Q1.

The ambiguity arises because both productions start with the common prefix: if Expression
then Statement. The parser would need to backtrack to decide whether the input corresponds to
the first or second production.

We factor out the common prefix and rewrite the grammar as:

Statement → if Expression then Statement Rest

Rest → else Statement
Rest → ε

Explanation:
The production Statement → if Expression then Statement Rest handles the
common prefix if Expression then Statement.

The Rest production resolves the ambiguity by specifying either:

 Rest → else Statement (when an else clause exists),

 or Rest → ε (when there is no else clause).

Benefits:
No Backtracking: The parser can directly determine the appropriate rule to apply without ambiguity.
Efficiency: The grammar is now suitable for predictive parsers like LL(1).
Q2. Already provided
Q12. To explore the derivation and parse tree for strings in a given Context-Free Grammar (CFG),
let's break it down step by step.
Grammar Rules:

 S→aB ∣ bAA

 A→a ∣ aS ∣ bAA

 B→b ∣ bS ∣ aBB
Derivation:
Derivation involves applying the grammar rules step by step to generate a string from the start symbol
SS. There are two types of derivations:
1. Leftmost Derivation: Always expand the leftmost non-terminal first.
2. Rightmost Derivation: Always expand the rightmost non-terminal first.
Example: Derive the string abbaaabbaa
We aim to generate abbaaabbaa using G
 S
/\
a B
/\
b S
/ \
b A
/\
a A
|
a

Steps to Construct Parse Tree:

1. Start with S.
2. Expand S based on the applied production rules, creating branches for each symbol on the
right-hand side.
3. Continue expanding non-terminals until all leaves are terminals.
Q25. To construct a Deterministic Finite Automaton (DFA) for the given regular expression

(0+1)*(00+11)(0+1)*
we proceed step by step:

Understand the Regular Expression

 (0+1)*(0+1)*(0+1)*: Any sequence of 0s and 1s, including the empty string.

 (00 + 11): Exactly 00 or 11.

 (0+1)*(0+1)*(0+1)*: Any sequence of 0s and 1s again, including the empty string.

The DFA must accept any string that contains either 00 or 11 as a substring.

The DFA must transition into a state that accepts when 00 or 11 is encountered.
The surrounding (0+1)*(0+1)*(0+1)* ensures that other sequences before and after these substrings are
permissible.
States and Transitions
We can simplify the construction using the following steps:
1. Start State (q0): This is the initial state where the automaton reads input, looking for the start
of either 00 or 11.
2. Intermediate States (q1q2):
o q1: After reading the first 0, it waits for the second 0.

o q2: After reading the first 1, it waits for the second 1.

3. Accepting State (q3): Once either 00 or 11 is read, the automaton enters this state and
remains there, accepting any further input.
State Transitions
Q25. Directly converting a regular expression to a DFA (Deterministic Finite Automaton) without an
intermediate NFA involves designing the DFA to satisfy the behavior of the regular expression. The
given regular expression is:

Explanation of the Regular Expression:

1. (a | b)*: Matches any sequence (including the empty sequence) of a and b.
2. a: Requires that the string ends with an a.
DFA Construction:
The DFA needs to:
1. Accept strings ending with a.
2. Allow any sequence of a and b before the final a.
Steps to Construct the DFA:
1. States:
o q0: The starting state; also the state for processing the prefix (a | b)*. This state
accepts any sequence of a and b that hasn't yet ended with the required a.
o q1: The accepting state, which indicates the DFA has seen a string ending with a.

2. Transitions:
o From q0:

 On input a, transition to q1 (indicating the string now ends with a).

  On input b, stay in q0 (since b does not fulfil the requirement of ending with
a).
o From q1:

 On input a, stay in q1 (since appending an a keeps the string valid and ending
with a).
 On input b, transition back to q0 (as the string no longer ends with a).
Q32. To remove the left recursion from the given grammar, we need to first identify the left-recursive
rules and then transform them into right-recursive rules.

The given grammar is:

A -> Bx | Cx | y
B -> Ay | ε
C -> Ax | y

Step 1: Identify left recursion

 n the production A -> Bx | Cx | y, A does not immediately recurse (it doesn't start with A).
 In the production B -> Ay | ε, B recurses on A through Ay.
 In the production C -> Ax | y, C recurses on A through Ax.
Both B and C are left-recursive.

Step 2: Remove left recursion

We can remove left recursion by using the following standard approach for each non-terminal:
For a non-terminal X -> Xα | β, we can replace it with:

X -> βX'
X' -> αX' | ε

where X' is a new non-terminal, and β is the right-hand side that doesn't start with X.
Removing left recursion in B -> Ay | ε:
The left recursion is Ay. We rewrite B as:
B -> εB' | yB'
B' -> yB' | ε

Removing left recursion in C -> Ax | y:

1. The left recursion is Ax. We rewrite C as
C -> εC' | yC'
C' -> xC' | ε
Final grammar without left recursion:

A -> Bx | Cx | y
B -> yB' | ε
B' -> yB' | ε
C -> yC' | ε
C' -> xC' | ε
Q33. The statement "If A→Aα∣β, then the grammar cannot be an LL(1) grammar" is true.
Here's a detailed explanation:
Understanding LL(1) Grammar:
 An LL(1) grammar is one that can be parsed using a top-down approach with one lookahead
symbol.
 The two key properties for a grammar to be LL(1) are:
1. First condition: For each nonterminal AA, the FIRST sets of the right-hand sides of
its productions must be disjoint. That is, no two right-hand sides of a production for
AA should start with the same terminal or epsilon.
2. Second condition: If one of the right-hand sides of a production can derive epsilon
(ϵ), then the FIRST set of the other right-hand sides must not overlap with the
FOLLOW set of AA.

The Production A→Aα∣β :

 This production is recursive because the first production has the nonterminal AA on the left
side.
 This introduces a problem for LL(1) parsing, as the parser may encounter ambiguity when
trying to decide which production to apply, especially when the lookahead symbol could
match both productions.
Problem with LL(1) Condition:

 For the production A→Aα∣β, there is a potential conflict in the FIRST sets:
o The production A→Aα starts with the nonterminal A, which means the lookahead
symbol could match the beginning of AαAα, but there’s no direct way to distinguish
between the recursive A→Aα and the other production A→β without deeper analysis.
o If β\beta starts with the same terminal as AαA \alpha, the parser won’t be able to
determine which production to apply, because both productions could match the same
input symbol.
This overlap or ambiguity makes it impossible for the grammar to be LL(1), as the parser cannot
make a deterministic choice with just one lookahead symbol.

The grammar with the production A→Aα∣β cannot be an LL(1) grammar because the recursive nature
of the first production and the potential overlap in FIRST sets violate the LL(1) conditions.

Q34. Similar problem has been discussed in class and also given in the Assignment-II
To compute the FIRST and FOLLOW sets for the given grammar, we'll follow the rules for
constructing these sets step by step.
Given Grammar GG:
1. S→aBDh
2. B→Cc
3. C→ϵ
 4. E→g ∣ ϵ

5. F→f ∣ ϵ
FIRST Set Construction:
The FIRST set of a non-terminal AA, denoted as FIRST(A)\text{FIRST}(A), is the set of terminal
symbols that can appear at the beginning of any string derived from AA.
 FIRST(S)\text{FIRST}(S):
o The first terminal symbol in S→aBDh is "a".

o Hence, FIRST(S)={a}.

 FIRST(B)\text{FIRST}(B):
o B→Cc, so we need to find FIRST(C).

o From C→ϵ C can derive the empty string, so we also include c (the next terminal
symbol after C).
o Hence, FIRST(B)={ϵ,c}

 FIRST(C):
o From C→ϵ, C can derive ϵ, so:

o FIRST(C)={ϵ}.

 FIRST(E):

o From E→g ∣ ϵ, E can derive either "g" or the empty string.

o Hence, FIRST(E)={g,ϵ}.

 FIRST(F):

o From F→f ∣ ϵ, F can derive either "f" or the empty string.

o Hence, FIRST(F)={f,ϵ}.

FOLLOW Set Construction:

The FOLLOW set of a non-terminal A, denoted as FOLLOW(A), is the set of terminal symbols that
can appear immediately after A in some string derived from the start symbol SS.
To compute the FOLLOW sets, we use the following rules:
1. Start with FOLLOW(S)={$} (since S is the start symbol and $ is the end-of-input marker).
2. For each production A→αBβ, add all terminals in FIRST(β) to FOLLOW(B). If β can derive
ϵ, add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).
3. If A→αB, or if A→αBϵ, then add FOLLOW(A) to FOLLOW(B).
Now, we compute the FOLLOW sets:
 FOLLOW(S)\text{FOLLOW}(S):
o Since SS is the start symbol, we initialize FOLLOW(S)={$}.
  FOLLOW(B):
o From S→aBDh, B is followed by D, and D is followed by "h".

o Hence, add "h" to FOLLOW(B), so FOLLOW(B)={h}.

 FOLLOW(C):
o From B→Cc, C is followed by c.

o Hence, add "c" to FOLLOW(C)\, so FOLLOW(C)={c}

o Additionally, since C→ϵ, we also add FOLLOW(B) to FOLLOW(C), which means

we add "h" to FOLLOW(C)\text{FOLLOW}(C), so FOLLOW(C)={c,h}.
 FOLLOW(E):

o From E→g ∣ ϵ, there's no immediate influence on any other non-terminal since there
are no follow-ups in the production.
 FOLLOW(F)\text{FOLLOW}(F):

o From F→f ∣ ϵ, again, no immediate influence on any other non-terminal due to the
lack of follow-ups in the production.
Summary of FIRST and FOLLOW sets:
 FIRST(S) = { a }
 FIRST(B) = { ε, c }
 FIRST(C) = { ε }
 FIRST(E) = { g, ε }
 FIRST(F) = { f, ε }
 FOLLOW(S) = { $ }
 FOLLOW(B) = { h }
 FOLLOW(C) = { c, h }
 FOLLOW(E) = { $ } (if E is involved in the grammar and can be followed by the end of
input)
 FOLLOW(F) = { $ } (if F is involved in the grammar and can be followed by the end of
input)

These sets help in constructing parsing tables for LL(1) parsing or similar techniques.
Q. 35. To remove left recursion from the given context-free grammar (CFG), we follow the steps of
eliminating direct and indirect left recursion. Here's the given grammar:
S → Aa | b
A → Ac | Sd | f
Step 1: Identify Left Recursion
 For the production of S, the left recursion is S → Aa because the non-terminal A appears at
the beginning of the production, and A can eventually lead to S.
 For the production of A, the left recursion is A → Ac, because A appears on the left side of its
own production.
Step 2: Remove Left Recursion
We apply the standard method for removing left recursion, which involves introducing a new non-
terminal and rewriting the productions. Here’s the general procedure:
1. Split the rules into recursive and non-recursive parts.
2. Create new non-terminals to handle the recursion.
For S:
 The non-recursive part of S → Aa | b is S → b.
 The recursive part is S → Aa, which starts with A.
So, we introduce a new non-terminal S' and rewrite the productions as:
S → bS'
S' → aS' | ε
Here, S' → aS' | ε represents the recursion, and the ε allows for the termination of recursion.
For A:
 The non-recursive part of A → Ac | Sd | f is A → f.
 The recursive part is A → Ac, which starts with A.
We introduce a new non-terminal A' and rewrite the productions as:
A → fA'
A' → cA' | dA' | ε
Here, A' → cA' | dA' | ε represents the recursion, and A' → ε allows for termination.
Final Grammar After Removing Left Recursion:
S → bS'
S' → aS' | ε
A → fA'
A' → cA' | dA' | ε
This grammar is now free of left recursion and is suitable for parsing.