Behavioural views of learning

Understanding learning:
Learning is relatively a permanent change in behaviour.
This change in behaviour can happen through observation and experience.
Behavior changes through observation and experience due to processes that allow individuals
to adapt to their environment and learn from interactions with others or from personal
encounters. Here’s how it works:

1. Observation: Learning Through Watching (Observational Learning)

Definition: Observation involves watching others’ behaviors, outcomes of those behaviors,
and then imitating or refraining from those actions. This is also called modeling.
Key Mechanism: Mirror neurons in the brain activate when we see someone perform an
action, allowing us to understand and replicate the behavior.
Example:
A child sees their parent clean up after spilling water. Next time the child spills something,
they instinctively clean it up.
Observing a peer being praised for punctuality may lead to adopting timely habits.
Factors That Enhance Observational Learning:
Attention: Focusing on the behavior of others.
Retention: Remembering the behavior and its consequences.
Reproduction: The ability to replicate the behavior.
Motivation: Wanting to perform the observed behavior based on expected rewards or
punishments.

2. Experience: Learning Through Interaction (Experiential Learning)

Definition: Experiential learning happens when we engage directly with our environment,
facing challenges and understanding outcomes. It is an active process where individuals
reflect and adapt based on their experiences.
Key Mechanism:
Reinforcement and Punishment (from Behaviorism):
 Positive Reinforcement: Rewards encourage repeating behaviors (e.g., studying hard leads
to good grades).
 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus increases behavior (e.g., using
an umbrella to avoid rain).
 Punishment: Discourages unwanted behaviors (e.g., touching a hot stove teaches caution).
Example:
A student who struggles in a group project learns the importance of teamwork and starts
communicating better in future projects.
Experiencing failure in baking a cake might teach someone the importance of following
instructions.

Connection Between the Two:

 Observation often sets the foundation (seeing what others do), and experience solidifies the
learning (trying it oneself and seeing results). Together, they form a cycle of acquiring,
practicing, and mastering behaviors.

Early Explanations of Learning: Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

These theories focus on how learning occurs through associations between stimuli and
responses.

1. Contiguity Theory
 Definition: The contiguity theory suggests that learning happens when two events or stimuli
occur closely together in time or space.
 Key Principle: The closer two events are in proximity, the stronger the association formed
between them.

Key Concepts:
1. Temporal Contiguity: Events happening at the same time or immediately one after the other.
2. Spatial Contiguity: Events occurring near each other in physical space.

Example:
 A student hears the sound of a bell and immediately leaves the classroom. The bell (stimulus)
is associated with the action of leaving due to their consistent pairing.
 A child learns to associate the sight of a candy wrapper with the taste of candy because they
frequently occur together.

Limitation:

Contiguity alone doesn’t explain why some associations are stronger than others. It lacks an
understanding of reinforcement or deeper psychological processes.

2. Classical Conditioning (Pavlovian Conditioning)

 Definition: A form of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a
meaningful stimulus, eliciting a similar response.
 Key Researcher: Ivan Pavlov (early 1900s).

Key Components:
1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally elicits a response (e.g., food).
2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): A natural, unlearned reaction to the UCS (e.g., salivating
when seeing food).
3. Neutral Stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially has no effect (e.g., the sound of a bell).
4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): The NS becomes a CS when paired with the UCS repeatedly
(e.g., the bell after pairing with food).
5. Conditioned Response (CR): A learned response to the CS (e.g., salivating when hearing the
bell).

Steps in Classical Conditioning:

1. Before Conditioning: UCS → UCR (Food → Salivation). NS → No Response (Bell → No
Salivation).
2. During Conditioning: NS + UCS → UCR (Bell + Food → Salivation).
3. After Conditioning: CS → CR (Bell → Salivation).

Example:
 Pavlov’s Dogs: Dogs learned to salivate (CR) at the sound of a bell (CS) after it was
repeatedly paired with food (UCS).
 In daily life: A person feels hungry when they hear a specific jingle associated with a fast-
food ad.

Comparison of Contiguity and Classical Conditioning

Feature Contiguity Theory Classical Conditioning
Temporal/spatial proximity of
Focus Association of stimuli and responses
events
Key
Simple pairing of events Learning through repeated pairing
Mechanism
Lacks explanation for More comprehensive but requires repeated
Limitation
reinforcement exposure

These early theories laid the groundwork for understanding how associations form in learning
and were foundational for later developments in psychology.

Operant Conditioning: Trying New Responses

Operant Conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, explains learning as a process where

behaviors are shaped by consequences. It emphasizes how trying new responses is influenced
by reinforcement (rewards) or punishment.

How Trying New Responses Works in Operant Conditioning

1. Trial and Error:

a. Individuals try different behaviors to achieve desired outcomes.
b. Responses that lead to favorable consequences are repeated, while those with unfavorable
results are discarded.

Example:
c. A child trying various ways to get attention (crying, talking, or pulling a sleeve) may settle on
polite requests if it consistently gets positive attention.
2. Shaping:
a. When trying a completely new response, reinforcement is provided for successive
approximations toward the desired behavior.
b. This technique is crucial for complex behaviors that don't naturally occur.

Example:
c. Training a dog to roll over: Initially reward for lying down, then for turning slightly, and
finally for completing the full roll.
3. Exploration and Learning:
a. When individuals encounter new situations, they experiment with different actions to
understand what works (exploration).
b. Successful actions are reinforced, leading to learning.

Example:
c. A student in a game tries different strategies to win. When one strategy works, they stick to it.

Reinforcement and Punishment in Trying New Responses

 Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to encourage behavior.

o Example: A toddler tries saying "please" and gets a cookie.
 Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to encourage behavior.
o Example: A person tries taking painkillers for a headache and learns it brings relief, so they
repeat this action.
 Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to reduce behavior.
o Example: Touching a hot stove burns the hand, discouraging that action in the future.
 Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to reduce behavior.
o Example: A teenager loses screen time privileges for talking back, discouraging future sass.

Why Trying New Responses Is Important

1. Behavior Flexibility:
a. Encourages adaptation to new environments or challenges.
2. Discovery of Effective Actions:
a. By trying new responses, individuals learn what behaviors lead to positive outcomes.
3. Development of Skills:
a. Complex skills often require experimentation and reinforcement of smaller steps.

Skinner's Experiment on Trying New Responses

 Skinner Box:
o A rat in a box tries pressing a lever (a new response). Initially random, the behavior is
reinforced when the rat gets food, increasing the likelihood of lever pressing.
 Key Insight:
o Trying new responses is critical to learning, and reinforcement helps refine and solidify
successful actions.

Conclusion

Operant conditioning shows how new behaviors emerge from exploration and are solidified
through reinforcement or weakened through punishment. This process is essential for
learning in both simple and complex scenarios.

Reinforcement Schedules in Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement schedules determine how and when reinforcement is delivered after a

behavior. They are crucial in shaping and maintaining behaviors, as they affect the learning
speed and persistence of the behavior.

Two Broad Categories of Reinforcement Schedules

1. Continuous Reinforcement:
a. Reinforcement is provided every time the desired behavior occurs.
b. Example: Giving a treat to a dog every time it sits on command.

Characteristics:
c. Leads to rapid learning.
d. Behavior extinguishes quickly if reinforcement stops.
2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement:
a. Reinforcement is provided only some of the time the behavior occurs.
b. Example: Giving a treat occasionally when a dog sits on command.

Characteristics:
c. Learning is slower but more resistant to extinction.

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules

1. Fixed Ratio (FR):

a. Reinforcement is provided after a fixed number of responses.
b. Example: A factory worker gets paid after producing 10 units.

Characteristics:
c. Produces a high rate of responses.
d. Behavior often pauses briefly after reinforcement (post-reinforcement pause).
2. Variable Ratio (VR):
a. Reinforcement is provided after a varying number of responses, with the number averaging
around a certain value.
b. Example: Slot machines in casinos pay out after an unpredictable number of lever pulls.

Characteristics:
c. Produces a very high and steady rate of responses.
d. Extremely resistant to extinction.
3. Fixed Interval (FI):
a. Reinforcement is provided after a fixed amount of time, as long as the behavior occurs.
b. Example: A paycheck every two weeks, assuming the employee works.

Characteristics:
c. Responses increase as the time for reinforcement approaches (scalloping effect).
d. Slower response rates after reinforcement.
4. Variable Interval (VI):
a. Reinforcement is provided after varying intervals of time, with the time averaging around a
certain value.
b. Example: Checking your phone for a text message. The message arrives at unpredictable
times.

Characteristics:
c. Produces a steady, moderate rate of responses.
d. Resistant to extinction.

Comparison Table
Extinction
Type Reinforcement Timing Response Pattern
Resistance
After a set number of High response rate, brief
Fixed Ratio Moderate
responses pauses
Variable After an unpredictable Very high and steady
Very high
Ratio number response rate
Fixed After a set amount of Increased responses near
Moderate
Interval time time limit
Variable After unpredictable
Steady response rate High
Interval intervals

Practical Examples of Reinforcement Schedules

 Fixed Ratio: Loyalty programs (e.g., "Buy 5 coffees, get 1 free").
 Variable Ratio: Gambling or video games with unpredictable rewards.
 Fixed Interval: Weekly quizzes in a class encourage studying near quiz days.
 Variable Interval: Fishing, as the fish may bite at random intervals.

Importance in Behavior Shaping

Reinforcement schedules are vital in determining how quickly a behavior is learned and how
long it lasts. Variable schedules, particularly variable ratio, are most effective for creating
lasting behaviors because of their unpredictability.

Applied Behavior Analysis

Applied behavior analysis is a process systematically apply upon a principal of learning

theories, to improve socially significant behavior to a meaningful degree and to demonstrate
that intervention employeed are responsible for the improvement of behavior.

Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is a scientific approach that focuses on understanding and
improving behaviors. It is often used to help people learn new skills or change behaviors that
might be challenging.

Here’s an easy explanation:

1. Understanding Behavior: ABA looks at why people act the way they do. It studies how the
environment affects behavior and how behavior affects the environment.
2. Reinforcement: One key idea in ABA is reinforcement. This means rewarding good
behavior to encourage it to happen more often. For example, if a child shares their toys and
gets praised, they are more likely to share again.
3. Breaking Skills into Steps: ABA breaks big tasks into small, manageable steps. For
instance, teaching a child to brush their teeth might involve learning to pick up the toothbrush
first, then putting toothpaste, and so on.
4. Tracking Progress: It involves closely monitoring how someone responds to the teaching
strategies. If something isn’t working, the approach is adjusted.
5. Common Use: ABA is widely used to help children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD),
but it can be applied to anyone who needs to learn or improve behavior, including in
classrooms, workplaces, and therapy settings.
Major component of behavior:
1: Antecedent
2: Behavior
3: Consequences
Know as ABC model

The ABC model is a core component of Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and is crucial for
understanding and modifying behavior. Here's an easy-to-understand breakdown:
 ABC Model of Behavior

1. Antecedent (A):

2. What happens before the behavior. It can be a situation, event, or stimulus that triggers the
behavior.
a. Example: A teacher asks a student to sit down.
3. Behavior (B):

The action or response that occurs in reaction to the antecedent.

a. Example: The student sits down.
4. Consequence (C):

What happens after the behavior. This can reinforce or discourage the behavior in the future.
a. Example: The teacher praises the student for sitting down (positive reinforcement).

How It Works:

ABA uses the ABC model to:

 Understand why a behavior occurs.

 Adjust antecedents and consequences to encourage positive behaviors and reduce
problematic ones.

For example, if a child throws tantrums (behavior) when denied candy (antecedent), and the
parent gives the candy (consequence), the tantrum is reinforced. Changing the consequence
(e.g., not giving candy and teaching alternative ways to communicate) can help reduce
tantrums over time.

This systematic approach ensures that interventions are evidence-based and tailored to the
individual's needs! 🌼