x) dx
Solution
2
∫ (tan x − cot x) dx = ∫ (tan2 x − 2 tan x cot x + cot2 x) dx

= ∫ (tan2 x − 2 + cot2 x) dx

= ∫ [(tan2 x) − 2 + (cot2 x)] dx

= ∫ [(sec2 x − 1) − 2 + (cosec2 x − 1)] dx

Because tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x and cot2 x + 1 = cosec2 x , thus we have

2
∫ (tan x − cot x) dx = ∫ (sec2 x + cosec2 x − 4) dx

= tan x − cot x − 4x + C
2
∴ ∫ (tan x − cot x) dx = tan x − cot x − 4x + C

2
c) ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx
Solution
2 2
∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = ∫ (sin x − 2 sin x cos x + cos2 x) dx

2
= ∫ (sin x + cos2 x − 2 sin x cos x) dx

= ∫ (1 − 2 sin x cos x) dx

= ∫ 1 dx − ∫ 2 sin x cos x dx

At this point, we have two options using:

● ∫ f′ (x) .f (x) dx, or
● 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x
Option 1 ∫ f′ (x) .f (x) dx

2
∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = ∫ 1 dx − ∫ 2 sin x cos x dx

= ∫ 1 dx − 2 ∫ cos x sin x dx
1 2 2
= x − 2 ( sin x) + C = x − sin x + C
2
d
Because (sin x) = cos x, we have
dx

2 2
∴ ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = x − sin x + C
Advanced Integration II 747

Option 2 2 sin x cos x = sin 2x

2
∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = ∫ 1 dx − ∫ 2 sin x cos x dx

= ∫ 1 dx − ∫ sin 2x dx
1 1
= x − (− cos 2x) + C = x + cos 2x + C
2 2
2 1
∴ ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = x + cos 2x + C
2

Note
We can simplify option 2 to obtain a similar answer as option 1 using the fact that cos 2x =
2 1 1 2
1 − 2sin x → cos 2x = − sin x as:
2 2

2 1
∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = x + cos 2x + C
2
1 2
= x + − sin x + C
2
2 1
= x − sin x + ( + C)
2
2 2
∴ ∫ (sin x − cos x) dx = x − sin x + A

Note that we changed the arbitrary constant to A.

Let’s try another set of examples.

Example 10

Use an appropriate substitution to determine the exact value of each of the following:

𝜋/4 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋/3
a) ∫𝜋/6 tan2 (2x − ) dx b) ∫ 𝜋 sin 3x. cos 5x dx c) ∫𝜋/6 sec2 x. cosec2 x dx
3 2
748 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

𝜋/4 𝜋
a) ∫𝜋/6 tan2 (2x − ) dx
3
Solution
Let’s start off by using the identity tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x
𝜋
𝜋 𝜋 4
4 𝜋 ⎡ tan(2x − 3 ) ⎤
∫ sec2 (2x − ) − 1 dx = ⎢ − x⎥
𝜋 3 ⎢ 2 ⎥
6
⎣ ⎦𝜋
6
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 4 𝜋 6
⎡ tan(2x − 3 ) ⎤ ⎡ tan(2x − 3 ) ⎤
=⎢ − x⎥ − ⎢ − x⎥
⎢ 2 ⎥ ⎢ 2 ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
⎛ tan(2 × 4 − 3 ) 𝜋 ⎞ ⎛ tan(2 × 6 − 3 ) 𝜋 ⎞
=⎜ − ⎟−⎜ − ⎟
⎜ 2 4⎟ ⎜ 2 6⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
√3 𝜋 𝜋 √ 3 𝜋 𝜋 1
=( − ) − (0 − ) = − + = (2√3 − 𝜋)
6 4 6 6 4 6 12
𝝅
4 𝝅 1
∴ ∫ tan2 (2x − ) dx = (2√3 − 𝝅)
𝝅 3 12
6

𝜋
b) ∫ 𝜋 sin 3x. cos 5x dx
2
Solution
Let’s start with this
1 1
cos x sin y =
sin (x + y) − sin (x − y)
2 2
1 1
∴ cos 5x. sin 3x = sin 8x − sin 2x
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
1 1
∫ sin 3x. cos 5x dx = ∫ ( sin 8x − sin 2x) dx
𝜋 𝜋 2 2
2 2
𝜋
1 1
= [− cos 8x + cos 2x] 𝜋
16 4
2
𝜋
1 1
= [ cos 2x − cos 8x] 𝜋
4 16
2
Advanced Integration II 749

𝜋
𝜋
1 1 1 1 2
= [ cos 2x − cos 8x] − [ cos 2x − cos 8x]
4 16 4 16
1 1 1 1
= ( cos 2𝜋 − cos 8𝜋) − ( cos 𝜋 − cos 4𝜋)
4 16 4 16
1 1 1 1 1
= ( − ) − (− − ) =
4 16 4 16 2
𝝅
∴ ∫ sin 3x. cos 5x dx = 0.5
𝝅
2

𝜋/3
c) ∫𝜋/6 sec2 x. cosec2 x dx
Solution
In this example, we will use the following identities: tan2 x + 1 = sec2 x and cot2 x + 1 = cosec2 x.
Let’s start:

sec2 x. cosec2 x = (tan2 x + 1) (cot2 x + 1) = tan2 x.cot2 x + tan2 x + cot2 x + 1

= 1 + tan2 x + cot2 x + 1
= tan2 x + cot2 x + 2
= (sec2 x − 1) + (cosec2 x − 1) + 2
= sec2 x + cosec2 x

Therefore
𝜋/3 𝜋/3
2 2
∫ sec x. cosec x dx = ∫ sec2 x + cosec2 x dx
𝜋/6 𝜋/6
𝜋/3 𝜋/3
= [tan x − cot x]𝜋/6 = [tan x − cot x]𝜋/6
𝜋/3 𝜋/6
1 1
= [tan x − ] − [tan x − ]
tan x tan x
1 √3 3
= (√3 − )−( − )
√3 3 √3
2√3 2√3 4√3
=( ) − (− )=
3 3 3
𝝅/3
4√3
∴∫ sec2 x. cosec2 x dx =
𝝅/6
3
750 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

18.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) When we need to integrate a function that is defined parametrically, we will apply para-
metric integration, which is based on the chain rule like parametric differentiation. In
short, we can say that if y = f (x) is defined parametrically by y = f (t) and x = f (t), the
indefinite integration is given by

dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y. dt
dt

and the definite integral is

x2 t2
dx
∫ y dx = ∫ y. dt
x1 t1 dt

Notice how we changed dx to dt as it is not possible to integrate y = f (t) wrt x. Also,

we changed the limits from x1 and x2 to t1 and t2 , respectively, in definite integral.
2) Integration by parts is distinctively known for being based on the inverse product rule
and for using both differentiation and integration to solve a problem. It states that:

dv du
y = ∫ [u.] . [ ] dx = uv − ∫ [v] . [ ] dx
dx dx

It is often written in a compact format as:

y = ∫ [u.] . [v′ ] dx = uv − ∫ [v] . [u′ ] dx

dv du
where v′ = and u′ = .
dx dx

b b
b
y = ∫ [u.] . [v′ ] dx = [uv]a − ∫ [v] . [u′ ] dx
a a

****

18.6 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
 19 Application of Integration
Learning Outcomes

Once you have studied the content of this chapter, you should be able to:

● Estimate the areas covered by a function using numerical methods

● Use the trapezium rule to numerically estimate the value of definite
integrals
● Use Simpson’s rule to numerically estimate the value of definite inte-
grals
● Estimate the error due to numerical integration
● Calculate the volume of revolution, given the Cartesian equation of
the curve
● Calculate the volume of revolution, given the parametric equations
of the curve
● Calculate the absolute and percentage errors in using numerical inte-
gration
● Increase the accuracy of the approximation methods

19.1 INTRODUCTION
Integration is an interesting part of calculus and, of course, comes with its challenges and complex-
ities. In Chapters 17 and 18, we covered some advanced techniques involving integration, which
represent a small fraction of the domain. We are here in this last chapter to go through more
techniques, including numerical integration, mean values, and root mean square values of functions.

19.2 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION

We’ve spent time exploring methods and techniques to integrate complex functions that do not fit any
of our already mentioned standards. We must, however, admit that there exist functions that cannot
be solved using those techniques we covered in Chapters 17 and 18. Equally true is that covering the
remaining techniques, including but not limited to reduction formulas, does not imply that all is done
and dusted (i.e., we can integrate any function). Indeed, there are functions that we cannot integrate
at all. As a result, we need to resort to a technique that we can use to solve any function, known as
numerical integration.
This technique is used to find an area under a curve or between curves within the given limits. It
is usually employed for functions that cannot be integrated. In other words, it is used for definite
integration. The result from this is usually approximate and can be improved to reduce the error.

DOI:10.1201/9781032665122-19 751
752 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

19.2.1 TRAPEZIUM RULE

This is the first of the techniques in numerical integration to be considered here and is one of the most
popular. Before we go into the details of the trapezium (also called trapezoidal) rule, it is relevant to
mention that this method uses trapezium, as is clearly apparent from its name.
Figure 19.1 shows three different orientations of a trapezium (a shape with a pair of parallel lines,
which are connected by two non-parallel lines).
What is shown in Figure 19.1(a) is a mirror of Figure 19.1(b), and these are the two variants that are
relevant in numerical integration.
Recall that the area of a trapezium is given by:

1
A= h (l + l ) (19.1)
2 1 2

where

l1 the length of the first parallel line (also denoted as a)

l2 the length of the second parallel line (also denoted as b)
h the length between the two parallel lines

The orientation shown in Figure 19.1(c) and similarly oriented trapeziums will not be encountered in
this section. This is because the area of interest is the one below the curve, the x-axis, and the vertical
lines representing the limits. On this basis, Figure 19.1(a) will be used for an increasing function or
where a function is increasing, and Figure 19.1(b) for a decreasing function or where a function is
decreasing.
Let’s now consider how this rule works in Figure 19.2. The region R in Figure 19.2(a) is a region
under the curve f (x), the x-axis, and the vertical lines at x1 and x2 . To determine R, we need to evaluate
x
∫x21 f (x) dx. The width, representing the height h in our formula, is given by:

x2 − x1
h=
7
We have divided this by 7 because we require seven strips or trapezia.

1 2
ℎ

ℎ
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 19.1 Three possible orientations of a trapezium illustrated.

Application of Integration 753

The trapezium is slightly

bigger than the area
covered by the curve.

y-axis
y-axis

y-axis
x-axis x-axis
x-axis

(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 19.2 Determining the area of equally spaced strips between the given limits illustrated.

In creating these strips, we need eight vertical lines represented as y0 , y1 , y2 , … , y7 . If A1 is the area
of the first trapezium on the far left, then
1
A1 = h (y0 + y1 )
2
In a similar manner, the area of the second trapezium A2 is
1
A2 = h (y1 + y2 )
2
The same is true for A3 , A4 , A5 , A6 , and A7 . Hence, we have

A = A1 + A2 + ⋯ + A7
1 1 1
= h (y0 + y1 ) + h (y1 + y2 ) + ⋯ + h (y6 + y7 )
2 2 2
1
= h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 ) + y7 ]
2
We can then say that
x2
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 ) + y7 ]
x1
2

Notice that we have used the approximation sign ≈ to show that the answer we obtain numerically
(the RHS) is not exact. In the current case, it’s an overestimate, meaning that it’s more than the actual
value. When we look back at Figure 19.2(c), as we zoom in on the first trapezium, it’s obvious that
the area covered by the trapezium is a bit larger. This is generally the case for when a curve is con-
vex to the x-axis as shown in Figure 19.1(a). Also, it’s worth noting that a middle strip is actually
a rectangular shape, not a trapezium. The greater the curvature, the more the overestimation. This
is because the function g (x) exhibits a vertical symmetry in this region. Therefore, we will use the
trapezium rule for this case except for the middle strip, identified as S2 in Figure 19.3. We will use a
special case of the trapezium formula, which is employed when the lengths of any two parallel lines
are equal, i.e., a = b.
It’s equally possible that the numerical integration results in an underestimate value. This occurs
when the function is concave to the x-axis, as shown in Figure 19.3(a). We will soon show that the
754 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

y-axis

y-axis
S2

x-axis x-axis

(a) (b)

FIGURE 19.3 Trapezium rule: (a) overestimation and (b) underestimation.

accuracy of the estimates is largely dependent on the number of strips taken. The more strips used,
the greater the accuracy of the estimate.
It’s necessary to have a general formula for any number of strips. Let’s say, we need to find the area
under the curve f (x) between points a and b and choose n strips. We express this as:

b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + ... + yn−1 ) + yn ] (19.2)
a
2

b−a
where h = and yi = f (a + ih) , 0 ≤ i ≤ n
n

Let’s make the following notes about the above rule:

Note 1 The number of strips (or intervals) is one less than the number of ordinates (or y values). In
other words, if we choose n strips, there will be n + 1 ordinates.
Note 2 Each strip represents a trapezium.
Note 3 The first and the last ordinates, y0 and yn , are multiplied by one while all other intermediate
ordinates are multiplied by two.
Note 4 If xi is the value of x at a corresponding ordinate y0 , it follows that x0 = a, x1 = a + h,
x2 = a + 2h, …, xn−1 = a + (n − 1) h, xn = b, or xn = a + nh. In other words, to obtain the
x-values, start with the lower limit a and keep adding h each time until you reach x-value
equal to the upper limit b.
Note 5 To know whether the trapezium rule will overestimate or underestimate, plot the function
and see if it is concave or convex to the x-axis in the region of interest. A concave shape
results in an underestimate, while a convex shape implies an overestimate. If, however, it’s
a combination of the two, then we cannot determine this visually.
Application of Integration 755

Do the following to determine the area under a curve using the trapezium rule:

Step 1: Decide on the number of strips, if not already given or stated.

1
Step 2: Determine h using h = (b − a), where a and b are the limits of integration. h is called the
n
height or width of the strip.
Step 3: Set out the x-values in steps of h, starting with the lower limit as: xo = a, x1 = a + h, x2 =
a + 2h, … , xn = b.
Step 4: Determine the ordinates (or y values), by substituting the corresponding x-values in the
original function f (x). In other words, y0 = f (x0 ) , y1 = f (x1 ) , y2 = f (x2 ) , y3 = f (x3 ) , … .
1
Step 5: Substitute these values accordingly in h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + ... + yn−1 ) + yn ].
2

That’s all. Let’s try some examples.

Example 1

R is the region covered by f (x) = e2x − 2x, the x-axis, and the vertical lines at x = −3 and x = 1.
1
a) Evaluate I = ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
1
b) Use the trapezium rule with four strips to estimate the value of ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
1
c) Use the trapezium rule with eight strips to estimate the value of ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
d) Comment on your answers to parts a, b, and c, and state whether this is an overestimate or
underestimate.
Present your answers correct to 2 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 1

1
a) I = ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx
Solution
1 1
2x e2x
I = ∫ [e − 2x] dx = [ − x2 ]
−3
2 −3
1 −3
e2x e2x
=[ − x2 ] − [ − x2 ]
2 2
e2 e−6 2
=( − 12 ) − ( − (−3) )
2 2
e2 1 e2 1
=( − 1) − ( 6 − 9) = − 6 +8
2 2e 2 2e
e8 + 16e6 − 1
= = 11.69
2e6
1
∴I=∫ [e2x − 2x] dx = 11.69 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3
756 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 19.1
Solution to Example 1(b)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
x −3 −2 −1 0 1

f (x) 6.002 4.018 2.135 1.000 5.389

b) Four strips
Solution
n = 4, we have
1 1
h= (1 − (−3)) = (1 + 3) = 1
4 4
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 ) + y4 ]
−3
2
1
≈ [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 ) + y4 ]
2
It will be better to use a table for computing the ordinates. This is shown in Table 19.1.
Notice that we start with a = −3 and add h = 1 each time. Hence
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ [6.002 + 2 (4.018 + 2.135 + 1.000) + 5.389]
−3
2
1
≈ (25.697) ≈ 12.85
2
1
∴∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ 12.85 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3

c) Eight strips
Solution
n = 8, we have
1 1
h= (1 − (−3)) = (1 + 3) = 0.5
8 8
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 + y7 ) + y8 ]
−3
2
1
≈ [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 + y7 ) + y8 ]
4
Using h = 0.5, the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.2.
Application of Integration 757

TABLE 19.2
Solution to Example 1(c)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
x −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1

f (x) 6.002 5.007 4.018 3.050 2.135 1.368 1.000 1.718 5.389

Hence
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ [6.002 + 2 (5.007 + 4.018 + 3.050 + 2.135 + 1.368
−3
4
+1.000 + 1.718) + 5.389]
1
≈ (47.983) ≈ 12.00
4
1
∴∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ 12.00 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3

d) Comments
Solution
● When we doubled the number of strips to 8, the estimate was much better, suggesting a direct
proportionality between accuracy and the number of strips.
● In both cases, there is an overestimation, obvious from the numerical values. We can also see
in Figure 19.4 that it’s convex in the region R between x = −3 and x = 1.
y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 19.4 Solution to Example 1(d).

758 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Let’s try another example.

Example 2

Use the trapezium rule with six ordinates to estimate the following:

2 3 x
a) ∫−2 [5x ] dx b) ∫1 [ ] dx
2x+1

Present your answer correct to 2 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 2

2
a) ∫−2 [5x ] dx
Solution
Six ordinates imply 5 strips, thus n = 5. We also have a = −2 and b = 2. Therefore
1 4
h= (2 − (−2)) = = 0.8
5 5
2
1
∫ [5x ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
−2
2
4
≈ [y + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
10 0
4
Using h = , the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.3.
5
Hence
2
4
∫ [5x ] dx ≈ [0.040 + 2 (0.145 + 0.525 + 1.904 + 6.899) + 25.000]
−2
10
4
≈ (43.986) ≈ 17.60
10
2
∴∫ [5x ] dx ≈ 17.60 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−2

TABLE 19.3
Solution to Example 2(a)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
x −2 −1.2 −0.4 0.4 1.2 2

f (x) 0.040 0.145 0.525 1.904 6.899 25.000

Application of Integration 759

TABLE 19.4
Solution to Example 2(b)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5
x 1 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3

f (x) 0.333 0.368 0.391 0.407 0.419 0.429

3 x
b) ∫1 [ ] dx
2x+1
Solution
Six ordinates imply 5 strips, thus n = 5. We also have a = 1 and b = 3. Therefore
1 2
h= (3 − 1) = = 0.4
5 5

3
x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
1
2x + 1 2
2
≈ [y + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
10 0
2
Using h = , the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.4.
5
Hence
3
x 2
∫ dx ≈ [0.333 + 2 (0.368 + 0.391 + 0.407 + 0.419) + 0.429]
1
2x + 1 10
2
≈ (3.932) ≈ 0.79
10
3
x
∴∫ dx ≈ 0.79 unit2 (2 d.p.)
1
2x +1

19.2.2 SIMPSON’S RULE

This is another approximation technique, which is named after an English mathematician, Thomas
Simpson. Like the trapezium method, Simpson’s rule is also based on dividing the region into equal
strips. Unlike the trapezium rule, however, Simpson’s rule can only be used for an even number of
strips, such as 2, 4, 6, etc., strips.
Simpson’s rule is also called Simpson’s 1/3 rule or Simpson’s first rule. Others are Simpson’s 3/8
rule (or Simpson’s second rule) and Simpson’s third rule. Simpson’s first rule (or simply Simpson’s
rule) is given as:

b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + ⋯ + 2yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn ] (19.3)
a
3
760 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

OR
b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [(y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + … yn−1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + … yn−2 )] (19.4)
a
3

b−a
where h = and yi = f (a + ih) , 0 ≤ i ≤ n
n
Let’s quickly make the following comments about the formula:
Note 1 We can only use an even number of intervals or strips. As a result, there will always be an
odd number of ordinates.
Note 2 The first and last ordinates are multiplied by one.
Note 3 The odd-numbered ordinates are multiplied by 4. If you choose y0 , y1 , y2 , … , yn style, then
the odd ordinates are y1 , y3 , y5 , … , yn−1 .
Note 4 The even-numbered ordinates are multiplied by 2. If you choose y0 , y1 , y2 , … , yn style,
then they are y2 , y4 , y6 , … , yn−2 .
Whilst it is possible to prove the above formula, this is however not our objective here.

As usual, let’s try some examples.

Example 3

R is the region covered by f (x) = e2x − 2x, the x-axis and the vertical lines at x = −3 and x = 1.
1
a) Evaluate I = ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
1
b) Use Simpson’s rule with four strips to estimate the value of ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
1
c) Use Simpson’s rule with eight strips to estimate the value of ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx.
d) Comment on your answers to parts a, b, and c, and whether this is an overestimate or
underestimate.

Present your answers correct to 2 d.p.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 3

Hint

Note that we have solved this using the trapezium method (see Example 1).
Application of Integration 761

1
a) I = ∫−3 [e2x − 2x] dx
Solution
1 1
e2x
I=∫ [e2x − 2x] dx = [ − x2 ]
−3
2 −3
1 −3
e2x e2x
=[ − x2 ] − [ − x2 ]
2 2
e2 e−6 2
=( − 12 ) − ( − (−3) )
2 2
e2 1 e2 1
=( − 1) − ( 6 − 9) = − 6 +8
2 2e 2 2e
e8 + 16e6 − 1
= = 11.69
2e6
1
∴I=∫ [e2x − 2x] dx = 11.69 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3

b) Four strips
Solution
n = 4, we have
1 1
h= (1 − (−3)) = (1 + 3) = 1
4 4
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ h [(y0 + y4 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 ) + 2 (y2 )]
−3
3
1
≈ [(y0 + y4 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 ) + 2 (y2 )]
3
Using h = 1, the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.5.
Hence
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ [(6.002 + 5.389) + 4 (4.018 + 1.000) + 2 (2.135)]
−3
3
1
≈ [(11.391) + (20.072) + (4.270)]
3
1
≈ (35.733) ≈ 11.911
3
1
∴∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ 11.91 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3

TABLE 19.5
Solution to Example 3(b)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
x −3 −2 −1 0 1

f (x) 6.002 4.018 2.135 1.000 5.389

762 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 19.6
Solution to Example 3(c)
y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8
x −3 −2.5 −2 −1.5 −1 −0.5 0 0.5 1
f (x) 6.002 5.007 4.018 3.050 2.135 1.368 1.000 1.718 5.389

c) Eight strips
Solution
n = 8, we have
1 1
h= (1 − (−3)) = (1 + 3) = 0.5
8 8
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ h [(y0 + y8 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 + y7 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + y6 )]
−3
3
1
≈ [(y0 + y8 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 + y7 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + y6 )]
6
Using h = 0.5, the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.6.
Hence
1
1
∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ [(6.002 + 5.389) + 4 (5.007 + 3.050 + 1.368 + 1.718)
−3
6
+2 (4.018 + 2.135 + 1.000)]
1
≈ [(11.391) + (44.572) + (14.306)]
6
1
≈ (70.269) ≈ 11.71
6
1
∴∫ [e2x − 2x] dx ≈ 11.71 unit2 (2 d.p.)
−3

d) Comments
Solution

● When we doubled the number of strips to 8, the estimate was much better, suggesting a direct
proportionality between accuracy and the number of strips.
● In both cases, there is an overestimation. This is however better than what we observed with
the trapezium method for the same function (Table 19.7).
Application of Integration 763

TABLE 19.7
Solution to Example 3(d)

Method n=4 n=8

Exact 11.69 11.69

Trapezium 12.85 12.00

Simpson 11.91 11.71

Let’s try a couple of examples to compare the two methods side by side. Here we go.

Example 4

Use (i) the trapezium rule and (ii) Simpson’s rule, with seven ordinates, to estimate the following:

𝜋/2 𝜋/6
a) ∫0 [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 b) ∫−𝜋/6 [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃

Present your answer in exact form or correct to 4 s.f.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 4

𝜋/2
a) ∫0 [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃
Solution

i) Trapezium rule

Seven ordinates imply 6 strips, thus n = 6. We also have a = 0 and b = 𝜋/2. Therefore
1 𝜋
h= (𝜋/2 − 0) =
6 12
𝜋/2
1
∫ [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 ) + y6 ]
0
2
𝜋
≈ [y + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 ) + y6 ]
24 0
764 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 19.8
Solution to Example 4(a)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6

𝜽 0 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋
/12 /6 /4 /3 /12 /2

√3 √3
f (𝜽) 0 0.5 /2 1 /2 0.5 0

𝜋
Using h = , the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.8.
12
Hence
𝜋/2
𝜋 √ √
∫ [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ [0 + 2 (0.5 + 3/2 + 1 + 3/2 + 0.5) + 0]
0
24
𝜋 𝜋
≈ (4 + 2√3) ≈ (2 + √3) = 0.9770
24 12
𝝅/2
𝝅
∴∫ [sin 2𝜽] d𝜽 ≈ (2 + √3) ≈ 0.9770 unit2 (4 s.f.)
0
12

ii) Simpson’s rule

We will use the same table and h value.

𝜋/2
1
∫ [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ h [(y0 + y6 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 )]
0
3
𝜋
≈ [(y + y6 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 )]
36 0
Hence
𝜋/2
𝜋 √ √
∫ [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ [(0 + 0) + 4 (0.5 + 1 + 0.5) + 2 ( 3/2 + 3/2 )]
0
36
𝜋
≈ [(0) + (8) + (2√3)]
36
𝜋
≈ (8 + 2√3) ≈ 1.000
36
𝝅/2
∴∫ [sin 2𝜽] d𝜽 ≈ 1.000 unit2 (4 s.f.)
0

𝜋/2
The exact value for this integral, correct to 4 s.f., is I = ∫0 [sin 2𝜃] d𝜃 = 1. This implies that
Simpson’s rule is more accurate.
Application of Integration 765

TABLE 19.9
Solution to Example 4(b)

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6

𝜽 −𝜋/6 −𝜋/9 −𝜋/18 0 𝜋

/18
𝜋
/9
𝜋
/6

f (𝜽) 1.3333 1.1325 1.0311 1.0000 1.0311 1.1325 1.3333

1.3333 1.1325 1.0311 1.0000 1.0311 1.1325 1.3333

𝜋/6
b) ∫−𝜋/6 [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃
Solution

i) Trapezium rule

Seven ordinates imply 6 strips, thus n = 6. We also have a = −𝜋/6 and b = 𝜋/6, therefore
1 1 𝜋
h= (𝜋/6 − (−𝜋/6)) = (𝜋/6 + 𝜋/6) =
6 6 18

𝜋/6
1
∫ [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 ) + y6 ]
−𝜋/6
2
𝜋
≈ [y + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 ) + y6 ]
36 0
𝜋
Using h = , the x-values and corresponding ordinates are shown in Table 19.9.
18
Hence
𝜋/6
𝜋
∫ [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.1325 + 1.0311 + 1.0000 + 1.0311 + 1.1325) + 1.3333]
−𝜋/6
36
𝜋
≈ (13.3210) ≈ 1.162
36
𝝅/6
∴∫ [sec2 𝜽] d𝜽 ≈ 1.162 unit2 (4 s.f.)
−𝝅/6

ii) Simpson’s rule

We will use the same table and h value.

𝜋/6
1
∫ [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ h [(y0 + y6 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 )]
−𝜋/6
3
𝜋
≈ [(y + y6 ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + y5 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 )]
54 0
766 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Hence
𝜋/6
𝜋
∫ [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃 ≈ [(1.3333 + 1.3333) + 4 (1.1325 + 1.0000 + 1.1325)
−𝜋/6
54
+2 (1.0311 + 1.0311)]
𝜋
≈ [(2.6666) + (13.06) + (4.1244)]
54
𝜋
≈ (19.851) ≈ 1.155
54
𝝅/6
∴∫ [sec2 𝜽] d𝜽 ≈ 1.155 unit2 (4 s.f.)
−𝝅/6

𝜋/6
The exact value for this integral, correct to 4 s.f., is I = ∫−𝜋/6 [sec2 𝜃] d𝜃 = 1.155. This implies once
again that Simpson’s rule is more accurate.

19.2.3 CALCULATING ERROR

We’ve seen above that the numerical integration provides an estimate of integrals, and is particularly
useful when it’s difficult or impossible to find the exact value of an integral. As a result, we may be
interested in determining the error due to this method, provided we have the information of what the
exact value is. There are four ways to determine this, namely:

1) Absolute Error (AE)

This is used to determine the actual value of deviation, and is given as:

AE = Exact value − Approximate value (19.5)

For this, a positive AE (or AE > 0) implies an underestimate, and a negative value shows an
overestimate.

2) Relative Error (RE)

This is computed using:

RE = |Exact value − Approximate value| (19.6)

Note the use of the modulus | | sign. Hence, the answer will always be positive (or greater than 1),
and it does not matter which of the two is the minuend or subtrahend. In other words, RE is used
when we are simply interested in the difference between the exact and estimate. With this method,
it’s not possible to determine if the process has resulted in an underestimate or an overestimate.

3) Absolute Percentage Error (APE)

This is given by:

Exact value − Approximate value

APE = × 100% (19.7)
Exact value
Application of Integration 767

4) Relative Percentage Error (RPE)

This is given by:

| Exact value − Approximate value |

RPE = | | × 100% (19.8)
| Exact value |

Let’s try some examples.

Example 5

4x
A function f (x) shown in Figure 19.5 is defined by the equation y = . The region J is bounded
x2 +2
by f (x) , the x-axis, and the vertical lines at x = 1 and x = 3.

a) Determine the exact area of J.

b) Use the trapezium rule to estimate the area J when:
i) n = 2
ii) n = 3
iii) n = 4
iv) n = 5
v) n = 10
y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 19.5 Example 5.

768 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

c) Determine the absolute error in each case in (b) and state whether it’s an underestimate or
overestimate. Comment on your results.
d) Determine the relative percentage error in each case of (b) and comment on your results.

Present your answers correct to 4 s.f.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 5

a) Exact area
Solution
For this case, we have a = 1 and b = 3. Thus
3 3
4x 2x
I=∫ [ ] dx = ∫ 2 [ 2 ] dx
1 x +2
2
1 x +2

f ′ (x)
This is a case of ∫ dx, thus
f(x)

3
I = [2 ln (x2 + 2)]1
3 1
= [2 ln (x2 + 2)] − [2 ln (x2 + 2)]
= {2 ln (32 + 2)} − {2 ln (12 + 2)}
11
= (2 ln 11) − (2 ln 3) = 2 ln ( ) = 2.599
3
3
4x
∴I=∫ [ ] dx = 2.599 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 + 2

3 4x
b) Approximation for ∫1 [ ] dx
x2 +2
Solution

i) n = 2

1
h= (3 − 1) = 1
2
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2y1 + y2 ]
1 x2 + 2 2
1
≈ [y0 + 2y1 + y2 ]
2
because h = 1. This is shown in Table 19.10.
Application of Integration 769

TABLE 19.10
Solution to Example 5(b) – Part I

y0 y1 y2
x 1 2 3

f (x) 1.3333 1.3333 1.0909

Hence
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.3333) + 1.0909]
1 x2+2 2
1
≈ (5.0908) ≈ 2.5454
2
3
4x
∴∫ [ ] dx ≈ 2.545 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 + 2
ii) n = 3

1 2
h= (3 − 1) =
3 3
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 ) + y3 ]
1 x2 + 2 2
1
≈ [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 ) + y3 ]
3
2
because h = . This is shown in Table 19.11.
3
Hence
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.3953 + 1.2537) + 1.0909]
1 x2 + 2 3
1
≈ (7.7222) ≈ 2.57407
3
3
4x
∴∫ [ ] dx ≈ 2.574 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 + 2

TABLE 19.11
Solution to Example 5(b) – Part II

y0 y1 y2 y3
x 1 5/3 7/3 3

f (x) 1.3333 1.3953 1.2537 1.0909

770 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 19.12
Solution to Example 5(b) – Part III

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4
x 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

f (x) 1.3333 1.4118 1.3333 1.2121 1.0909

iii) n = 4

1 1
h= (3 − 1) =
4 2
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 ) + y4 ]
1 x2 + 2 2
1
≈ [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 ) + y4 ]
4
1
because h = . This is shown in Table 19.12.
2
Hence
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.4118 + 1.3333 + 1.2121) + 1.0909]
1 x2 + 2 4
1
≈ (10.3386) ≈ 2.58465
4
3
4x
∴∫ [ ] dx ≈ 2.585 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 + 2
iv) n = 5

1 2
h= (3 − 1) =
5 5
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
1 x2 + 2 2
1
≈ [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
5
2
because h = . This is shown in Table 19.13.
5
Hence
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.4141 + 1.3740 + 1.2865 + 1.1872) + 1.0909]
1 x2 +2 5
1
≈ (12.9478) ≈ 2.590
5
3
4x
∴∫ [ ] dx ≈ 2.590 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 +2
Application of Integration 771

TABLE 19.13
Solution to Example 5(b) – Part IV

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5

x 1 7 9 11 13 3
/5 /5 /5 /5

f (x) 1.3333 1.4141 1.3740 1.2865 1.1872 1.0909

TABLE 19.14
Solution to Example 5(b) – Part V

y0 y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y6 y7 y8 y9 y10
x 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3

f (x) 1.3333 1.3953 1.4141 1.4035 1.3740 1.3333 1.2865 1.2371 1.1872 1.1382 1.0909

v) n = 10

1 1
h= (3 − 1) =
10 5
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 + y5 + y6 + y7 + y8 + y9 ) + y10 ]
1 x2 + 2 2
1
≈ [y + 2 (y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 ) + y5 ]
10 0
1
because h = . This is shown in Table 19.14.
5
Hence
3
4x 1
∫ [ ] dx ≈ [1.3333 + 2 (1.3953 + 1.4141 + 1.4035 + 1.3740 + 1.3333
1 x2 + 2 10
+1.2865 + 1.2371 + 1.1872 + 1.1382) + 1.0909]
1
≈ (25.9626) ≈ 2.596
10
3
4x
∴∫ [ ] dx ≈ 2.596 unit2 (4 s.f.)
1 x2 + 2
772 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

TABLE 19.15
Solution to Example 5(c)

n Estimate Value Exact Value Absolute Error Outcome

2 2.545 2.599 0.054 Underestimate

3 2.574 2.599 0.025 Underestimate

4 2.585 2.599 0.014 Underestimate

5 2.590 2.599 0.009 Underestimate

10 2.596 2.599 0.003 Underestimate

c) Absolute Error
Solution
Absolute Error is calculated using the formula below.

AE = Exact value − Approximate value

This has been calculated for each of the different strips and summarised in Table 19.15.

● A general decrease in absolute error as the number of strips increases.

● They are all positive, which implies an underestimate. This agrees with the shape of f (x),
which is concave to the x-axis between x = 1 and x = 3.

d) Relative Percentage Error

Solution
Relative Percentage Error is calculated using the formula below.

| Exact value − Approximate value |

RPE = | | × 100 %
| Exact value |

This has been calculated for each of the different strips and summarised in Table 19.16.

● A general decrease in percentage error as the number of strips increases. The graph in Figure
19.6 shows that this trend will follow an exponential decay, and as n → ∞, error tends to
zero.
● The deviation is less than 3 %, which is quite remarkable.
Application of Integration 773

TABLE 19.16
Solution to Example 5(d)

n Estimate Value Exact Value Relative Percentage Error (%)

2 2.545 2.599 2.078

3 2.574 2.599 0.962

4 2.585 2.599 0.539

5 2.590 2.599 0.346

10 2.596 2.599 0.115

Relave Percentage Error vs Number of Strips

0

0
y-axis

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12

x-axis

FIGURE 19.6 Solution to Example 5(c) – Part II.

19.3 APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION

There are several applications of integration, not only in engineering and science but also in other
sectors of human endeavours. We will only consider a few here.
774 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

19.3.1 AREAS AND VOLUMES

19.3.1.1 Area

Recall that an area covered by a function f (x), the x-axis, and the limits x = a and x = b can be
written as a definite integral:
b
∫ [f (x)] dx
a
We may also note, from our earlier discussion in this chapter, that we can approximate the area by
taking several strips (or trapezia) from the region of interest. Furthermore, we established the fact
that the error can be minimised by increasing the number of strips. Suppose we divide the region in
this case into rectangular strips with equal width of 𝛿x and length y, as shown in Figure 19.7. The
area of each strip will be y dx, and the area of the region under the curve is the sum of the area of the
strips. This can be given as:
x=b
∑ y 𝛿x
x=a

Thus
b x=b
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ ∑ y 𝛿x
a x=a

If 𝛿x is made so small, then the area under the curve is approximately equal to ∑ y 𝛿x. We can
therefore conclude that as 𝛿x → 0
b
∫ [f (x)] dx = lim ∑ y 𝛿x
𝛿x→0
a

The rectangles are slightly

bigger than the area covered
by the curve.
y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 19.7 Summation of the area of the strips under the curve.
Application of Integration 775

y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 19.8 Volume of solid of revolution illustrated.

19.3.1.2 Volumes of Solids of Revolution

Now let’s revisit our discussion on the area above and take a step further. Consider Figure 19.8,
where one single strip (or rectangle) is shown rotated through one revolution (2𝜋 or 360°) about: (i)
the x-axis and (ii) the y-axis. For each strip, a 3D shape is formed that is approximately cylindrical.
There are two instances of interest, namely:

Case 1 When rotated about the x-axis

The volume of each cylinder is Ah, where A is the cross-sectional area and h is the height of the
cylinder. For this case, the radius is y and height is 𝛿x. Hence, the volume V of each strip is

Vstrip = Ah = 𝜋y2 𝛿x

The total volume is

b
∑ 𝜋y2 𝛿x ≈ ∫ 𝜋y2 𝛿x
a

As 𝛿x → 0, we have that
b
lim ∑ 𝜋y2 𝛿x = ∫ 𝜋y2 dx
𝛿x→0
a

The volume of the solid formed when f (x) is rotated through one revolution or 2𝜋 radian about x-axis
within the limits x = a and x = b is given by:
x2 =b x2 =b x2 =b
2 2 2
∫ 𝝅y dx = 𝝅∫ y dx = 𝝅∫ [f (x)] dx (19.9)
x1 =a x1 =a x1 =a
776 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Case 2 When rotated about the y-axis

In the same manner, we can say that the volume of the solid formed when f (x) is rotated through one
revolution or 2𝜋 radian about the y-axis within the limits x = a and x = b is given by:

y2 =b y2 =b y2 =b
2
∫ 𝝅x2 dy = 𝝅∫ x2 dy = 𝝅∫ [f (y)] dy (19.10)
y1 =a y1 =a y1 =a

That’s all. Let’s try some examples.

Example 6

The region C is bounded by the curve f (x), the x-axis, and the ordinates at x1 = a and x2 = b. In
each case, determine the exact value of the following:

i) The area of C.
ii) The volume of the solid of revolution formed by rotating C through 2𝜋 radians about the
x-axis.

a) f (x) = x (x + 2) , [x1 = 1, x2 = 3] b) f (x) = cosec x, [x1 = 𝜋/4 , x2 = 𝜋/3 ]

d) f (x) = 6 sec 2x. tan 2x, [x1 = 0, x2 = 𝜋/6 ]

1
c) f (x) = + √x, [x1 = 1, x2 = 4]
√x

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 6

a) f (x) = x (x + 2) , [x1 = 1, x2 = 3]
Solution

i) Area

3 3 3
x3
I = ∫ x (x + 2) dx = ∫ x2 + 2x dx = [ + x2 ]
1 1
3 1
3 3 3 1
x x 33 13
= [ + x2 ] − [ + x2 ] = ( + 32 ) − ( + 12 )
3 3 3 3
4 50
= (18) − ( ) =
3 3
3
50
∴ I = ∫ x (x + 2) dx = unit2
1
3
Application of Integration 777

ii) Volume (x-axis)

y = x (x + 2) = x2 + 2x

Therefore
2
y2 = (x2 + 2x)
= x4 + 4x3 + 4x2

Now let’s determine the volume.

3 3
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y2 dx = 𝜋∫ (x4 + 4x3 + 4x2 ) dx
1 1
3 3 3 3 3 1
5
x 4x x5 4x x5 4x
= 𝜋[ + x4 + ] = 𝜋 [ + x4 + ] − 𝜋 [ + x4 + ]
5 3 5 3 5 3
1
3 3
35 4 (3) 15 4 (1)
= 𝜋( + 34 + ) − 𝜋 ( + 14 + )
5 3 5 3
828 38 2446
= 𝜋( ) − 𝜋( ) = 𝜋
5 15 15
3
2446
∴ V = 𝝅∫ (x4 + 4x3 + 4x2 ) dx = 𝝅 unit3
1
15

b) f (x) = cosec x, [x1 = 𝜋/4 , x2 = 𝜋/3 ]

Solution

i) Area
𝜋 𝜋
/3
/
I=∫ cosec x dx = − [ln |cotx + cosec x| ]𝜋 3
𝜋 /4
/4
𝜋 𝜋
= −[ln |cotx + cosec x|] /3 + [ln |cotx + cosec x|] /4
𝜋 𝜋
|| 1 1 | /3 | 1 1 | /4
= −[ln | + |] + [ln || + |]
tan x sin x | tan x sin x |
| | | |
⎛ | 1 1 |⎞ ⎛ | 1 1 |⎞
= − ⎜ln | + |⎟ + ⎜ln | + |⎟
⎜ | 𝜋 ) sin (𝜋 ) |⎟ ⎜ | tan (𝜋 ) sin (𝜋 ) |⎟
⎝ | tan ( /3 /3 |⎠ ⎝ | /4 /4 |⎠
| | | |
⎛ | |⎞ ⎛ | |⎞
⎜ | 1 1 |⎟ ⎜ | 1 1 |⎟
= − ⎜ln | + |⎟ + ⎜ln | + |⎟
⎜ | √3 (√3 ) |⎟ ⎜ | 1 (√2 ) |⎟
⎝ | /2 |⎠ ⎝ | /2 |⎠

= − (ln ||√3||) + (ln ||1 + √2||)

𝝅
/3
∴I=∫ cosec x dx = (ln ||1 + √2||) − (ln ||√3||) unit2
𝝅
/4
778 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ii) Volume (x-axis)

y = cosec x

Therefore
2
y2 = (cosec x)
= cosec2 x

Now let’s determine the volume.

𝜋 𝜋
/3 /3
2
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y dx = 𝜋∫ cosec2 x dx
𝜋 𝜋
/4 /4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
/
= 𝜋[−cot x ]𝜋 3 = 𝜋 [−cot x] /3 − 𝜋 [−cot x] /4
/4
𝜋 𝜋
1 /3 1 /4
= 𝜋 [− ] − 𝜋 [− ]
tan x tan x
⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛ 1 ⎞
= 𝜋 ⎜− ⎟⎟ − 𝜋 ⎜⎜− ⎟
⎜ 𝜋 ) 𝜋 )⎟
⎝ tan ( /3 ⎠ ⎝ tan ( /4 ⎠
1 1 1 3 − √3
= 𝜋 (− ) − 𝜋 (− ) = − 𝜋 + 𝜋 = 𝜋( )
√3 1 √3 3
𝝅
/3 3 − √3
∴ V = 𝝅∫ cosec2 x dx = 𝝅 ( ) unit3
𝝅 3
/4

1
c) f (x) = + √x, [x1 = 1, x2 = 4]
√x
Solution

i) Area
4 4 4
1 x0.5 x1.5
I=∫ + √x dx = ∫ x−0.5 + x0.5 dx = [ + ]
1 √x 1
0.5 1.5 1
4 4 1
2 2 2
= [2√x + x1.5 ] = [2√x + x1.5 ] − [2√x + x1.5 ]
3 1 3 3
2 1.5 2 1.5
= (2√4 + (4) ) − (2√1 + (1) )
3 3
16 2 28 8 20
= (4 + ) − (2 + ) = ( ) − ( ) =
3 3 3 3 3
4
1 20
∴I=∫ + √x dx = unit2
1 √x
3

ii) Volume (x-axis)

1
y= + √x = x−0.5 + x0.5
√x
Application of Integration 779

Therefore
2
y2 = (x−0.5 + x0.5 )
2 2
= (x−0.5 ) + 2 (x−0.5 ) (x0.5 ) + (x0.5 )
1
= x−1 + 2 + x = + 2 + x
x
Now let’s determine the volume.
4 4
1
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y2 dx = 𝜋∫ ( + 2 + x) dx
1 1
x
4
1
= 𝜋[ln x + 2x + x2 ]
2 1
4 1
1 1
= 𝜋 [ln x + 2x + x2 ] − 𝜋 [ln x + 2x + x2 ]
2 2
1 2 1 2
= 𝜋 (ln 4 + 2 (4) + (4) ) − 𝜋 (ln 1 + 2 (1) + (1) )
2 2
1 5
= 𝜋 (ln 4 + 8 + 8) − 𝜋 (0 + 2 + ) = 𝜋 (ln 4 + 16) − 𝜋 ( )
2 2
5
= 𝜋 (ln 4 + 16 − ) = 𝜋 (ln 4 + 13.5)
2
4
1
∴ V = 𝝅∫ ( + 2 + x) dx = 𝝅 (ln 4 + 13.5) unit3
1
x

d) f (x) = 6 sec 2x. tan 2x, [x1 = 0, x2 = 𝜋/6 ]

Solution

i) Area
𝜋 𝜋
/6 1 /6
I=∫ 6 sec 2x. tan 2x dx = [6 × sec (2x) ]
0
2 0
𝜋
𝜋 0 3 /6 3
0
= [3 sec (2x)] /6 + [3 sec (2x)] = [ ] −[ ]
cos 2x cos 2x
3 3 ⎛ 3 ⎞ 3
=( )−( )=⎜ ⎟ −( )
⎜ 𝜋 ⎟
cos (2 × 𝜋/6 ) cos (2 × 0) cos /3 ⎠
cos 0
⎝
⎛ 3 ⎞ 3
=⎜ −( )=6−3=3
⎜ 1 ⎟⎟ 1
⎝ /2 ⎠
𝝅
/6
∴I=∫ 6 sec 2x. tan 2x dx = 3 unit2
0
780 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ii) Volume (x-axis)

y = 6 sec 2x. tan 2x

Therefore
2
y2 = (6 sec 2x. tan 2x)
= 36sec2 2x. tan2 2x

Now let’s determine the volume.

𝜋 𝜋
/6 /6
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y2 dx = 𝜋∫ 36sec2 2x. tan2 2x dx
0 0
𝜋
/6
= 18𝜋∫ (2sec2 2x) . tan2 2x dx
0
𝜋 𝜋
1 /6
3
= 18𝜋[ tan 2x ] = 6𝜋[tan3 2x ]0 /6
3 0
𝜋 0
= 6𝜋 [tan3 2x] /6 − 6𝜋 [tan3 2x]
3
= 6𝜋 ((tan (2 × 𝜋/6 )) ) − 6𝜋 ((tan (2 × 0)) )
3

3
= 6𝜋 ((tan (𝜋/3 )) ) − 6𝜋 ((tan (0)) )
3

3
3
= 6𝜋 ((√3) ) − 6𝜋 ((0) ) = 6𝜋 (3√3) = 18𝜋√3
𝝅
/6
∴ V = 𝝅∫ 36sec2 2x.tan2 2x dx = 18𝝅√3 unit3
0

Another example to try.

Example 7

The region R is bounded by a curve with equation y = tan 2𝜃, the x-axis, and the vertical lines at
𝜃 = 0 and 𝜃 = 𝜋/6 .

a) Determine the exact area of R.

b) Determine the exact volume of the solid formed when the region R is rotated through 360°
about the x-axis.
Application of Integration 781

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 7

a) Area
Solution
𝜋 𝜋
/6 1 /6
Area = I = ∫ [tan 2𝜃] d𝜃 = [ ln |sec (2𝜃)| ]
0
2 0
𝜋 0
1 /6 1
= [ ln |sec (2𝜃)|] − [ ln |sec (2𝜃)|]
2 2
1 | 1
= ( ln |sec (2 × 𝜋/6 )||) − ( ln |sec (2 × 0)|)
2 2
| |
1⎛ | 1 |⎞ 1 | 1 | 1 1
= ⎜ln | |⎟ − (ln | |) = (ln |2|) − (ln |1|)
2 ⎜ | 𝜋 |⎟ 2 | cos (0) | 2 2
⎝ | cos ( /3 ) |⎠
= 0.5 ln 2 − 0 = 0.5 ln 2
𝝅
/6
∴ Area = I = ∫ [tan 2𝜽] d𝜽 = 0.5 ln 2 unit2
0

b) Volume (rotation about the x-axis)

Solution
𝜋
6
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y2 d𝜃
0

y = tan 2𝜃 → y2 = tan2 2𝜃, but we have tan2 𝜃 + 1 = sec2 𝜃. Thus

𝜋 𝜋
6 6
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y d𝜃 = Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ [tan2 2𝜃] d𝜃
2
0 0
𝜋 𝜋
6
2 1 6
= 𝜋∫ [sec 2𝜃 − 1] d𝜃 = 𝜋 [ tan 2𝜃 − 𝜃]
0
2 0
𝜋
0
1 6 1
= 𝜋 [ tan 2𝜃 − 𝜃] − 𝜋[ tan 2𝜃 − 𝜃]
2 2
𝜋
⎛ tan(2 × 6 ) 𝜋 ⎞ tan(2 × 0)
= 𝜋⎜ − ⎟ − 𝜋( − 0)
⎜ 2 6⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
𝜋
⎛ tan( 3 ) 𝜋 ⎞ tan(0)
= 𝜋⎜ − ⎟ − 𝜋( − 0)
⎜ 2 6⎟ 2
⎝ ⎠
782 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

√3 𝜋 0 3√3 − 𝜋
= 𝜋( − ) − 𝜋 ( − 0) = 𝜋 ( )
2 6 2 6
𝝅
6 3√3 − 𝝅
∴ Vx−axis = 𝝅∫ [tan2 2𝜽] d𝜽 = 𝝅 ( ) unit3
0
6

Another example to try.

Example 8

Find the exact volume of revolution generated when the area enclosed by y = √3x2 + 1 is rotated
through 360° about the y-axis between the vertical lines x1 = 0 and x2 = 4 and the x-axis.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 8

y2 =b
Vy−axis = 𝜋∫ x2 dy
y1 =a

Let’s change the limits as:

2
● when x1 = 0, y = √3(0) + 1 = 1
2
● when x1 = 4, y = √3(4) + 1 = 7

Also, given that y = √3x2 + 1, we have

y2 = 3x2 + 1
1
x2 = (y2 − 1)
3
Now let’s get to business as:
y2 =b 7
1 2
Vy−axis = 𝜋∫ x2 dy = 𝜋∫ (y − 1) dy
y1 =a 1
3
7 7
1 1 1
= 𝜋∫ (y2 − 1) dy = 𝜋 [ y3 − y]
3 1
3 3 1
7 1
1 1 3 1 1
= 𝜋[ y − y] − 𝜋[ y3 − y]
3 3 3 3
Application of Integration 783

1 1 3 1 1 3
= 𝜋 ( (7) − 7) − 𝜋 ( (1) − 1)
3 3 3 3
1 343 1 1
= 𝜋( − 7) − 𝜋 ( − 1)
3 3 3 3
1 322 1 2 1 322 + 2
= 𝜋( ) − 𝜋 (− ) = 𝜋 ( )
3 3 3 3 3 3
1
= 𝜋 (108) = 36𝜋
3
7
1 2
∴ Vy−axis = 𝝅∫ (y − 1) dy = 36𝝅 unit3
1
3

Sometimes the function can be defined with parametric equations. This is not a problem, just apply
parametric integration as we did in the previous chapter and that’s all. Let’s try an example.

Example 9

A curve K is defined parametrically as x = 2t + 5 and y = t − 3. A region J is bounded by K, the

x-axis, and the vertical lines at x = 1 and x = 3. Find the volume of revolution the solid generated
by rotating J 2𝜋 radians about the x-axis.

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 9

Method 1

Given x = 2t + 5 and y = t − 3, we have

dx
=2
dt
Let’s change the limits too:
For x1 = 1, we have

2t + 5 = 1
2t = −4
∴ t = −2

For x2 = 3, we have

2t + 5 = 3
2t = −2
∴ t = −1
784 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus

y=t−3
2
∴ y2 = (t − 3) = t2 − 6t + 9
x2 =3 t2 =−1
dx
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y2 dx = 𝜋∫ y2 . dt
x1 =1 t1 =−2
dt
t2 =−1
2
= 𝜋∫ (t − 3) × 2 dt
t1 =−2
t2 =−1
= 𝜋∫ 2 (t2 − 6t + 9) dt
t1 =−2
t2 =−1
= 2𝜋∫ (t2 − 6t + 9) dt
t1 =−2
−1
t3
= 2𝜋[ − 3t2 + 9t ]
3 −2
−1 −2
t3 t3
= 2𝜋 [ − 3t2 + 9t] − 2𝜋 [ − 3t2 + 9t]
3 3
3 3
(−1) 2 (−2) 2
= 2𝜋 ( − 3(−1) + 9 (−1)) − 2𝜋 ( − 3(−2) + 9 (−2))
3 3
1 8 37 98
= 2𝜋 (− − 3 − 9) − 2𝜋 (− − 12 − 18) = 2𝜋 (− ) − 2𝜋 (− )
3 3 3 3
37 98 37 98 122
= 2𝜋 (− ) + 2𝜋 ( ) = 2𝜋 (− + ) = 𝜋
3 3 3 3 3
x2 =3
122
∴ V = 𝝅∫ y2 dx = 𝝅 unit3
x1 =1
3

ALTERNATIVE METHOD
Given x = 2t + 5, we have

2t = x − 5
1
t = (x − 5)
2
Let’s substitute t in the y(t) as:

y=t−3
1 x−5 6
= (x − 5) − 3 = −
2 2 2
x − 11 x 11
= = −
2 2 2
Therefore
2
x 11
y2 = ( − )
2 2
x2 11x 121
= − +
4 2 4
Application of Integration 785

Now let’s determine the volume.

x2 =3 x2 =3
2 x2 11x 121
Vx−axis = 𝜋∫ y dx = 𝜋∫ ( − + ) dx
x1 =1 x1 =1
4 2 4
3 2 3
x 11x 121
= 𝜋[ − + x]
12 4 4 1
3 1
x3 11x2 121 x3 11x2 121
= 𝜋[ − + x] − 𝜋 [ − + x]
12 4 4 12 4 4
3 2 3 2
(3) 11(3) 121 (1) 11(1) 121
= 𝜋( − + (3)) − 𝜋 ( − + (1))
12 4 4 12 4 4
27 99 363 1 11 121 273 331
= 𝜋( − + ) − 𝜋( − + ) = 𝜋( ) − 𝜋( )
12 4 4 12 4 4 4 12
273 331 122
= 𝜋( − )= 𝜋
4 12 3
x2 =3
122
∴ ∴ V = 𝝅∫ y2 dx = 𝝅 unit3
x1 =1
3

19.3.2 MEAN VALUES

We’ve studied how to calculate the area under a curve f (x) between two points x1 = a and x2 = b
using definite integration. We’ve equally covered methods to estimate the area of unusual functions
and noted that the ordinates are generally different in values. Now, imagine that we can find one
ordinate (call this ym ) such that
y0 + y1 + y2 + ⋯ + yn
ym =
n+1
where n is the number of strips.
The mean value (commonly called average) of a function f (x) between the interval a and b is there-
fore a value ym such that when it’s multiplied with the interval b − a, it gives the area under the curve
(Figure 19.9).
For the mean value, we have that
b
(b − a) ym = ∫ f (x) dx
a

Therefore,

b
1
ym = ∫ [f (x)] dx (19.11)
b−a a

In other words, the mean value is equal to the area divided by the interval (or the difference in the
limits). That’s everything on this for now.
786 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

FIGURE 19.9 Mean value of a function illustrated.

19.3.3 ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) VALUE

It will soon be shown that the average (or mean) value of a sinusoidal signal (or sine wave) is always
zero when taking over a period of one revolution (or 2𝜋 radian). To circumvent this, an alternative
mean value is used in sectors (e.g., energy, communication) where sine waves are employed. This is
called the root mean square (RMS) value, and is given by

√
√ b
√ 1 2
yRMS = ∫ [f (x)] dx (19.12)
√ b − a a

Essentially, to find RMS perform ‘RMS’ in the reverse order. In other words:

2
● S: square the function [f (x)]
1 b 2
● M: take the mean of the result ∫a [f (x)] dx
b−a

1 b 2
● R: take the (square) root of the result ∫a [f (x)] dx
√ b−a
Application of Integration 787

This brings us to the end of the application that we are set to cover here. Let’s try some examples.

Example 10

In the stated limits or intervals for each of the following functions, find the:
i) mean value, and
ii) root mean square value.

a) y = sin 𝜃, a = 0, b = 𝜋 b) y = cos 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
1
2
c) y = 3x − 5, x1 = 2, x2 = 5 d) v = 40 cos 20𝜋t, 0 ≤ t ≤
40

What did you get? Find the solution below to double-check your answer.

Solution to Example 10

a) y = sin 𝜃, a = 0, b = 𝜋
Solution
i) Mean value
b 𝜋
1 1
ym = ∫ y d𝜃 = ∫ sin 𝜃 d𝜃
b−a a 𝜋−0 0
𝜋 0
1 𝜋 1 1
= [− cos 𝜃 ]0 = [− cos 𝜃] − [− cos 𝜃]
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
1 1
= {(− cos 𝜋) − (− cos 0)} = {(1) − (−1)}
𝜋 𝜋
1 2
= (2) = = 0.6366 (4 s.f.)
𝜋 𝜋
𝝅
1 2
∴ ym = ∫ sin 𝜽 d𝜽 = = 0.6366 (4 s.f.)
𝝅−0 0 𝝅
ii) Root Mean Square value
√
√ b
√ 1
yRMS = ∫ y2 d𝜃
√b − a a
We therefore have
b 𝜋
2 1 1 2
(yRMS ) = ∫ y2 d𝜃 = ∫ sin 𝜃 d𝜃
b−a a 𝜋−0 0
𝜋 𝜋
1 1 1
= ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫ (1 − cos 2𝜃) d𝜃
𝜋 02 2𝜋 0
𝜋 𝜋 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
= [𝜃 − sin 2𝜃 ] = [𝜃 − sin 2𝜃] − [𝜃 − sin 2𝜃]
2𝜋 2 0 2𝜋 2 2𝜋 2
1 1 1 1 1
= {(𝜋 − sin 2𝜋) − (0 − sin 2 × 0)} = {(𝜋 − 0) − (0 − 0)} =
2𝜋 2 2 2𝜋 2
788 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

Thus
1 √2
yRMS = √ = = 0.7071 (4 s.f.)
2 2
√
√ b
√ 1 2 √2
∴ yRMS = ∫ sin 𝜽 d𝜽 = = 0.7071 (4 s.f.)
√ b − a a
2

b) y = cos 𝜃, 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 2𝜋
Solution
i) Mean value
b
1
ym = ∫ y d𝜃
b−a a
2𝜋
1
= ∫ cos 𝜃 d𝜃
2𝜋 − 0 0
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 1 1
= [sin 𝜃 ]0 = [sin 𝜃] − [sin 𝜃]
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋
1 1
= {(sin 2𝜋) − (sin 0)} = {(0) − (0)}
2𝜋 2𝜋
1
= (0) = 0
2𝜋
2𝝅
1
∴ ym = ∫ cos 𝜽 d𝜽 = 0
2𝝅 − 0 0
ii) Root mean square value

√
√ b
√ 1
yRMS = ∫ y2 d𝜃
√b − a a
We therefore have
b 2𝜋
2 1 1
(yRMS ) = ∫ y2 d𝜃 = ∫ cos2 𝜃 d𝜃
b−a a 2𝜋 − 0 0
2𝜋 2𝜋
1 1 1
= ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) d𝜃 = ∫ (1 + cos 2𝜃) d𝜃
2𝜋 0 2 4𝜋 0
2𝜋 2𝜋 0
1 1 1 1 1 1
= [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃 ] = [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃] − [𝜃 + sin 2𝜃]
4𝜋 2 0 4𝜋 2 4𝜋 2
1 1 1
= {(2𝜋 + sin 4𝜋) − (0 + sin 2 × 0)}
4𝜋 2 2
1 1
= {(2𝜋 + 0) − (0 + 0)} =
4𝜋 2
Thus
1 1
yRMS = √ = = 0.7071 (4 s.f.)
2 √2
√
√ b
√ 1 2
∴ yRMS = ∫ sin 𝜽 d𝜽 = 0.7071 (4 s.f.)
√ b − a a
Application of Integration 789

y-axis

x-axis

FIGURE 19.10 Solution to Example 10(b).

Note
1) The mean value is 0.6366 when taken over a half revolution, but zero when taken over a full
cycle. However, the RMS value is the same at 0.7071 for both half a cycle and full cycle.
2) The reason for mean value being zero over a full revolution is illustrated in Figure 19.10. It
is observed that the area in the interval a ≤ 𝜃 ≤ b has three parts: two above the x-axis in the
positive region and one below the x-axis in the negative region. The algebraic sum of the area
is zero, i.e., A1 + A2 + A3 = 0.
3) On this basis, RMS value is preferred over mean value, since it has immunity against the
interval used.

c) y = 3x2 − 5, x1 = 2, x2 = 5
Solution
i) Mean value
b 5
1 1
ym = ∫ y dx = ∫ (3x2 − 5) dx
b−a a 5−2 2
5 2
1 3 5 1 1
= [x − 5x ]2 = [x3 − 5x] − [x3 − 5x]
3 3 3
1 1
= {(53 − 5 × 5) − (23 − 5 × 2)} = {(100) − (−2)}
3 3
1
= (100 + 2) = 34
3
5
1
∴ ym = ∫ (3x2 − 5) dx = 34
5−2 2
790 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

ii) Root mean square value

√
√ b
√ 1
yRMS = ∫ y2 dx
√b − a a
We therefore have
b 5
2 1 1 2
(yRMS ) = ∫ y2 dx = ∫ (3x2 − 5) dx
b−a a 5−2 2
5 5
1 1 9
= ∫ (9x4 − 30x2 + 25) dx = [ x5 − 10x3 + 25x ]
3 2 3 5 2
5 2
1 9 5 1 9
= [ x − 10x3 + 25x] − [ x5 − 10x3 + 25x]
3 5 3 5
1 9 5 3 9 5 3
= {( (5) − 10(5) + 25 (5)) − ( (2) − 10(2) + 25 (2))}
3 5 5
1 288 1 138
= {(5625 − 1250 + 125) − ( − 80 + 50)} = {(4500) − ( )}
3 5 3 5
1 22362 7454
= ( )=
3 5 5
Thus

7454
yRMS = √ = 38.61 (4 s.f.)
5
√
√ 5
√1
∴ yRMS = ∫ (9x4 − 30x2 + 25) dx = 38.61 (4 s.f.)
√3 2

1
d) v = 40 cos 20𝜋t, 0 ≤ t ≤
40
Solution

i) Mean value

b
1
1 1 /40
ym = ∫ y dt = ∫ 40 cos 20𝜋t dt
b−a a 1
−0 0
40
1
/40
= 40∫ 40 cos 20𝜋t dt
0
1 1
/40 1 /40
= 40 × 40∫ cos 20𝜋t dt = 1600[ sin 20𝜋t ]
0
20𝜋 0
1 0
1 /40 1
= 1600 [ sin 20𝜋t] − 1600 [ sin 20𝜋t]
20𝜋 20𝜋
1 1 1
= 1600 {( sin 20𝜋 × ) − ( sin 20𝜋 × 0)}
20𝜋 40 20𝜋
Application of Integration 791

1 1 1 1
= 1600 {( sin 𝜋) − ( sin 0)} = 1600 {( ) − (0)}
20𝜋 2 20𝜋 20𝜋
1600 80
= =
20𝜋 𝜋
1
/40 80
∴ ym = 40∫ 40 cos 20𝝅t dt =
0
𝝅

ii) Root mean square value

√
√ b
√ 1
yRMS = ∫ y2 dt
√b − a a
We therefore have
1 1
1 /40 /40
2 2
(yRMS ) = ∫ y2 dt = 40∫ (40 cos 20𝜋t) dt
1
−0 0 0
40
1 1
/40 /40
2 3
= 40∫ 40 cos2 20𝜋t dt = 40 ∫ cos2 20𝜋t dt
0 0
1 1
1 /40 /40
3 2
= 40 ∫ (1 + cos 40𝜋t) dt = 20 × 40 ∫ (1 + cos 40𝜋t) dt
0
2 0
1
1 /40
2
= 20 × 40 [t + sin 40𝜋t ]
40𝜋 0
1 0
1 /40 1
2 2
= 20 × 40 [t + sin 40𝜋t] − 20 × 40 [t + sin 40𝜋t]
40𝜋 40𝜋
2 1 1 1 1
= 20 × 40 {( + sin 40𝜋 × ) − (0 + sin 40𝜋 × 0)}
40 40𝜋 40 40𝜋
2 1 2 1
= 20 × 40 {( + 0) − (0 + 0)} = 20 × 40 ( ) = 20 × 40 = 800
40 40
Thus

yRMS = √800 = 20√2 = 28.28 (4 s.f.)

√
√ 1
√
√ /40
2
∴ yRMS = 40∫ (40 cos 20𝝅t) dt = 20√2 = 28.28 (4 s.f.)
√ 0
792 Advanced Mathematics for Engineers and Scientists with Worked Examples

19.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY

1) There are functions that we cannot integrate at all. As a result, we need to resort to a
technique that we can use to solve any function, and this is known as numerical inte-
gration. This technique is used to find an area under a curve or between curves within
a given limit, usually employed for functions that cannot be integrated. In other words,
it’s used for complex integration. The result from this is usually approximate and can
be improved to reduce the error.
2) The area of a trapezium is given by:

1
A= h (l + l )
2 1 2
3) The trapezium rule is given by:

b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [y0 + 2 (y1 + y2 + ... + yn−1 ) + yn ]
a
2

b−a
where h = and yi = f (a + ih) , 0 ≤ i ≤ n
n
4) Simpson’s rule is another approximation technique, which is named after an English
mathematician, Thomas Simpson. Like the trapezium method, this rule is also based
on dividing the region into equal strips. Unlike the trapezium rule, however, Simpson’s
rule can only be used for an even number of strips, such as 2, 4, 6, etc., strips.
5) Simpson’s rule is given by:

b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [y0 + 4y1 + 2y2 + 4y3 + 2y4 + ⋯ + 2yn−2 + 4yn−1 + yn ]
a
3

OR
b
1
∫ [f (x)] dx ≈ h [(y0 + yn ) + 4 (y1 + y3 + … yn−1 ) + 2 (y2 + y4 + … yn−2 )]
a
3

b−a
where h = and yi = f (a + ih) , 0 ≤ i ≤ n.
n
6) There are four ways to determine the error due to trapezium and Simpson’s rules:
● Absolute Error (AE): This is used to determine the actual value of deviation and
is given as:

AE = Exact value − Approximate value

For this, a positive AE (or AE > 0) implies an underestimate, and a negative

value shows an overestimate.
● Relative Error (RE): This is computed using

RE = |Exact value − Approximate value|

Application of Integration 793

Note the use of the modulus | | sign. Hence, the answer will always be positive
(or greater than 1), and it does not matter which of the two is the minuend or
subtrahend.
● Absolute Percentage Error (APE): This is given by

Exact value − Approximate value

APE = × 100 %
Exact value

● Relative Percentage Error (RPE): This is given by

| Exact value − Approximate value |

RPE = | | × 100 %
| Exact value |

7) The mean value of a function is given by:

b
1
ym = ∫ [f (x)] dx
b−a a

8) The root mean square (RMS) value is given by

√
√ b
√ 1 2
yRMS = ∫ [f (x)] dx
√ b − a a

****

19.5 FURTHER PRACTICE

To access complementary contents, including additional exercises, please go to www.dszak.com.
Appendix
(A) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF ex
We will use the infinite series expansion of ex

x x2 x3 x4 x5
ex = 1 + + + + + +…
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
Method 1

y = ex

Using the above-stated expansion

x x2 x3 x4 x5
y=1+ + + + + +…
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
We can find the derivative of the sum of the powers as

dy x x2 x3 x4 x5
=0+1+ + + + + +…
dx 1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
x x2 x3 x4 x5
=1+ + + + + +…
1! 2! 3! 4! 5!
After simplifying the expression, we will notice that we obtained the original expression. We can
therefore say that

dy
= ex
dx

Method 2

y = ex

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= ex+𝛿x = ex × e𝛿x

Therefore,

𝛿y = [ex × e𝛿x ] − [ex ]

= ex (e𝛿x − 1)

Now we can evaluate the slope as

𝛿y ex (e𝛿x − 1)
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x

795
796 Appendix

Thus, the derivative is

dy 𝛿y ex (e𝛿x − 1)
= lim ( ) = lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
(e𝛿x − 1)
= ex . lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x

It can be proved numerically that

(e𝛿x − 1)
lim ( )=1
𝛿x→0 𝛿x

where e = 2.718 … (3 d.p.)

d x
∴ [e ] = ex
dx

(B) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF sin x

We will use two known facts for angles measured in radians:

sin 𝛿x ≈ 𝛿x or sin x ≈ x

provided the x is infinitesimal. This can also be stated as

lim (sin x) = x
x→0

Similarly,

lim (cos x) = 1
x→0

Following on from the above, we have that

sin x
lim ( )=1
x→0 x

Method 1

y = sin x

Similarly,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= sin (x + 𝛿x)

Applying the addition formula, we will have

= sin x cos 𝛿x + sin 𝛿x cos x

Therefore,

𝛿y = [sin x cos 𝛿x + sin 𝛿x cos x] − [sin x]

Appendix 797

Now we can evaluate the slope as

𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
sin x cos 𝛿x + sin 𝛿x cos x − sin x
≈
𝛿x
Thus, the derivative is
dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
sin x cos 𝛿x + sin 𝛿x cos x − sin x
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
Using the facts stated above, we have
sin x × 1 + 𝛿x × cos x − sin x
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
𝛿x × cos x
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
dy
∴ = cos x
dx

Method 2

y = sin x

Similarly,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= sin (x + 𝛿x)

Therefore,

𝛿y = sin (x + 𝛿x) − sin x

Applying the product formula to the RHS, we will have

(x + 𝛿x) − (x) (x + 𝛿x) + (x)
𝛿y = 2 sin [ ] cos [ ]
2 2
𝛿x 2x + 𝛿x
= 2 sin [ ] cos [ ]
2 2
𝛿x 𝛿x
= 2 sin [ ] cos [x + ]
2 2
Now we can evaluate the slope as
𝛿x 𝛿x
2 sin [ ] cos [x + ]
𝛿y 2 2
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
𝛿x
⎡ sin ( 2 )⎤
≈⎢ ⎥ [cos (x + 𝛿x )]
⎢ 𝛿x ⎥ 2
⎣ 2 ⎦
798 Appendix

Using the stated fact, the derivative is

𝛿x
⎡ sin ( 2
)⎤
= lim ⎢ ⎥ [cos (x + 𝛿x )]
𝛿x→0 ⎢ 𝛿x ⎥ 2
⎣ 2 ⎦
0
= lim [1] [cos (x + )] = lim [1] [cos (x)]
𝛿x→0 2 𝛿x→0
dy
∴ = cos x
dx

(C) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF cos x

We will use two known facts for angles measured in radians:

sin 𝛿x ≈ 𝛿x or sin x ≈ x

provided x is infinitesimal. This can also be stated as

lim (sin x) = x
x→0

Similarly,

lim (cos x) = 1
x→0

Method 1

y = cos x

Similarly

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= cos (x + 𝛿x)

Applying the addition formula, we will have

= cos x cos 𝛿x − sin x sin 𝛿x

Therefore,

𝛿y = [cos x cos 𝛿x − sin x sin 𝛿x] − [cos x]

Now we can evaluate the slope as

𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
cos x cos 𝛿x − sin x sin 𝛿x − cos x
≈
𝛿x
Thus, the derivative is
dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
cos x cos 𝛿x − sin x sin 𝛿x − cos x
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
Appendix 799

Using the stated facts, we have

cos x × 1 − sin x × 𝛿x − cos x

= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
− sin x × 𝛿x
= lim ( )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x
dy
∴ = − sin x
dx

Method 2

y = cos x

Similarly,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= cos (x + 𝛿x)

Therefore,

𝛿y = cos (x + 𝛿x) − cos x

Applying the product formula to the RHS, we will have

(x + 𝛿x) + (x) (x + 𝛿x) − (x)

𝛿y = −2 sin [ ] sin [ ]
2 2
2x + 𝛿x 𝛿x
= −2 sin [ ] sin [ ]
2 2
𝛿x 𝛿x
= −2 sin [x + ] sin [ ]
2 2
Now we can evaluate the slope as
𝛿x 𝛿x
−2 sin [x + ] sin [ ]
𝛿y 2 2
Slope ≈ ≈
𝛿x 𝛿x
𝛿x
sin ( )⎤
𝛿x ⎡⎢
2
⎥
≈ [− sin (x + )]
2 ⎢ 𝛿x ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
Using the stated fact, the derivative is
𝛿x
sin ( ) ⎤
dy 𝛿x ⎡⎢
2
⎥
= lim [− sin (x + )]
dx 𝛿x→0 2 ⎢ 𝛿x ⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦
𝛿x 0
= lim [− sin (x + )] [1] = lim [− sin (x + )]
𝛿x→0 2 𝛿x→0 2

dy
∴ = − sin x
dx
800 Appendix

(D) PROOF OF THE PRODUCT RULE FOR DIFFERENTIATION

y = uv

where

y = f (x) , u = g (x) , and v = h (x)

𝛿x in x will produce a corresponding 𝛿y, 𝛿u, and 𝛿v in y, u, and v, respectively. Therefore,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
= (u + 𝛿u) (v + 𝛿v)

Open the bracket on the RHS, we will have

= uv + u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v

Therefore,

𝛿y = [uv + u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v] − [uv]

= u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v

Now we can evaluate the slope as

𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
u𝛿v + v𝛿u + 𝛿u𝛿v
≈
𝛿x
𝛿v 𝛿u 𝛿v
≈u +v + 𝛿u
𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x
Thus, the derivative is
dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
𝛿v 𝛿u 𝛿v
= lim (u + v + 𝛿u )
𝛿x→0 𝛿x 𝛿x 𝛿x
𝛿v dv 𝛿u du
As 𝛿x → 0, → , and → , hence
𝛿x dx 𝛿x dx

dy dv du dv
=u +v +0×
dx dx dx dx

dy d dv du
∴ = (uv) = u + v
dx dx dx dx
Appendix 801

u
(E) PROOF OF QUOTIENT RULE FOR DIFFERENTIATION y =
v

u
y=
v
where

y = f (x) , u = g (x) , and v = h (x)

𝛿x in x will produce a corresponding 𝛿y, 𝛿u, and 𝛿v in y, u, and v, respectively. Therefore,

y + 𝛿y = f (x + 𝛿x)
u + 𝛿u
=
v + 𝛿v
u + 𝛿u u
𝛿y = [ ]−[ ]
v + 𝛿v v
v (u + 𝛿u) − u (v + 𝛿v)
=
v (v + 𝛿v)
vu + v𝛿u − uv − u𝛿v
=
v (v + 𝛿v)
v𝛿u − u𝛿v
=
v (v + 𝛿v)
Now we can evaluate the slope as
𝛿y
Slope ≈
𝛿x
v𝛿u−u𝛿v
[ ]
v(v+𝛿v)
≈
𝛿x
𝛿u 𝛿v
v −u
𝛿x 𝛿x
≈
v (v + 𝛿v)
Thus, the derivative is
dy 𝛿y
= lim ( )
dx 𝛿x→0 𝛿x
𝛿u 𝛿v
⎛ v 𝛿x − u 𝛿x ⎞
= lim ⎜ ⎟
𝛿x→0 ⎜ v (v + 𝛿v) ⎟
⎝ ⎠
𝛿v dv 𝛿u du
As 𝛿x → 0, → and → , hence
𝛿x dx 𝛿x dx

du dv
v −u
dy dx dx
=
dx v (v + 0)

du dv
v −u
dy d u dx dx
∴ = ( )=
dx dx v v2
802 Appendix

(F) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF tan x

sin x
y = tan x =
cos x
Let u = sin x and v = cos x, therefore

u′ = cos x
v′ = − sin x

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(cos x) . (cos x) − (sin x) . (− sin x)
= 2
(cos x)
cos2 x + sin2 x
=
cos2 x
2
1 1 2
= = ( ) = (sec x)
cos2 x cos x
d
∴ (tan x) = sec2 x
dx

(G) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF sec x

Method 1 Quotient Rule

1
y = sec x =
cos x
Let u = 1 and v = cos x, therefore

u′ = 0
v′ = − sin x

Using the Quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′ −uv′

y′ = 2
= 2
v v
− (1) . (− sin x)
= 2
(cos x)
sin x sin x
= =
2
cos x cos x. cos x
1 sin x
=( )( ) = (sec x) (tan x)
cos x cos x
d
∴ (sec x) = sec x. tan x
dx
Appendix 803

Method 2 Quotient Rule

1 −1
y = sec x = = (cos x)
cos x
If u = cos x then y = u−1 , therefore
du
= − sin x
dx
dy −2
= −u−2 = −(cos x)
du
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
−2
= −(cos x) × (− sin x)
sin x sin x
= =
2
cos x cos x. cos x
1 sin x
=( )( ) = (sec x) (tan x)
cos x cos x
d
∴ (sec x) = sec x. tan x
dx

(H) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF cosec x

Method 1 Quotient Rule
1
y = cosec x =
sin x
Let u = 1 and v = sin x, therefore

u′ = 0
v′ = cos x

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′ −uv′

y′ = =
v2 v2
− (1) . (cos x)
= 2
(sin x)
cos x cos x
=− 2 =−
sin x sin x. sin x
1 cos x
= −( )( ) = − (cosec x) (cot x)
sin x sin x
d
∴ (cosec x) = − cosec x. cot x
dx
804 Appendix

Method 2

1 −1
y = cosec x = = (sin x)
sin x
If u = sin x, then y = u−1 , therefore
du
= cos x
dx
dy −2
= −u−2 = −(sin x)
du
Using the chain rule, we have that

dy dy du
= ×
dx du dx
−2
= −(sin x) × (cos x)
cos x cos x
=− 2 =−
sin x sin x. sin x
1 cos x
= −( )( ) = − (cosec x) (cot x)
sin x sin x
d
∴ (cosec x) = − cosec x. cot x
dx

(I) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF cot x

cos x
y = cot x =
sin x
Let u = cos x and v = sin x, therefore

u′ = − sin x
v′ = cos x

Using the quotient rule, we have that

vu′ − uv′
y′ =
v2
(sin x) . (− sin x) − (cos x) . (cos x)
= 2
(sin x)
2
−sin x − cos x 2 − (sin2 x + cos2 x)
= 2
= 2
sin x sin x
2
−1 1 2
= 2
= −( ) = − (cosec x)
sin x sin x
d
∴ (cot x) = −cosec2 x
dx
Appendix 805

(J) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF ln x

y = ln x
∴x = ey

Differentiate both sides wrt x, we have

d d
x = ey
dx dx
Using implicit differentiation, we have

dy
1 = ey
dy
Re-arrange this

dy 1
= y
dy e

By substituting x = ey

dy 1
∴ =
dx x

(K) PROOF OF THE DERIVATIVE OF ax

Method 1

y = ax

Let a = ek , therefore
x
∴y = (ek ) = ekx

Using the chain rule, we have

dy x
= k.ekx = k. (ek )
dx
But given that a = ek implies k = ln a. We can substitute this to obtain

dy
= ln a. ax
dx

dy
∴ = ax . ln a
dx
806 Appendix

Method 2

y = ax

Taking the natural log of both sides, we have

ln y = ln ax

Using the power law of logarithm

ln y = x ln a

Differentiating wrt x and applying implicit differentiation, we have

1 dy
. = ln a
y dx
dy
= y ln a
dx
= ax ln a
dy
∴ = ax . ln a
dx

(L) PROOF OF THE INVERSE DERIVATIVE

Method 1
Given a function

y = f (x)

The inverse of this is

x = f−1 (y)

Let f−1 (y) = g (y) , thus

x = g (y)

Differentiating this wrt x

d d
[x] = [g (y)]
dx dx
Let’s modify the RHS a bit as we cannot differentiate wrt x as

d d dy
[x] = [g (y)]
dx dx dy
Differentiate wrt y, we have

d dy
1= [g (y)]
dy dx
Appendix 807

d dy
1= [x]
dy dx
dy 1
∴ =
dx dx
( )
dy

We can therefore say that

dy 1
=
dx dx
( )
dy

Method 2
Let

y=x

Differentiate wrt x, we have

dy
=1
dx
Differentiate wrt y, we have
dx
=1
dy
1
1=
dx
( )
dy

We can therefore say

dy 1
∴ =
dx dx
( )
dy

(M) PROOF OF INTEGRATION BY PARTS FORMULA

y = uv

where

y = f (x) , u = g (x) , and v = h (x)

We have
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
808 Appendix

Let’s take the integral of both sides wrt x

dy dv du
∫ dx = ∫ u dx + ∫ v dx
dx dx dx
dv du
y = ∫ u dx + ∫ v dx
dx dx
dv du
uv = ∫ u dx + ∫ v dx
dx dx
du dv
uv − ∫ v dx = ∫ u dx
dx dx

Therefore,

dv du
∫u dx = uv − ∫ v dx
dx dx
Glossary

S/N Term Explanation

1. Absolute value The magnitude (or size) of a quantity without direction. In
other words, its value without a positive or negative sign
attached. It is indicated using two vertical straight lines. In
this case, the absolute value of both −5 and +5 is 5. Abso-
lute value is also referred to as modulus.

2. Acceleration The time rate of change of velocity; it is a vector quantity.

If v = f (t), where v and t are velocity and time, respec-
tively, acceleration (a) is the differential coefficient of v
wrt t.

3. Acute angle An angle that is less than 90° but more than 0 such that
0 < 𝜽 < 90°.

4. Acute-angled triangle A triangle in which all the three angles are acute.

5. Adjacent (adj) Linguistically, it means ‘next to’ or ‘close to’. In a trian-

gle, it refers to the side that is close to the angle being
referred to.

6. Algebraic expression A mathematical statement expressed using a letter(s) and

number(s), and it is made up of one or more terms.

7. Amplitude The maximum displacement (or vertical distance) from the

centre (or equilibrium position), and is used for varying
quantities, e.g., alternating current.

8. Angle The amount of relative turn, commonly measured in

degrees and radians.

9. Anti-clockwise (ACW) A turn in the direction opposite to the clock hands. It is

also known as counter-clockwise (CCW).

10. Arccos The inverse of the cosine function, and is denoted as

arccos (x) or cos−1 x, where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. The command
acos is used to compute arccos in MATLAB and Excel and
the angle is given in radians.

11. Arcsin The inverse of the sine function and is denoted as

−1
arcsin (x) or sin x, where −1 ≤ x ≤ 1. The command
asin is used to compute arcsin in MATLAB and Excel and
the angle is given in radians.

809
810 Glossary

12. Arctan The inverse of the tangent function, and is denoted as

arctan (x) or tan−1 x, where −∞ <= x <= ∞. The com-
mand atan is used to compute arctan in MATLAB and
Excel and the angle is given in radians.

13. Argand diagram A geometrical plot of complex numbers on a x−y cartesian

plane, also known as the complex plane. The x-axis (hori-
zontal axis) represents the real part, and the y-axis (vertical
axis) represents the imaginary part of complex numbers;
they are called real axis and imaginary axis, respectively.

14. Argument This is the angle between a phasor and the positive x-axis.

15. Asymptotes A situation where a line (or curve) approaches another line
(or curve) but never touches it. In this context, the line (or
curve) is said to be asymptotic to the line (or curve) it can-
not touch.

16. Average Strictly speaking, it is one of the parameters used to mea-

sure the location of a data set. When used in language, it is
synonymous with arithmetic mean or simply mean. Refer
to mean.

17. Binomial expression ‘Bi’ means two, and ‘binomial expression’ refers to an
algebraic expression with two terms.

18. Bisector A line that divides another line or angle into two equal
parts.

19. Calculus A branch of mathematics with two distinctive parts,

namely differentiation and integration.

20. Cartesian coordinate system This is a system that is used to describe the position of a
point on a plane or in a space, and it is measured from a ref-
erence point or axis. The reference point is given as (0, 0)
for a plane or (0, 0, 0) for a space. The axes are x-axis, y-
axis, and z-axis, and they meet at 90° at the reference point.

21. Cartesian coordinates The coordinates (x, y) and (x, y, z) describe the position
of a point in terms of its distance from the origin (0, 0) and
(0, 0, 0), respectively. The order of stating the coordinates
is to write x-coordinate, then y-coordinate, and finally the
z-coordinate (if it’s a point in space).

22. CAST diagram A diagram which divides the x − y plane into four equal
parts, called quadrants.

23. Chain rule (calculus) It is used in differentiation to solve multiple or cascaded

processes. It is also called ‘function of a function’ rule.

24. Clockwise Turning in the direction of the clock hands.

Glossary 811

25. Collinear Points are said to be collinear if they all lie on the same
straight line.

26. Column matrix This is a matrix with a single (or one) column. The general
dimension is n × 1 where n is the number of rows.

27. Combination Any arrangement of items where the order is irrelevant.

28. Complementary angles These are two angles that add up to make 90°, and each of
the angles is said to be the complement of the other.

29. Complex conjugate Given a complex number z = x+yj, its complex conjugate
− −
is denoted as z such that z = x − yj. Note that a complex
conjugate pair only differs in the sign between the real and
imaginary parts.

30. Complex numbers A number that is made up of two parts, the real and the
imaginary. This is expressed as z = x + jy, where x is the
real part (or component) of the complex number (z), abbre-
viated as Re (z), and the imaginary part is y, shortened as
Im (z).

31. Coplanar Points are said to be coplanar if they all lie on the same
plane.

32. De Moivre’s theorem It is used to find the roots and powers of complex numbers.

33. Decreasing function A function y = g (x) is said to be decreasing, often in a

particular interval, if y increases as x decreases and vice
versa.

34. Definite integration It is used to determine the area under a curve between two
specified limits and the area bounded by two curves, linear
or non-linear.

35. Diagonal matrix This is a type of square matrix where all elements are zeros
except those on the diagonal line, generally called the lead-
ing diagonal. The diagonal consists of all elements with aii ,
starting with a11 on the top-left to aii on the bottom right.

36. Differentiation A measure of ‘rate of change’. In other words, it is a

technique that is used to determine the size of a change
in one physical quantity (e.g., volume, distance, mass)
when compared to an equivalent change in another physi-
cal quantity (e.g., time).
812 Glossary

37. Dividend The number (or expression) being divided by another

number (or expression) is called the dividend. It is the
number (or expression) above the division line or to the
left of the division sign (‘\’). In a fraction, it corresponds
to the numerator.

38. Divisible A number X is said to be divisible by another number Y if

the division process results in a whole number (without a
remainder), with a pre-condition that X > Y.

39. Divisor The number (or expression) that divides another number is
called the divisor. It is the number (or expression) below
the division line or to the right of the division sign (‘\’). In
a fraction, it corresponds to the denominator.

40. Element It is used in set theory to refer to the members of a set or

in a matrix to denote the members of the matrix.

41. Empty (or null) set A set (or collection of something) without a single
member.

42. Exponent See power.

43. Factorial It is denoted by an exclamation mark (!). It technically

implies the product of all the positive consecutive inte-
gers between a particular given integer and 1. Factorials
are generally computed for (i) positive numbers and (ii)
integers.

44. General solution (calculus) An expression obtained when a function is integrated with
a constant of integration included.

45. Gradient See ‘slope’.

46. Higher derivatives These imply finding the derivative of a derivative and of
another in a consecutive manner. The higher you go, the
higher the number associated with the derivative.

47. Implicit differentiation The process of finding the derivatives of an implicit

function.
48. Increasing function A function y = f (x) is said to be increasing, often in a par-
ticular interval, if y increases as x increases and vice versa.

49. Indefinite integration It is represented by ∫ ydx and is read as ‘the integral of y

with respect to x’. The ‘dx’ must be included otherwise the
integration is meaningless. In this case, x is the indepen-
dent variable. If the independent variable is time (t), we
will have dt and if it is volume (V), we will have dV and
so on.
Glossary 813

50. Infinitesimal Very small and insignificant that can be assumed to be

equal to zero (0).

51. Integration A direct inverse of differentiation (or its anti-derivative).

52. Jerk It is also known as Jolt and is the time rate of change of
acceleration. If a = f (t), where a and t are acceleration and
time, respectively, jerk (j) is the differential coefficient of
a wrt t.

53. Limit This refers to the boundary of a function.

54. Line of symmetry It is also called a ‘mirror line’. It is a line that divides (or
can be used to divide) a plane into two equal and identical
parts. There could be more than one line of symmetry for
a plane or 2D object. For example, a square has four lines
of symmetry, and a parallelogram has none.

55. Line segment This is the part of a line between two given points.

56. MATLAB It stands for MATrix LABoratory. It is a programming

software that is widely used by scientists and engineers
to design and analyse systems.

57. Matrix A matrix (plural: matrices) is defined as an array of num-

bers (or elements), which consists of rows and columns
enclosed in square brackets [ ] or parentheses ( ).

58. Mean In statistics, it is one of the measures of location;

others include median and mode. It is computed by
adding all the data and dividing the result by the num-
ber of the data elements. Mathematically represented as
∑x x1 +x2 +x3 +⋯+xn
= .
n n

59. Mixed number A number that is made up of a whole number and fraction,
1
e.g., 2 .
3

60. Modulus See ‘absolute’.

61. Order of rotational symmetry It refers to the number of times a shape fits exactly into
its original form when it is rotated through a revolution or
360 degrees.

62. Particular solution In integration, it refers to an expression obtained, having

replaced C with a numerical value.

63. Pascal’s triangle A pattern formed using the coefficients of the terms
obtained when binomial expressions of different orders are
simplified.
814 Glossary

64. Peak It is the highest or maximum point on a curve. It is also

called crest.

65. Periodicity The property of an object or system being periodic, i.e.,

repeating in its pattern at a fixed interval or rate.

66. Permutation The number of ways objects can be arranged (or selected)
such that the order is paramount.

67. Phasor diagram A graphical representation of voltages and currents in an

AC circuit, it is similar to an Argand diagram.

68. Point of inflexion A point on a curve where there is a change in the magni-
tude of the gradient without a change in its sign, i.e., the
curve changes from being concave to being convex to a
particular direction or vice versa.

69. Positive angle The angle that is measured in an anti-clockwise direction.

70. Power Power (or index or exponent) is the superscript of a num-

ber or term called the base. Power is a shorthand way of
saying that a number is being multiplied by itself a number
of times dictated by the value of the power.

71. Product rule (calculus) It is used in differentiation when one function is multiplied
by another function wrt the same variable.

72. Quadrant A name given to each of the four sections formed in a plane
by the x-axis and the y-axis.

73. Quotient The result obtained when a number (or expression) divides
another number (or expression).
74. Quotient rule (calculus) It is used in differentiation when one function is divided by
another function, where it is either impossible to simplify
it into a single function or practically difficult to do so.

75. Remainder theorem It states that if a polynomial f (x) is divided by x − a, the

remainder is f (a).

76. Row matrix This is a matrix with a single (or one) row. It is also called
a line matrix and is the inverse of the column matrix.
The general dimension is 1 × n where n is the number of
columns.

77. Scalar (or scalar quantity) A quantity that is completely identified or described by
its magnitude (amount or size) and associated units only.
Examples include time, speed, height, temperature, pres-
sure, and power. Scalar (without quantity) refers to a real
number.
Glossary 815

78. Scalene triangle A triangle with no two equal sides. In other words, each of
the sides is distinct in length and their angles are different.
A scalene triangle has no line of symmetry.

79. Set A collection of items or members.

80. Single (element) matrix This is a matrix of a dimension 1 × 1, i.e., it has one ele-
ment, one row and one column.

81. Singular matrix A matrix whose determinant is zero.

82. Skew lines In space, it is when lines are neither parallel nor do they
intersect.

83. Skew-symmetric (matrix) A square matrix that is equal to its transpose multiplied by
k = −1.

84. Slope It is also called gradient, denoted by m, and is a measure of

the steepness of a line. The more the value of m, the greater
the steepness or tendency to fall and thus the slope. Slope
can be positive or negative. A positive slope ramps up from
left to right, and a negative slope ramps down from left to
right.

85. Square matrix This is a matrix where the number of rows is the same as
that of the columns.

86. Symmetry A property which means that an object can be divided

along a line or plane into two identical parts (reflection
symmetry or reflective symmetry) or turned about a fixed
point or line and remains unchanged (rotation symmetry
or rotational symmetry). A shape that does not possess this
property is said to be asymmetric.

87. Tangent A straight line l drawn tangential to the curve at a given

point A. It is also the ratio of the sine of a given angle to
the cosine of the same angle.

88. Term (or algebraic term) The simplest algebraic unit, like cells in biology, atoms in
chemistry, bits in computing, etc. It may consist of a con-
stant (number) or constants, a variable or variables, or a
combination of constant(s) and variable(s). Terms are usu-
ally separated by plus (+) or minus (−) sign.

89. Transformation The change in position, orientation, size, or shape of an

object.

90. Transpose matrix A matrix formed when the rows have been converted to
respective columns and vice versa (i.e., rows and columns
are interchanged).
816 Glossary

91. Trapezium Also called trapezoid, it is a quadrilateral with a pair of

parallel sides and one or two sloping sides. If the slop-
ing sides are the same in length, the resulting trapezium is
called an isosceles trapezium.

92. Trigonometric equation An equation (linear or non-linear) involving trigonometric

ratios.

93. Trigonometric ratios It refers to the sine, cosine, and tangent of an angle. They
are usually shortened as sin 𝜽, cos 𝜽, and tan 𝜽, respec-
tively, where 𝜽 represents the angle.

94. Trigonometry A branch of mathematics concerned with the study of

angles and their relationship in two-dimensional (plane)
and three-dimensional (solid) objects.

95. Trough The exact opposite of a crest; it represents the minimum

point on a curve.

96. Unit (or identity) matrix A diagonal matrix in which the elements along the diago-
nal line are ones (1).

97. Unit vector A vector whose magnitude is unity. In general, a unit vec-
a
tor in the direction of a is given as â = .
|a|

98. Variable A quantity, represented by a letter or a symbol, that we

cannot assign a fixed numerical value to and generally
represent quantities (time, amount, force, height, etc.)
that change in values. There are two types of variables:
dependent and independent variables. It is also called the
‘unknown’.

99. Vector quantity (Or simply a vector) is a quantity which is completely

identified by both its magnitude and direction (and associ-
ated units). In other words, it is a scalar quantity that has a
direction. Examples include velocity, displacement, force,
electric current, stress, and momentum.

100. Velocity The time rate of change of position; it is a vector quantity.

If s = f (t), where s and t are position and time, respec-
tively, velocity (v) is the differential coefficient of s wrt t.

101. x-coordinate The distance of the point from the origin along the x-axis,
which is the first number given in a coordinate system
notation.

102. y-coordinate The distance of the point from the origin along the y-axis,
which is the second number given in a coordinate system
notation.
Glossary 817

103. z-coordinate The distance of the point from the origin along the z-axis,
which is the third number given in a coordinate system
notation.

104. Zero or null matrix This is a matrix in which all the elements are zeros; it is
denoted by 0.

105. Zero vector It is also called a null vector, and it is a vector whose mag-
nitude is zero.
Index

A Capacitance, 318–19
capacitive, 318–19, 326
Absolute, 751, 766see also Magnitude capacitors, 319
Acceleration, 505, 565–6, 582, 648, 679 Cartesian (representation, form, equation), 297,
Accuracy, 466, 751, 757 304, 309, 311, 347, 413, 418, 751
Addition, 86, 96, 117, 128, 178, 281, 288, 357, 406, Cast, 23, 152, 155
421, 423 CCW (counter-clockwise) see Counter-clockwise
Adj see Adjacent Circuits, 128, 280, 318, 410
Adjacent, 2, 205, 385 Clockwise, 18, 20, 29, 153
Advanced calculus, 511, 681, 717, 751 Commutative, 218, 357, 365, 406–7, 422
approximate, 461, 751, 766 Complex numbers
Angle, 1, 7, 26 alternating, 280, 318
acute, 87, 129, 430, 454 argand, 304, 311, 318
angular frequency, 595, 602 argument, 298, 310
obtuse, 87, 430, 454 associative, 291
Angular frequency, 319, 595, 602 conjugates, 280, 290, 292, 309
Application, 1, 203, 239, 341, 408, 461 conversion, 304–5
Approximation, 234, 751 coplanar, 343
Arg see Complex numbers, argument equidistant, 331
ASTAC (All–sine–tangent–cosine), 23 exponential, 297, 303
Asymptotes, 40, 46, 603 imaginary, 287, 291–2, 313
Author’s method, 138, 262, 274 locus, 344–5
logarithms, 311
B loss, 322, 327
Moivre’s, 311, 336, 338, 348
Behaviour, 1, 37, 47, 602, 610 quadrature, 288
Binomial, 203–4, 209, 211, 215–17, 220, 222–3, Complimentary, 7, 9, 54
227–9, 234, 236–7, 239, 336, 473, 477, Components, 422, 443
516, 683 Concave, 597, 602, 754
approximate, 203, 234 Consistency, 390, 449
array, 205, 207 Convex, 597, 602, 754
combination, 214–15 Counterbalance, 422
expansion, 203, 215–16 Counter-clockwise, 17, 153, 281, 309, 344
permutation, 215 Crest, 37, 586
Brackets, 351, 361, 405, 514 Currents, 318, 348, 410
curvy, 352
Branch, 1, 410, 461
D

C Decelerate, 581, 648

Dependent variable, 35, 512, 543
CAH (cosine–adjacent–hypotenuse), 3, 44 Derivative, 461, 471, 514, 548, 565–6, 614
Calculus, 117, 461–2, 613, 648, 751 Determinant, 351, 353, 356, 372, 376, 378–9, 384
cascade, 512–13, 522 Differential see Differentiation
definite, 613, 647, 652, 681 Differentiation, 461, 487, 503, 543, 565, 611, 613
exponential, 461, 493, 634, 722 analytical method, 470, 584
gradient, 461, 463, 465, 566, 579, 583, 597 boundary, 462, 508
higher-order, 378, 384, 461, 503 chain rule, 511–12, 516
indefinite, 613, 681, 717, 735 dee, 461, 472, 503, 508
nature, 242, 598 delta, 322, 463, 508
parameter, 554, 717 explicit, 543–4
818
Index 819

implicit, 511, 543, 546 integral, 613–14, 616–17

increment, 471 integrand, 613
linearity, 487, 623 ordinates, 652, 754
lowercase, 463 width, 661, 752
maxima, 584–5 Intercepts, 59, 602
minima, 584–5 Intersection, 408, 449, 670
normal, 565–6 Inverse, 1, 10, 47, 56, 351, 353, 381, 384, 511,
Dividend, 272, 536, 690 554, 613
Divisor, 272, 690

J
E
Jerk, 505, 566, 648–9, 679
Elimination method, 315, 351, 389 Jolt see Jerk
Experience-based approach, 137
L
F
Lag, 46, 62, 70, 128, 318
Factorials, 203, 212 Limits, 462–3, 647
Force, 343, 408, 411 Local, 584
Foundation (mathematics), 272, 589 Logarithm, 340, 461, 496, 511, 637, 722
Fundamentals, 80, 173, 288, 498, 565

M
G
Magnitude, 281, 298, 331, 408, 410, 429, 565, 597
Geometry, 347, 408 Many-to-one, 56
Global, 584 MATLAB, 11
Matrices, 351
adjoint, 351, 385, 389
H array, 351, 405
Hyp see Hypotenuse associative, 365, 406
Hypotenuse, 2–3, 20 cofactor, 385
columns, 353, 356, 380, 405
Cramer’s rule, 390–1
I diagonal, 354, 373, 406
diagrams, 311
Identity, 3, 101, 117, 242, 355
dimension, 352–3, 356, 365, 406
Impedance, 318, 326
element, 351, 353–4
Inductance, 318–19, 348
non-singular, 381
inductive, 318–20
non-square, 381
inductors, 319
null, 355, 458
Infinite, 221–2, 462, 465
Maximum, 37, 39–40, 48, 50, 58, 62, 117, 128,
Infinitesimal, 463, 471
150, 196, 318, 584
Infinity, 48, 647, 677
Mechanics, 648–9
Inflection see Integration, inflexion
Minimum, 37, 39–40, 48, 50, 58, 62, 117, 128, 150,
Integration, 613–15
196, 318, 584
arbitrary, 614, 616
Minuend, 670–1, 766
area, 614, 647, 649, 652, 665, 670
Mirror, 56, 68–9, 153, 602, 752
boundary, 677
Mnemonic, 3, 23
bounded, 647, 658, 670, 673–4
Mod see Modulus
decomposition, 661, 667
Modulus, 138, 298, 303, 331, 413–14, 632, 766
displacement, 648
Multiple (angles, functions), 30, 40, 96, 179, 311,
error, 751, 766, 772
336, 429, 449, 511
estimate, 751, 766
Multiplication, 280, 289, 351, 356, 364, 429, 511
inflexion, 584, 588, 597–9
820 Index

N Resistors, 138, 318

Resultant, 411, 422–3
Non-linear, 242, 256, 269, 465, 647 Revolution, 17, 23, 35, 751
Notation, 214–15, 351, 405, 410, 418, Root, 287, 331, 414, 602, 751
461, 613

S
O
Scalar, 412, 414, 429–30, 443, 449
Ohm’s, 326 Simpson’s rule, 751, 759
One-to-one (function), 56–7, 78 Sinusoidal waveform, 1, 595
Operations, 288, 351, 357, 365, 406, 408 Skew, 449, 454
Operator, 215, 280, 318, 472 Slope, 463, 465–6, 470–1
Opp, 3–10, 15–17, 20–2, 24–5, 47, 54, 56, 79 Standards, 613, 616, 632, 639, 648
Outputs, 35, 512 Stationary, 565, 583, 585–6, 588, 597
Overestimation, 753–5, 757 Substitution, 243, 704, 717
Subtraction, 86–7, 117, 178, 280, 288, 304, 351,
P 421, 423
Subtrahend, 413, 670–1, 766
Partial fractions, 222, 239, 242 Surd, 290, 292
algebraic, 239, 241 Symmetrical, 7, 39, 46, 175, 205, 602–3
factors, 242, 249, 256, 269 Symmetry, 37, 46, 48, 150, 161, 176–7, 184, 188,
non-repeated, 149, 242, 256 195, 199, 205, 602–3, 745, 753
Pascal’s triangle, 203–4 symmetric, 356, 406, 653
ascending, 204, 206 symmetrically, 331, 349
descending, 204
limitations, 203, 214
Per see Percentage T
Percent see Percentage Tan see Tangent
Percentage, 381, 492, 543, 565–6, 615, 627, 691, Tangent, 1–4, 23, 40–1, 47, 49, 80, 565–6, 568–9,
751, 766–8, 772 584, 603, 637–8
Periodicity, 37, 40, 48, 50–1, 70–1, 602 Theorem, 203, 272, 311, 329, 336, 414
Phase, 39, 62, 128, 138, 196, 318 Transformation, 47, 57, 62, 159
Phasor, 318 Translation, 62, 165, 167, 196
Polar form, 297–8, 303–4, 318 Trapezia see Trapezium
Polynomials, 149, 256, 272, 623 Trapezium, 423, 613, 751–4, 759
Power, 311, 329, 336, 381, 461, 478, 613, 616, 634, Trapeziums see Trapezium
698, 738 Trapezoidal see Trapezium
Pythagoras’ theorem, 2, 7, 414 Trigonometry, 1, 10, 80
amplitude, 37, 46, 128
Q anticlockwise, 18, 23, 281
discontinuities, 40, 46, 584
Quadrants, 1, 18, 22–3 double-angle, 96, 101
Quadruple, 503, 666 equilateral, 7
Quotient, 511, 533 Euler-trigonometric, 337
factor, 117
half-angle, 80, 103
R peaks, 37
Rad see Radian phase difference, 39–40, 69
Radian, 303–4, 464 right-angled, 1–2, 7, 23
Reactance, 318–19 triple-angle, 80, 96, 101, 116, 180, 188
Reciprocal, 47–8, 50, 357
Reflection, 68–9, 205
U
Remainder theorem, 272, 282
Representation, 318, 410, 413 Underestimation, 753, 766, 772
Resistance, 318 Unity (matrix, vector), 400, 413
Index 821

V Velocity–time, 648
Vertex, 2, 7, 605
Validity, 121, 203, 223, 227, 637 Voltage, 318, 322, 324, 595
valid, 58, 84, 87, 115, 129, 137, 175, 183, 189, Volume, 408, 461, 613, 751
204, 221, 223–7, 229–31, 233, 237, 304,
310, 329, 339, 348, 352, 355, 365, 381,
390, 411, 478, 509, 600, 632, 634, 637, W
719, 722
validate, 451, 454 Waveform, 1, 128
Vector, 280–1, 408–9, 411
analytically, 421 X
anti-clockwise, 422
anti-phase, 410, 458 x-axis
collinear, 410, 458 x-coordinate, 63, 588, 597, 670
displacement, 408, 565, 648 x-value, 602, 754
distance, 408, 422 x–y plane, 62, 201, 311, 414, 554
dot, 408, 430, 459
equality, 411
hat, 413
Y
lowercase, 410 y-axis
momentum, 408 y-coordinate, 63, 463
mutually, 413 y-intercept, 608
negation, 410 y-prime, 472
non-zero, 411, 429
orthogonal, 431
overbar, 410 Z
parallelogram, 343, 422
z-axis, 413–14
polygon, 422
z-directions, 408
wavy, 410
Zero, 354–5, 410, 458, 597
Velocity, 408, 457, 461, 565, 648