MTS 231 Actuating System

Dr. Basharat Ullah

Week 01

Department of Mechatronics
College of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering
Class Rules
 Avoid disruptive activities/behavior

o Use of mobile phones

o Talking/gossips in lectures

o Being late etc.

General Information
 Lecture Timings
o Tuesday: 1130-1220 (1 hour)
o Thursday: 1450-1630 (2 hours)

 How to contact me?

o Try to ask questions during the class so that everyone can benefit from the answer
o After lectures
o By Email/WhatsApp ([email protected])

o Never call on my mobile phone

Textbooks
 Textbook
o Electric Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen J Chapman, Latest Edition

 Reference Book
o Pneumatics and Hydraulic Systems, by W. Bolton, Butterworth Heinemann Ltd., Latest
Edition
Grading (subject to change)
 Credit Hours: 3-1
o Theory (3h) + Lab ( 1h)

Activities Percentage Marks

End Semester Exam 50%
Mid Term Exam 25%
75%
Assignments 10%
Quizzes 15%
Lab Work/Exam -- 25%
Quizzes and Assignments
 Six graded quizzes
o Quizzes may be announced or un-announced
o There may be few practice quizzes, which are ungraded

 2-4 assignments
o No “best of” policy

 NO makeup quiz will be given and late assignments will not be

accepted
Cheating and Plagiarism
 Zero tolerance policy
 Any one found guilty will be penalized. Maximum penalties could be
o Zero in all assignments and quizzes
o Case sent to MTS disciplinary committee for award of ‘F’ grade

 Plagiarism includes
o Copying full or part of class mate’s assignment
o Copy text from book, webpage, or paper, etc. without rephrasing and proper
referencing
Course Outline
Sr. No. Date Topic
1 Week 1 Magnetic circuits, Electromagnetic circuits
Principles of Electro-mechanical energy conversion and rotating
2 Week 2 machines
3 Week 3-4 Operating principles of DC machines
4 Week 5 Performance analysis of the DC machines
5 Week 6-7 Brush less DC motor
6 Week 8-9 Concepts of AC machines
7 Week 10 Types & applications of AC motors
8 Week 11-12 Construction and operation of synchronous motor and generator
Course Outline
Sr. No. Date Topic
9 Week 13-14 Induction machines& their characteristics
Basic Pneumatic Circuits, Pneumatic Actuators, Electro-Pneumatics
10 Week 15-16 and Hydraulic Systems
What is an Actuating System??
 Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are
responsible for transforming the output of a microprocessor or
control system into a controlling action on a machine or device.

o Pneumatic --- Vacuum Generators

o Electrical --- DC Motors
o Hydraulic --- Fluid based Motors
o Mechanical --- Gears
Introduction to Actuating Systems
 Machine?
 Electromechanical Machines
o Electric machines interconvert electric and mechanical energy
o Generator converts mechanical energy to electric energy
o Motor converts electric energy to mechanical energy

 Transformer converts ac electric energy at one voltage level to

another voltage level

 All three depend on the action of a magnetic field.

Introduction to Actuating Systems
Electric Machines

Static Machines Dynamic Machines

• Transformer • Motors and Generators

Introduction to Actuating Systems
Dynamic Machines

AC Machines DC Machines

Synchronous Induction Brushed Brushless

Rotational Motion
 Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the shaft of the machines.
 Angular position, θ: The angular position of an object is the angle at which it is
oriented, measured from some arbitrary reference point. Its measurement units are
in radians (rad) or in degrees.

 Conventional notation
o Counterclockwise angle of rotation is assumed to be positive
o Clockwise angle one is assumed to be negative

 Linear Velocity, V: One dimensional linear velocity along a line is the rate of
change of the displacement along the line (r) with respect to time.
Rotational Motion
dr
v r – distance travelled by the body
dt t – time taken to travel the distance r

 Angular Velocity, ω: The rate of change in angular position with respect to time.
For a rotating body, angular velocity is formulated as:
d  – Angular position/angular distance
 rad/s t – Time taken to attain the position
dt

 So, for measuring shaft speed instead of rad/sec (𝜔𝑚 ), generally the units of
revolutions per second (𝑓𝑚 ) or revolutions per minute (𝑛𝑚 ) is used.

it is the frequency or
it is RPM revolution per second
Rotational Motion
 Torque, τ: In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to
change. The greater the force applied to the object, the more rapidly its velocity
changes.

 Similarly in the concept of rotation, when an object is rotating, its angular velocity
is constant unless a torque is present on it. Greater the torque, more rapid the
angular velocity changes.

 Torque is known as a rotational force applied to a rotating body giving angular

acceleration, also known as ‘twisting force’.
Rotational Motion
 Torque, τ: Product of force applied to the object and the smallest distance
between the line of action of the force and the object’s axis of rotation.

 How to understand torque?

o Put the thumb in the direction of torque
o The other four fingers point to the direction of rotation
𝑇=𝑅×𝐹
𝑇 = 𝑅𝐹𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

 Unit of torque is Newton-meter (Nm) here the angle in between is

greater than 90
Newton’s Law of Rotation
 Newton’s law for objects moving in a straight line describes the relationship
between the force applied to the object and the acceleration.
𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
 Applying these concepts for rotating bodies,
𝜏 = 𝐽𝛼
where
 - Torque, (N-m)
J – moment of inertia (angular mass)-Similar to mass
 - angular acceleration
Work
 Work, W – (for linear bodies) is defined as the application of Force through a
distance. Therefore, work may be defined as:

𝑊 = න 𝐹 𝑑𝑟

 Assuming that the direction of F is collinear (in the same direction) with the
direction of motion and constant in magnitude, hence
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑟
 For rotating bodies: Work is application of a torque through an angle, 𝑊 = ‫𝜃𝑑 𝜏 ׬‬
 Assuming that  is constant, 𝑊 = 𝜏𝜃
Power
 Power, P – is defined as rate of doing work. Hence,
𝑃 = 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑡 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠/𝑠𝑒𝑐)
 Applying this for rotating bodies, [assuming constant torque]
d
P   
dt
d

dt
 
 This equation can describe the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or
generator.
Basic Parameters
 Flux: The number of magnetic field lines passing through a given closed surface
 Useful Flux: Flux that passes through the core
 Leakage Flux: Flux that leaks into the surrounding air and does not passes through
the core
 Reluctance: Opposition to the flow of flux
𝑙 𝑙
𝑅= =
𝜇𝐴 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝐴
1
 Permeance: The opposite of reluctance, 𝑃 =
𝑅

 MMF: Drives flux through core

𝑚𝑚𝑓 = ∅𝑅
Magnetic Fields in Electrical Machines
 Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is converted
from one form to another in motors, generators and transformers.

 A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

 A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on
it (motor action).
 A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it
(generator action).
 A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in coil of wire through which it
passes (transformer action).
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Ampere’s Law – the basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a
current:

ර 𝑯 ∙ 𝑑𝐥 = 𝑰𝒏𝒆𝒕 Contour integral is the

integral over a closed line

where
H is the magnetic field intensity produced by the current 𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑡 (measured in
Ampere-turns per meter)
𝑑𝐥 is a differential element of length along the path of integration (measured in
Amperes)
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Consider a current carrying conductor wrapped around a ferromagnetic material
core (e.g. iron).
 N turns of wire wrapped about one leg of the core
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Assumptions: To keep our calculation simple, we assume certain things;

 Assuming that a majority of the magnetic field will be confined to the core
(because the core is made of ferromagnetic material).
 Path of integration in Ampere’s Law is the mean path length of core.
 Assuming that the area A from which flux passes is constant
 Assuming that magnetic flux density in the ferromagnetic core is constant
throughout, since A is constant.
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Let the mean path length of the core, is 𝑙𝑐 .
 Total current passing (Inet) is then Ni, since
the coil of wires cuts the path of integration
N times while carrying the current i.
 Hence Ampere’s Law becomes,
Hlc  Ni
Ni
H 
lc
 Here H is the magnitude of the magnetic
field intensity.
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Magnetic field intensity (H) is in a sense, a measure of “effort” that a current is
putting in establishment of magnetic field.
 While magnetic flux density (B) is the strength of magnetic field produced by H.
 The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the
material of the core. Thus,
B  H
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced (webers/meter2, Tesla (T))
µ = magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter)
 Ni
B
lc
Production of a Magnetic Field
 The constant  may be further expanded to include relative permeability which
can be defined as below: 
r  𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻/𝑚
o
where: o – permeability of free space (vacuum, air)
 The value of relative permeability is dependent upon the type of material used.
The higher the relative permeability, the higher the amount of flux induced in the
core.
 Example: Steel in Electrical machines have relative permeabilities of 2000-6000.
This means that, for a given amount of current, 2000 to 6000 times more flux is
established in a piece of steel than in corresponding area of air. Permeability of
air is essentially the same as permeability of free-space.
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Total flux: To measure the total flux (φ) flowing in the ferromagnetic core,
consideration has to be made in terms of its cross sectional area. Therefore,
𝜙 = න 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
Where dA = differential unit of area
 By assuming that the flux density in the ferromagnetic core is constant
throughout, the equation simplifies to be, 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴
 By putting the past derivation of B, flux becomes,
 NiA

lc
Magnetic Circuits
 The flow of magnetic flux induced in the ferromagnetic core can be made
analogous to an electrical circuit hence the name magnetic circuit.

 Referring to the magnetic circuit analogy, F is denoted as magnetomotive force

(mmf) which is similar to Electromotive force in an electrical circuit (emf).
Magnetic Circuits
 Therefore, we can safely say that F is the prime mover or force (like voltage)
which pushes magnetic flux around a ferromagnetic core at a value of Ni (refer to
ampere’s law). Hence F is measured in ampere turns.
F  R
 The element of R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in concept to the
electrical resistance. It is basically the measure of material resistance to the flow
of magnetic flux, measured in Ampere-turns per weber.
 Series Reluctance, Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
 Parallel Reluctance,
1 1 1 1
    ...
Req R1 R2 R3
Summary
 H – Magnetic field intensity (or strength) is amount of magnetizing force, it is
measured in Ampere-turns per meter
 B – Magnetic flux density, is the amount of magnetism induced in a body, is a
function of the magnetizing force (H). It is measured in weber per square meter
 φ – The entire group of magnetic lines of force (or field lines) is called magnetic
flux. Its symbol is the Greek letter phi (φ) and unit is weber or maxwell. (1 weber
= 108 maxwell)
 F – The force which pushes magnetic flux around a ferromagnetic core, measured
in ampere turns
Sources of Inaccuracy
 By using the magnetic circuit approach, it simplifies calculations related to the
magnetic field in a ferromagnetic material, however, this approach has inaccuracy
embedded into it due to assumptions made in creating this approach (within 5%
of the real answer). Possible reason of inaccuracy is due to:
 The magnetic circuit assumes that all flux are confined within the core
 The reluctance calculation assumes a certain mean path length and cross
sectional area of the core N
 The material permeability is not constant hence there is an
existence of non-linearity of permeability
 For ferromagnetic core which has air gaps, there are fringing
effects that should be taken into account S
Actually the no of resisters are increasing when the are gets changed,
area is equal to width multiply with the depth so depth osa same but the
width is canging thats why here are two resisters
Example 1.1
 A ferromagnetic core is shown in the
Figure. Three sides of this core are of
uniform width, while the fourth side
is somewhat thinner. The depth of
the core (into the page) is 10 cm, and
the other dimensions are shown in
the figure. There is a 200-turn coil
wrapped around the left side of the
core. Assuming relative permeability
𝜇𝑟 of 2500, how much flux will be
produced by a 1-A input current?
Example 1.1
 Mean length of thinner side = 45 cm =
0.45 m

 So, the total reluctance in the core is;

 Mean length of other 3 sides = 130
cm = 1.30 m
Example 1.1
 The total magnetomotive force is;

 The total flux in the core is given by;

Example 1.2
 Figure shows a ferromagnetic core whose
mean path length is 40 cm. There is a small
gap of 0.05 cm in the structure of the
otherwise whole core. The cross-sectional
area of the core is 12 𝑐𝑚2 , the relative
permeability of the core is 4000, and the coil
of wire on the core has 400 turns. Assume
that fringing in the air gap increases the
effective cross-sectional area of the air gap
by 5 percent. Given this information, find (a)
the total reluctance of the flux path (iron plus
air gap) and (b) the current required to
produce a flux density of 0.5 T in the air gap.
Example 1.2
(a) The reluctance of the core is

 The effective area of the air gap

is1.05 × 12 𝑐𝑚2 = 12.6𝑐𝑚2 , so the  So, the total reluctance in the core is;
reluctance of the air gap is

Note that the air gap contributes most of the

reluctance even though it is 800 times shorter
than the core.
Example 1.2
(b) The current required to produce a
flux density of 0.5 T in the air gap?

 Since the flux 𝜙 = 𝐵𝐴, and 𝐹 = 𝑁𝑖,

his equation becomes;

Note that, since the air-gap flux was required, the effective air-gap area was used in
the above equation.
Magnetic Behavior
 Susceptibility is the measures of how much a material will be magnetized in an
applied magnetic field.
 Ferro-magnetic: materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field. They are strongly attracted to both poles of magnets.
 Para-magnetic: materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic fields.
They are weakly attracted to a single pole.
 Dia-magnetic: Create an induced magnetic field in a direction opposite to an
externally applied magnetic field, and are repelled by the applied magnetic field,
i.e. they repel both poles of magnets.
o A diamagnet is not a permanent magnet
o Its magnetic permeability is less than o
o E.g. copper, silver, and lead
Magnetic Behavior
 Permeability is the property of a medium that determines its magnetic
characteristics.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
 The permeability of magnetic materials is
much higher than 𝝁𝟎 therefore, a much
Saturated
larger value of B is produced in these region
materials than in free space.
Knee
 However, the permeability is not linear
anymore but does depend on the current
over a wide range.
Unsaturated
 In electrical machines and region
electromechanical devices a somewhat
linear relationship between B and I is
desired, which is normally approached by
limiting the current.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
 This plot is called a saturation curve or a
magnetization curve.
Saturated
 The region where the flux changes rapidly is region
called the unsaturated region. Knee

 The region in which the curve flattens out is

called saturation region, and the core is said Unsaturated
region
to be saturated.

 The transition region is called the ‘knee’ of

the curve.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
 It can be seen that magnetizing intensity (H) is directly proportional to
magnetomotive force (F) and magnetic flux density (B) is directly proportional to
flux (ϕ) for any given core.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
 Advantage of using a ferromagnetic material for cores in electric machines and
transformers is that one gets more flux for a given mmf than with air (free space).

 If the resulting flux has to be proportional to the mmf, then the core must be
operated in the unsaturated region.

 Generators and motors depend on magnetic flux to produce voltage and torque,
so they need as much flux as possible. So, they operate near the knee of the
magnetization curve.
Magnetic Behavior of Ferromagnetic Materials
A detailed magnetization curve for a typical piece of steel
Example 1.4
 Find the relative permeability of the typical ferromagnetic material whose
magnetization curve is shown in Figure, at (a) H = 50, (b) H = 100, (c) H = 500, and
(d) H = 1000 A • turns/m.
 Solution: The permeability of a material is given by