Discrete Mathematics - Group Theory

Semigroup
A finite or infinite set ‘S ′ with a binary operation ‘ο′ (Composition) is called semigroup if it
holds following two conditions simultaneously −

Closure − For every pair (a, b) ∈ S, (aοb) has to be present in the set S .
Associative − For every element a, b, c ∈ S, (aοb)οc = aο(bοc) must hold.

Example
The set of positive integers (excluding zero) with addition operation is a semigroup. For
example, S = {1, 2, 3, …}

Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) ∈ S, (a + b) is present in the set S.
For example, 1 + 2 = 3 ∈ S]

Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c ∈ S, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c).

For example, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 5

Monoid
A monoid is a semigroup with an identity element. The identity element (denoted by e or
E) of a set S is an element such that (aοe) = a, for every element a ∈ S . An identity
element is also called a unit element. So, a monoid holds three properties simultaneously
− Closure, Associative, Identity element.

Example
The set of positive integers (excluding zero) with multiplication operation is a monoid.
S = {1, 2, 3, …}

Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) ∈ S, (a × b) is present in the set S.
[For example, 1×2=2∈S and so on]

Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c ∈ S, (a × b) × c = a × (b × c)

[For example, (1 × 2) × 3 = 1 × (2 × 3) = 6 and so on]

Identity property also holds for every element a ∈ S, (a × e) = a [For example,

(2 × 1) = 2, (3 × 1) = 3 and so on]. Here identity element is 1.
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Group
A group is a monoid with an inverse element. The inverse element (denoted by I) of a set
S is an element such that (aοI) = (Iοa) = a, for each element a ∈ S . So, a group holds
four properties simultaneously - i) Closure, ii) Associative, iii) Identity element, iv) Inverse
element. The order of a group G is the number of elements in G and the order of an
element in a group is the least positive integer n such that an is the identity element of
that group G.

Examples
The set of N ×N non-singular matrices form a group under matrix multiplication
operation.

The product of two N ×N non-singular matrices is also an N ×N non-singular matrix

which holds closure property.

Matrix multiplication itself is associative. Hence, associative property holds.

The set of N × N non-singular matrices contains the identity matrix holding the identity
element property.

As all the matrices are non-singular they all have inverse elements which are also
nonsingular matrices. Hence, inverse property also holds.

Abelian Group
An abelian group G is a group for which the element pair (a, b) ∈ G always holds
commutative law. So, a group holds five properties simultaneously - i) Closure, ii)
Associative, iii) Identity element, iv) Inverse element, v) Commutative.

Example
The set of positive integers (including zero) with addition operation is an abelian group.
G = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

Here closure property holds as for every pair (a, b) ∈ S, (a + b) is present in the set S.
[For example, 1+2=2∈S and so on]

Associative property also holds for every element a, b, c ∈ S, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)

[For example, (1 + 2) + 3 = 1 + (2 + 3) = 6 and so on]

Identity property also holds for every element a ∈ S, (a × e) = a [For example,

(2 × 1) = 2, (3 × 1) = 3 and so on]. Here, identity element is 1.
Commutative property also holds for every element a ∈ S, (a × b) = (b × a) [For
example, (2 × 3) = (3 × 2) = 3 and so on]

Cyclic Group and Subgroup

A cyclic group is a group that can be generated by a single element. Every element of a
cyclic group is a power of some specific element which is called a generator. A cyclic group
can be generated by a generator ‘g’, such that every other element of the group can be
written as a power of the generator ‘g’.

Example
The set of complex numbers {1, −1, i, −i} under multiplication operation is a cyclic group.

There are two generators − i and – i as i1 = i, i2 = −1, i3 = −i, i4 = 1 and also

(– i)1 = −i, (– i)2 = −1, (– i)3 = i, (– i)4 = 1 which covers all the elements of the group.
Hence, it is a cyclic group.

Note − A cyclic group is always an abelian group but not every abelian group is a cyclic
group. The rational numbers under addition is not cyclic but is abelian.

A subgroup H is a subset of a group G (denoted by H ≤ G) if it satisfies the four

properties simultaneously − Closure, Associative, Identity element, and Inverse.

A subgroup H of a group G that does not include the whole group G is called a proper
subgroup (Denoted by H < G). A subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic and a abelian
subgroup is also abelian.

Example
Let a group G = {1, i, −1, −i}

Then some subgroups are H1 = {1}, H2 = {1, −1},

This is not a subgroup − H3 = {1, i} because that (i)−1 = −i is not in H3

Partially Ordered Set (POSET)

A partially ordered set consists of a set with a binary relation which is reflexive,
antisymmetric and transitive. "Partially ordered set" is abbreviated as POSET.

Examples

The set of real numbers under binary operation less than or equal to (≤) is a
poset.
Let the set S = {1, 2, 3} and the operation is ≤
The relations will be {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}
 This relation R is reflexive as {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)} ∈ R
This relation R is anti-symmetric, as
{(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)} ∈ R and {(1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)} ∉ R
This relation R is also transitive as {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} ∈ R.
Hence, it is a poset.

The vertex set of a directed acyclic graph under the operation ‘reachability’ is a
poset.

Hasse Diagram
The Hasse diagram of a poset is the directed graph whose vertices are the element of that
poset and the arcs covers the pairs (x, y) in the poset. If in the poset x < y, then the
point x appears lower than the point y in the Hasse diagram. If x<y<z in the poset,
then the arrow is not shown between x and z as it is implicit.

Example
The poset of subsets of {1, 2, 3} = {∅, {1}, {2}, {3}, {1, 2}, {1, 3}, {2, 3}, {1, 2, 3}} is
shown by the following Hasse diagram −

Linearly Ordered Set

A Linearly ordered set or Total ordered set is a partial order set in which every pair of
element is comparable. The elements a, b ∈ S are said to be comparable if either a ≤ b or
b ≤ a holds. Trichotomy law defines this total ordered set. A totally ordered set can be
defined as a distributive lattice having the property {a ∨ b, a ∧ b} = {a, b} for all values of
a and b in set S.
Example
The powerset of {a, b} ordered by \subseteq is a totally ordered set as all the elements of
the power set P = {∅, {a}, {b}, {a, b}} are comparable.

Example of non-total order set

A set S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} under operation x divides y is not a total ordered set.

Here, for all (x, y) ∈ S, x|y have to hold but it is not true that 2 | 3, as 2 does not divide 3
or 3 does not divide 2. Hence, it is not a total ordered set.

Lattice
A lattice is a poset (L, ≤) {a, b} ∈ L has a least upper bound
for which every pair
(denoted by a ∨ b) and a greatest lower bound (denoted by a ∧ b). LUB ({a, b}) is called
the join of a and b. GLB ({a, b}) is called the meet of a and b.

Example
This above figure is a lattice because for every pair {a, b} ∈ L, a GLB and a LUB exists.

This above figure is a not a lattice because GLB(a, b) and LU B(e, f) does not exist.

Some other lattices are discussed below −

Bounded Lattice
A lattice L becomes a bounded lattice if it has a greatest element 1 and a least element 0.

Complemented Lattice
A lattice L becomes a complemented lattice if it is a bounded lattice and if every element
in the lattice has a complement. An element x has a complement x’ if
∃x(x ∧ x′ = 0andx ∨ x′ = 1)

Distributive Lattice
If a lattice satisfies the following two distribute properties, it is called a distributive lattice.

a ∨ (b ∧ c) = (a ∨ b) ∧ (a ∨ c)
a ∧ (b ∨ c) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ c)

Modular Lattice
If a lattice satisfies the following property, it is called modular lattice.

a ∧ (b ∨ (a ∧ d)) = (a ∧ b) ∨ (a ∧ d)

Properties of Lattices

Idempotent Properties

a∨a=a
a∧a=a

Absorption Properties

a ∨ (a ∧ b) = a
a ∧ (a ∨ b) = a

Commutative Properties

a∨b=b∨a
a∧b=b∧a

Associative Properties

a ∨ (b ∨ c) = (a ∨ b) ∨ c
a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) ∧ c

Dual of a Lattice
The dual of a lattice is obtained by interchanging the '∨ ' and '∧ ' operations.
Example
The dual of [a ∨ (b ∧ c)] is [a ∧ (b ∨ c)]