• Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure

A crystal is a solid whose atoms are arranged in a “highly ordered”

repeating pattern. These patterns are called crystal systems.

Lattice points are the positions an atom, ion, or molecule can occupy in a
crystal giving it its shape and characteristics.

CATEGORIES OF SOLIDS

1. Crystalline
 These are the most common type of solids. They are firm, hold a
definite and fixed shape, are rigid and incompressible.
 They generally have geometric shapes and flat faces.
 The arrangement of particles in a crystalline solid is in a very
orderly fashion.
 The intermolecular force is also uniform throughout the structure.
The spaces between the atoms are very less due to high
intermolecular forces
 High melting and boiling points.
 Crystals have a long-range order, which means the arrangement
of atoms is repeated over a great distance.
2. Amorphous
 Amorphous solids are rigid structures but they lack a well-defined
shape. Do not have edges like crystals do.
 They do not have a geometric shape. So they are non-crystalline.
 The particles do not form the 3D lattice structure that we see in
solids.
 Break into uneven pieces with irregular edges. Do not have any
distinct arrangement or shape of molecules, so they cannot be
identified by their structure as crystals.
 Low melting and boiling points.
 Some naturally occurring amorphous solids have impurities that
prevent such a structure from forming. So they have a short
order arrangement of molecules.

Crystalline Structure

- Have highly defined and repeatable arrangements of

molecular chains of atoms
- These materials tend to have sharp melting points.
- Common example: diamonds
Noncrystalline Structure

- Noncrystalline materials have atoms with no periodic

arrangement (random order)
- Amorphous

• Metals

Metal is an element, compound or alloy that is a good conductor of both

electricity and heat.

Metal crystal structure and specific metal properties are determined by

holding together the atoms of a metal.

*The most abundant metals, which exist as minerals in Earth’s crust, are
aluminum iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium, titanium, and
manganese.

*Characterized by bright luster, hardness, ability to resonate sound and are

excellent conductors of heat and electricity.

Metals are solids under normal conditions except for Mercury.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF METAL

 State: Metals are solids at room temperature with the exception of Hg,
which is liquid at room temperature (Ga is liquid on hot days).
 Luster: Metals have the quality of reflecting light from their surface
and can be polished e.g., Au, Ag and Cu.
 Malleability: Metals have the ability to withstand hammering and can
be made into thin sheets known as foils.
 Ductility: Metals can be drawn into wires. For example, 100 g of silver
can be drawn into a thin wire about 200 meters long.
 Hardness: All metals are hard except sodium and potassium, which
are soft and can be cut with a knife.
 Conduction: Metals are good conductors because they have free
electrons.
Silver and copper are the two best conductors of heat and electricity.
Lead is the poorest conductor of heat.
Bismuth, mercury and iron are also poor conductors.
 Melting and Boiling Points: Metals have high melting and boiling
points.
Tungsten has the highest melting and boiling points whereas mercury
has the lowest. Sodium and potassium also have low melting points
Occurrence of Metals

Most metals come from minerals. A mineral is a naturally occurring

substance with a range of chemical composition.

A mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow economical recovery of a

desired metal is known as ore.

Ore: A naturally occurring mineral containing a valuable constituent (such

as metal) for which it is mined and worked.

A source from which valuable matter is extracted.

A rock that contains enough metal or metal compounds so that it can

be mined profitably

Mineral and Ore

Mineral

1. Naturally occuring substances of metals present in the earth’s crust

are called minerals.
2. All minerals are not ores

Ore

1. Minerals which can be used to obtain the metal profitably are called
ores.
2. All ores are essentially minerals

• Most metals come from minerals.

- A mineral is a naturally occurring substance with a range of

chemical composition.
- An ore is a mineral deposit concentrated enough to allow
economical recovery of a desired metal.

• Metals exist in various forms

- In the Earth’s surface

- As ions in seawater
- In the ocean floor

Metallurgy

Metallurgy is the science and technology of separating metals from their

ores and of compounding alloys.
An alloy is a solid solution either of two or more metals, or of a metal or
metals with one or more nonmetals.

Principal Steps

Preparation of the ore desired mineral is separated from waste materials or

gangue (clay and silicate minerals)

Flotation

Magnetic separation

Amalgamation

1. Gangue: The desired mineral is separated from waste materials

2. Flotation: The ore is finely ground and added to water containing oil
and detergent. The liquid mixture is then beaten or blown to form a
froth.
3. Magnetic Separation: Separate iron-bearing minerals from non-
ferrous minerals, such as quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Other commonly used applications include iron ore beneficiation,
industrial minerals, and coal processing
4. Amalgamation: Mercury forms amalgams with a number of metals.
An amalgam is an alloy of mercury with another metal or metals.
Mercury can therefore be used to extract metal from ore. Mercury
dissolves the silver and gold in an ore to form a liquid amalgam, which
is easily separated from the remaining ore. The gold or silver is
recovered by distilling off mercury.

Production of Metal

Metallurgy of iron

-Iron exists in Earth’s crust in many different minerals and must be isolated

-Chemical reduction by carbon in a blast furnace

-Mineral is mixed with carbon and limestone (CaCO3)

-Slag removes sand and aluminum oxide impurites

-Molten iron is removed at the bottom of the furnace

Production of Metal

Steel is made from iron ore, a compound of iron, oxygen and other minerals
that occurs in nature.
The raw materials for steelmaking are mined and then transformed into steel
using two different processes: the blast furnace/basic oxygen furnace route,
and the electric arc furnace

Semiconductors – elements that normally are not conductors, but will

conduct electricity

-at elevated temperatures or when combined with a small amount of certain

other elements.

-Group 4A elements are semiconductors especially • Silicon • Germanium

-Transistor is an example of semiconductor

Alkali Metals

- Chemical elements found in Group 1 of the periodic table.

They appear silvery and can be cut with a plastic knife.
- The alkali metals include: lithium, rubidium, cesium,
francium, sodium, potassium
- The word “alkali” received its name from the Arabic word
“al qali,” meaning “from ashes”, which since these
elements react with water to form hydroxide ions.
- Common oxidation state +1

Alkaline Earth Metals

- The elements of group – 2 are called alkaline earth metals

because their oxides and hydroxides are alkaline in nature
and these metal oxides are found in the earth’s crust.
- Common oxidation state +2
- The alkaline-earth elements are highly metallic and are
good conductors of electricity. They have a gray-white
when freshly cut but tarnish readily in air.
- The alkaline earth metals are six chemical elements in
group 2 of the periodic table. They are beryllium (Be),
magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba),
and radium (Ra).
- Emerald is a variety of beryl, a mineral that contains the
alkaline earth metal beryllium.
- Beryllium only occurs naturally in combination with other
elements in minerals.
Aluminum
 - Most abundant metal and the 3rd most plentiful element in
the Earth’s crust.
- Considered a precious metal until Hall developed a method
of Aluminum production

Charles Hall- pioneer of development of Aluminum

production

Transition Metals

- Any of various chemical elements that have valence

electrons-i.e., electrons that can participate in the
formation of chemical bonds in two shells instead of only
one.

Properties of Transition Metals

• Physical properties

- they are good conductors of heat and electricity

- they can be hammered or bent into shape easily
- they have high melting points (but mercury is a liquid at
room temperature)
- they are usually hard and tough
- they have high densities

• Chemical Properties

- they are less reactive than alkali metals such as sodium

- they form colored ions of different charges
- some are very unreactive (silver and gold)
- many are used as catalysts

Uses of Transition Metals

1. Gold
- Jewellery: Does not react with air or water at room
temperature Can be bent and hammered into shape
(malleable)
- Electrical Connectors: Good conductor of electricity.
2. Silver
- Jewellery: Does not react with air or water at room
temperature
- Printed circuit boards and electrical contacts: Good
conductor of electricity
 3. Copper
- Electrical Wires: Good conductor of electricity Can be
shaped into wires (ductile)
- Printed Circuit Boards: Good conductor of electricity
- Water Pipes: Does not react with water at room
temperature Can be hammered or bent into shape
4. Iron
Iron is usually too soft to be used as the metal alone. It is usually
mixed with small amounts of other elements to make steels, which are
harder and stronger than iron, but easily shaped. However, iron and
steel react slowly with water and air to produce rust. They must be
protected with, for example, a layer of paint.
- Building material, eg bridges, buildings, ships and cars:
Strong, sheets are easily shaped, and cheap compared to
most other metals.
- Catalyst in the chemical industry, eg in the Haber process
(the production of ammania): Increases the rate of certain
reactions but can be recovered, unchanged, at the end.
5. Chromium
- To coat other metals (such as iron) on cars and bicycles:
Stays shiny when polished, and resistant to corrosion.
- Catalyst in the chemical industry: Increases the rate of
certain reactions but can be recovered, unchanged, at the
end.

• Polymers

• Engineered Nanomaterials

• The Chemistry of the Atmosphere

• Chemistry of Water

• Chemistry of the Soil

• Six common polymers

• Solving about BCC and FCC Crystal Structure

• Solving about pH and pOH of Water