Treatment of

UNIT 7 TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER Wastewater

Structure
7.1 Introduction
Objectives
7.2 Screening
7.3 Grit Removal
7.4 Comminution
7.5 Flow Equalization
7.6 Oil and Grease Removal
7.7 Sedimentation
7.8 Flotation
7.9 Granular Medium Filtration
7.10 Chemical Unit Processes
7.10.1 Chemical Precipitation
7.10.2 Adsorption with Activated Carbon
7.10.3 Disinfection
7.10.4 Other Chemical Applications
7.11 Biological Treatment Units and Processes
7.12 The Role of Micro-organisms in Biological Processes
7.13 Biological Treatment of Wastewater
7.13.1 Activated Sludge Process
7.13.2 Trickling Filters
7.13.3 Rotating Biological Contactors
7.13.4 Stabilization Ponds
7.13.5 Completely Mixed Anaerobic Digestion
7.13.6 Biological Nutrient Removal
7.14 Summary
7.15 Answers to SAQs

7.1 INTRODUCTION
Wastewater treatment is becoming ever more critical due to diminishing water
resources, increasing wastewater disposal costs, and stricter discharge regulations
that have lowered permissible contaminant levels in waste streams. The treatment
of wastewater for reuse and disposal is particularly important for water scarce
areas. The municipal sector consumes significant volumes of water, and
consequently generates considerable amounts of wastewater discharge. Municipal
wastewater is a combination of water and water-carried wastes originating from
homes, commercial and industrial facilities, and institutions.
Untreated wastewater generally contains high levels of organic material,
numerous pathogenic micro-organisms, as well as nutrients and toxic compounds.
It, thus, entails environmental and health hazards, and, consequently, must
immediately be conveyed away from its generation sources and treated
appropriately before final disposal. The ultimate goal of wastewater management
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Environmental is the protection of the environment in a manner commensurate with public health
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and environment.
Nature of Municipal Wastewater
An understanding of the nature of wastewater is fundamental for the design
of appropriate wastewater treatment plants and the selection of effective
treatment technologies. Wastewater originates predominantly from water
usage by residences and commercial and industrial establishments, together
with groundwater, surface water and stormwater. Consequently, wastewater
flow fluctuates with variations in water usage, which is affected by a
multitude of factors including climate, community size, living standards,
dependability and quality of water supply, water conservation requirements
or practices, and the extent of meter services, in addition to the degree of
industrialization, cost of water and supply pressure. Wide variations in
wastewater flow rates may, thus, be expected to occur within a community.
Wastewater quality may be defined by its physical, chemical and biological
characteristics. Physical parameters include colour, odour, temperature, and
turbidity. Insoluble contents such as solids, oil and grease, also fall into this
category. Solids may be further subdivided into suspended and dissolved
solids as well as organic (volatile) and inorganic (fixed) fractions.
Chemical parameters associated with the organic content of wastewater
include biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen demand
(COD), total organic carbon (TOC) and total oxygen demand (TOD).
Inorganic chemical parameters include salinity, hardness, pH, acidity and
alkalinity, as well as concentrations of ionized metals such as iron and
manganese, and anionic entities such as chlorides, sulphates, sulphides,
nitrates and phosphates. Bacteriological parameters include coliforms, fecal
coliforms, specific pathogens, and viruses. Both constituents and
concentrations vary with time and local conditions.
The effects of the discharge of untreated wastewater into the environment
are manifold and depend on the types and concentrations of pollutants.
Important contaminants in terms of their potential effects on receiving
waters and treatment concerns are briefly explained below.
Suspended solids (SS) can lead to development of sludge deposits and
anaerobic conditions when untreated wastewater is discharged into the
aquatic environment.
Biodegradable organics are principally made up of proteins, carbohydrates
and fats. They are commonly measured in terms of BOD and COD. If
discharged into inland rivers, streams or lakes, their biological stabilization
can deplete natural oxygen resources and cause septic conditions that are
detrimental to aquatic species.
Pathogenic organisms found in wastewater can cause infectious diseases.
Priority pollutants, including organic and inorganic compounds, may be
highly toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic or teratogenic.
Refractory organics that tend to resist conventional wastewater treatment
include surfactants, phenols and agricultural pesticides.
Heavy metals usually added by commercial and industrial activities must be
removed for reuse of the wastewater.

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 Dissolved inorganic constituents such as calcium, sodium and sulphate are Treatment of
Wastewater
often initially added to domestic water supplies, and may have to be
removed for waste-water reuse.
Overview of Wastewater Treatment Technologies
Physical, chemical and biological methods are used to remove contaminants
from wastewater. In order to achieve different levels of contaminant
removal, individual wastewater treatment procedures are combined into a
variety of systems, classified as primary, secondary and tertiary wastewater
treatment. More rigorous treatment of wastewater includes the removal of
specific contaminants as well as the removal and control of nutrients.
Natural systems are also used for the treatment of wastewater in land-based
applications. Sludge resulting from wastewater treatment operations is
treated by various methods in order to reduce its water and organic content
and make it suitable for final disposal and reuse.

Pretreatment – Removes materials that

can cause operational problems,
equalization (optional.)

Primary Treatment – Removes about

60% of solids and about 35% of BOD.

Secondary Treatment – Removes

about 85% of BOD and solids.

Advanced Treatment – Removes

about 95% of BOD or more and
solids, nitrogen and phosphorus.

Wastewater Treatment Systems

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to
• describe the various conventional and advanced technologies in
current use,
• explain how they are applied for the effective treatment of municipal
wastewater,
• discuss the type of aerobic and anaerobic biological processes and
their use in wastewater treatment, and
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Environmental • conceptualise the biological processes involved in activated sludge
Engineering
process, trickling filter, stabilization pond, rotating biological
contactor and aerobic and anaerobic sludge digestion.

7.2 SCREENING
The screening of wastewater, one of the oldest treatment methods, removes gross
pollutants from the waste stream to protect downstream equipment from damage,
avoid interference with plant operations and prevent objectionable floating
material from entering the primary settling tanks. Screening devices may consist
of parallel bars, rods or wires, grating, wire mesh, or perforated plates, to
intercept large floating or suspended material. The openings may be of any shape,
but are generally circular or rectangular. The material retained from the manual or
mechanical cleaning of bar racks and screens is referred to as “screenings”, and is
either disposed of by burial or incineration, or returned into the waste flow after
grinding. The principal types of screening devices are listed in Table 7.1 (also see
Figures 7.1 and 7.2).
Table 7.1 : Screen Types
Screen Size of Application Type of Screens
Category Openings
(mm)

Coarse screens >6 Remove large Manually cleaned bar screens/trash racks
solids, rags, and
debris. Mechanically cleaned bar screens/trash
racks
Chain or cable driven with front or back
cleaning
Reciprocating rake screens
Catenary screens
Continuous self-cleaning screens

Fine screens 1.5-6 Reduce suspended Rotary-drum screens

solids to primary
treatment levels Rotary-drum screens with outward or
inward flow
Rotary-vertical-disk screens
Inclined revolving disc screens
Traveling water screens
Endless band screen
Vibrating screens

Very fine 0.2-1.5 Reduce suspended

screens solids to primary
treatment levels

Microscreens 0.001-0.3 Upgrade secondary

effluent to tertiary
standards

The coarse screen category includes manually or mechanically cleaned bar

screens and trash racks. Bar screens consist of vertical or inclined steel bars
distributed equally across a channel through which wastewater flows. They are
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used ahead of mechanical equipment including raw sewage pumps, grit chambers, Treatment of
Wastewater
and primary sedimentation tanks. Trash racks, for their part, are constructed of
parallel rectangular or round steel bars with clear openings. Regular bar screens
or comminutors usually follows them. Comminutors or macerators is a device
that traps the material between their teeth and a fixed comb. Criteria used in the
design of coarse screens include bar size, spacing, and angle from the vertical, as
well as channel width and wastewater approach velocity. Fine screens consist of
various types of screen media, including slotted perforated plates, wire mesh,
woven wire cloth and wedge-shaped wire. Due to their tiny openings, fine screens
must be cleaned continuously by means of brushes, scrapers, or jets of water,
steam, or air forced through the reverse side of the openings. The efficiency of a
fine screen depends on the fineness of the openings as well as the sewage flow
velocity through those openings.
Working
Platform Operating Solution

Soil Screen
Screen box
Screen
Supply
Intake Outlet
Sediment Waste Waste

(a) (b)
Operating Platform

Inlet

Waste
Outlet

(c)

Figure 7.1: Manually Cleaning Fixed Bar Screens : (a) Vertical Rack Cleaned by Hand
Operated Long-tined Rake; (b) Inclined Screen with Upward Flow (Screen can be tilted for
cleaning); (c) Self-flushing Inclined Screen

Trough

Rack

Figure 7.2 : Mechanically Cleaned Bar Screens

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Environmental
Engineering 7.3 GRIT REMOVAL
Wastewater usually contains a relatively large amount of inorganic solids such as
sand, cinders and gravel, which are collectively called grit. The amount present
in a particular wastewater depends primarily on whether the collecting sewer
system is of the sanitary or combined type. Grit will damage pumps by abrasion
and cause serious operation difficulties in sedimentation tanks and sludge
digesters by accumulation around and plugging of outlets and pump
suctions. Consequently, it is common practice to remove this material by grit
chambers.
Grit chambers are usually located ahead of pumps or comminuting devices, and if
mechanically cleaned, should be preceded by coarse bar rack screens. Grit
chambers are generally designed as long channels. In these channels, the velocity
is reduced sufficiently to deposit heavy inorganic solids but to retain organic
material in suspension. Channel type chambers should be designed to provide
controlled velocities as close as possible to 0.3 meter per second. Velocities
substantially smaller than 0.3 meter per second cause excessive organic materials
to settle out with the grit.
The detention period is usually between 20 seconds to 1.0 minute. This is
attained by providing several chambers to accommodate variation in flow or by
proportional weirs at the end of the chamber or other flow control devices, which
permit regulation of flow velocity.
One development is the injection of air above the floor of a tank type unit. The
rolling action of the air keeps the lighter organic matter in suspension and allows
the grit relatively free from organic matter to be deposited in the quiescent zone
beneath the zone of air diffusion. Excessive quantities of air can cause the roll
velocity to be too high resulting in poor grit removal. Insufficient quantities of
air result in low roll velocities and excessive organic matter will settle with the
grit. These grit chambers are usually called aerated grit chambers (Figure 7.3).

Inlet

H
W
Outlet
Channel
(Not Shown) V
P

Average Air Supply to Diffusers

Peripheral Exit
Velocity (mt/s)

Air Diffuser

Grit

Grit Hopper and Collector Mechanism

Figure 7.3 : Aerated Grit Chambers

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Grit chambers are designed to be cleaned manually or by mechanically operated Treatment of
Wastewater
devices. If cleaned manually, storage space for the deposited grit is usually
provided. Grit chambers for plants treating wastes from combined sewers should
have at least two hand-cleaned units or a mechanically cleaned unit with by-pass.
Mechanically cleaned grit chambers are recommended. Single, hand-cleaned
chambers with by-pass are acceptable for small wastewater treatment plants
serving sanitary sewer systems. Chambers other than channel type are
acceptable, if provided with adequate and flexible controls for agitation and/or air
supply devices and with grit removal equipment. There are a number of
mechanical cleaning units available which remove grit by scrapers or buckets
while the grit chamber is in normal operation. These require much less grit
storage space than manually operated units.
Grit always contains some organic matter, which decomposes and creates odours.
To facilitate economical disposal of grit without causing nuisance, the organic
matter is sometimes washed from the grit and returned to the wastewater. Special
equipment is available to wash grit. Mechanical cleaning equipment, generally
provides for washing grit with wastewater, as it is removed from the chamber.
Manually cleaned grit chambers for combined wastewater should be cleaned
after every large storm. Under ordinary conditions, these grit chambers should be
cleaned when the deposited grit has filled 50 to 60 percent of the grit storage
space. This should be checked at least every ten days during dry weather. When
mechanically cleaned grit chambers are used, they must be cleaned at regular
intervals to prevent undue load on the cleaning mechanism. Recommendations of
the manufacturer should be rigidly observed. This plus experience, will determine
the cleaning schedule. A grit in which marked odours develop indicates that
excessive organic matter is being removed in the grit chamber. Alternately, if
sludge from a settling tank is excessively high in grit, or if there is excessive wear
in pumps, comminutors, sludge collectors or other mechanical equipment, the
reason is likely to be inefficient functioning of the grit removing process.

7.4 COMMINUTION
Comminutors are used to pulverize large floating material in the waste flow. They
are installed where the handling of screenings would be impractical, generally
between the grit chamber and the primary settling tanks. Their use reduces
odours, flies and unsightliness. A comminutor may have either rotating or
oscillating cutters. Rotating-cutter comminutors either engage a separate
stationary screen alongside the cutters, or a combined screen and cutter rotating
together. A different type of comminutor, known as a barminutor, involves a
combination of a bar screen and rotating cutters.

7.5 FLOW EQUALIZATION

Flow equalization is a technique used to improve the effectiveness of secondary
and advanced wastewater treatment processes by levelling out operation
parameters such as flow, pollutant levels and temperature over a period of time.
Variations are damped until a near-constant flow rate is achieved, minimizing the
downstream effects of these parameters. Flow equalization may be applied at a
number of locations within a wastewater treatment plant, e.g. near the head end of
the treatment works, prior to discharge into a water body, and prior to advanced
waste treatment operations.

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Environmental
Engineering 7.6 OIL AND GREASE REMOVAL
Main sources of oil and grease include kitchens, restaurants, slaughterhouses and
garages. Their removal from wastewater is necessary because of the following :
(a) They protect tank walls of subsequent sewage treatment plant
facilities from grease deposits.
(b) They protect the biological processes, especially air diffusers from
grease deposits.
(c) The oil and grease adversely affect bacteria and protozoa life, which
is essential in bio-treatment.
(d) Oil and grease are difficult to digest; hence the cost of digestion is
increased.
Oil and grease are generally lighter than water; thereby they float (i.e., rise to
surface). Oil and grease removal can be achieved in skimming tanks (Figure 7.4).
In the aeration zone, air is injected into the lower level. Settling zone serves as the
area to facilitate rising of oil and grease to the surface. Retention time is kept
between 10-15 min. Extraction of oil and grease is achieved by either through
manual extraction or mechanical skimming of surface or through overflowing.
Oil and Grease
Inlet Baffle
Skimming Trough

Inlet

Settling
Zone

Aeration Zone Inclined Outlet

Air

Figure 7.4 : Oil and Grease Removal

SAQ 1

With the help of sketches, describe the principles involved in the design and
construction of following
(i) Grit Chamber.
(ii) Screens.
(iii) Skimming Tank.

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 Treatment of
7.7 SEDIMENTATION Wastewater

Sedimentation, a fundamental and widely used unit operation in wastewater

treatment, involves the gravitational settling of heavy particles suspended in a
mixture. This process is used for the removal of grit, particulate matter in the
primary settling basin, biological floc in the activated sludge settling basin, and
chemical flow when the chemical coagulation process is used.
Four types of settling occur, depending on particle concentration: discrete,
flocculent, hindered and compression (Figure 7.5). It is common for more than
one type of settling to occur during a sedimentation operation.
Types of Sedimentation
Type I : Discrete particles – no particle interaction.
Type II : Flocculating Free Particles – large floc particles “sweep”
smaller particles (faster than Type I).
Type III : Hindered – limited by fluid flow through particle groups.
Type IV : Compression – particles physically interact, water must be
squeezed out to compress particle group.

Type I

Type II

Type III

Type IV

t=0 t=x t=y

0<t<y
(a) Sedimentation of Particles

FB

FD FD

FB : Bouyant Force
FD : Drag Force
Settling
FG : Gravitational Force
Particle

FG

(b) Forces Acting on a Discrete Settling Particle

Figure 7.5 : Sedimentation of Particles and Forces on a Discrete Settling Particle
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Environmental The rate of change in the momentum of a settling particle can be written as
Engineering
dvs
mp = FG − FB − FD
dt
where, mp = Mass of particle (kg),
vs = Particle settling velocity (m/s),
FG = Gravitational force (N),
FB = Buoyant force (N), and
B

FD = Drag force (N).

For an ideal system, the terminal settling velocity is attained quickly and the
acceleration term can be neglected. Thus, the force balance on a settling
particle can be written as follows:
dvs
mp = 0 = FG − FB − FD
dt
or FD = FG − FB

Size Determination for Sedimentation Basin

Important aspects in the determination of size of sedimentation basin are the
following :
• Surface loading (m3/m2/h)
• Detention time (h)
• Weir loading rate (m3/m/h)
Sedimentation rate of SS depends on the size of sedimentation particles.

Target Perforated
Baffle Effluent
Baffle Weir
Q
Settling
Zone
Type – Rectangular/Square
Inlet Outlet – Circular
Zone Zone
Flow Pattern – Radial
– Horizontal
Sludge Zone – Upflow

(a)

Q
Outlet
Zone

Settling
Zone

Inlet
Zone
Sludge Zone

(b)

Figure 7.6 : Zones of Sedimentation; (a) Horizontal Flow Clarifier; and

(b) Up Flow Clarifier
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Inlet Zone Treatment of
Wastewater
It evenly distributes the flow and suspended solids across the cross-section
of the settling zones. It covers approximately 25% of the tank length.
Settling Zone
Where the actual settling of particles takes place.
Sludge Collection Zone of Sludge
Configuration and depth of the sludge zone depends on the method of
cleaning and quantity of sludge deposited. Well flocculated solids, 75%
settle in the 1/5th of the tank length.
Outlet Zone
Removal of settled water without carrying away any of the flocs. Should be
designed to avoid scouring by having either weirs or trough.
Determination of Settling Velocity
Figure 7.7 shows settling paths of discrete particles in a idealised horizontal
flow tank.
Surface Area (A)
Inflow Out Flow
Q Q
Q/A

v
d v
v 0 h
s
Inlet Direction of Flow
Zone v
h d
0 Settling Zone
v
0
dl Outlet
dh v
h d Zone
v
s

Sludge Zone

l
l
0

Figure 7.7 : Settling Paths of Discrete Particles in a Horizontal Flow Tank (Idealised)
In Figure 7.7, vo is the velocity of the particle falling through the full depth
h0 of the settling zone in the detention time t0. In Figure 7.7 above
vd is the displacement velocity and vs is the settling velocity.
h0
Therefore, v0 =
t0

V l × w × h0
t0 = =
Q Q
where, V = Volume of the settling tank, and
w = Width of the channel.
Therefore, surface loading or overflow velocity can be further written as
Q Q
v0 = =
l × w As
where, As = Surface area.
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Environmental Therefore, removal of particles from the tank is independent of the depth of
Engineering
the tank. All particles with vs ≥ v0 are removed by way of settling in the
tank. Thus, the horizontal velocity component or displacement velocity vd
should not be very high else the particles will not settle and get washed
away.
For design calculations,
vo = 0.8 vs
Particles of vs < v0 can be removed from horizontal flow basins if they are
v
within vertical striking distance of s × l0 from the sludge zone.
vd
Settling of dilute suspensions which have little or no tendency to flocculate;
Type I Sedimentation (Discrete Particle Settling) is assumed. Considering
spherical particles, the terminal velocity is given as
g (ρ s − ρ L ) 2
vc = d
18 μ
where, vc = Terminal velocity,
ρs = Density of the particle,
ρL = Density of the liquid,
g = Acceleration due to gravity,
d = Diameter of particle, and
μ = Dynamic viscosity.
In the design of sedimentation basins, select a particle with terminal
velocity vc and design the basin so that all particles that have settling
velocity equal to or greater than vc will be removed.
Typical Overflow Rates in Wastewater Applications
Wastewater Treatment
Primary settling = 22-60 m/d;
Activated Sludge = 10-32 m/d;
Ideal Sedimentation Design Assumptions
(a) Homogeneous inlet zone (same particle size distribution at all depths).
(b) Discrete particle (Type I) settling.
(c) Uniform horizontal flow in sedimentation zone.
(d) Outlet zone to transfer uniform flow to discharge flow.
(e) Particles are not re-suspended from sludge zone.
(f) All particles with settling velocity greater than the critical velocity
(vsc) settle to the sludge zone.
Non-ideal Sedimentation
Variations from Ideal Sedimentation is caused by :
(a) Wind currents
(b) Temperature gradients
(c) Density flows
(d) Type II, III and IV settling
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Types of Clarifiers Treatment of
Wastewater
Sedimentation takes place in a settling tank, also referred to as a clarifier.
There are three main designs, namely, horizontal flow, solids contact and
inclined surface. In designing a sedimentation basin, it is important to bear
in mind that the system must produce both a clarified effluent and a
concentrated sludge.
Horizontal Flow
Horizontal-flow clarifiers may be rectangular, square or circular in shape.
The flow in rectangular basins is rectilinear and parallel to the long axis of
the basin, whereas in centre-feed circular basins, the water flows radially
from the centre towards the outer edges. Both types of basins are designed
to keep the velocity and flow distributions as uniform as possible in order to
prevent currents and eddies from forming, and thereby keep the suspended
material from settling. Basins are usually made of steel or reinforced
concrete. The bottom surface slopes slightly to facilitate sludge removal. In
rectangular tanks, the slope is towards the inlet end, while in circular and
square tanks, the bottom is conical and slopes towards the centre of the
basin.
Solid Contact Clarifiers
Solid contact clarifiers bring incoming solids into contact with a suspended
layer of sludge near the bottom that acts as a blanket. The incoming solids
agglomerate and remain enmeshed within the sludge blanket, whereby the
liquid is able to rise upwards while the solids are retained below.
Inclined Surface Basins
Inclined surface basins, also known as high-rate settlers, use inclined trays
to divide the depth into shallower sections, thus reducing particle settling
times. They also provide a larger surface area, so that a smaller-sized
clarifier can be used. Many overloaded horizontal flow clarifiers have been
upgraded to inclined surface basins. Here, the flow is laminar, and there is
no wind effect.

SAQ 2

(a) Differentiate between discrete particle settling, flocculent settling,

hindered settling and compression settling.
(b) Discuss different types of clarifier.

7.8 FLOTATION
Flotation is a unit operation used to remove solid or liquid particles from a liquid
phase by introducing a fine gas, usually air bubbles. The gas bubbles either

165
Environmental adhere to the liquid or are trapped in the particle structure of the suspended solids,
Engineering
raising the buoyant force of the combined particle and gas bubbles.
Particles that have a higher density than the liquid can thus be made to rise. In
wastewater treatment, flotation is used mainly to remove suspended matter and to
concentrate biological sludge. The main advantage of flotation over
sedimentation is that very small or light particles can be removed more
completely and in a shorter time. Once the particles have been floated to the
surface, they can be skimmed out. Flotation, as currently practised in municipal
wastewater treatment, uses air exclusively as the floating agent. Furthermore,
various chemical additives can be introduced to enhance the removal process.
Various flotation methods are described in Table 7.2, while a typical flotation unit
is illustrated in Figure 7.8.
Table 7.2 : Flotation Methods
Process Description
Dissolved-air flotation The injection of air while wastewater is under
the pressure of several atmospheres. After a
short holding time, the pressure is restored to
atmospheric level, allowing the air to be
released as minute bubbles.
Air flotation The introduction of gas into the liquid phase
directly by means of a revolving impeller or
through diffusers, at atmospheric pressure.
Vacuum flotation The saturation of wastewater with air either
directly in an aeration tank or by permitting air
to enter on the suction side of a wastewater
pump. A partial vacuum is applied, causing
the dissolved air to come out of solution as
minute bubbles which rise with the attached
solids to the surface, where they form a scum
blanket. The scum is removed by a skimming
mechanism while the settled grit is raked to a
central sump for removal.
Chemical additives Chemicals further the flotation process by
creating a surface that can easily adsorb or
entrap air bubbles. Inorganic chemicals
(aluminum and ferric salts and activated silica)
and various organic polymers can be used for
this purpose.

Effluent
Weir Skimmer
Float Trough

Effluent
Float Sludge
diffusion well Discharge

Pressurized Air
Recycle Retention Baffle Waste Water Inlet
Suction

Sludge Collector

Settled Sludge
Discharge

166
 Figure 7.8 : Typical Flotation Unit Treatment of
Wastewater

7.9 GRANULAR MEDIUM FILTRATION

The filtration of effluents from wastewater treatment processes is a relatively
recent practice, but has come to be widely used for the supplemental removal of
suspended solids from wastewater effluents of biological and chemical treatment
processes, in addition to the removal of chemically precipitated phosphorus. The
complete filtration operation comprises two phases: filtration and cleaning or
backwashing. The wastewater to be filtered is passed through a filter bed
consisting of granular material (sand, anthracite and/or garnet), with or without
added chemicals. Within the filter bed, suspended solids contained in the
wastewater are removed by means of a complex process involving one or more
removal mechanisms such as straining, interception, impaction, sedimentation,
flocculation and adsorption. The phenomena that occur during the filtration phase
are basically the same for all types of filters used for wastewater filtration. The
cleaning/backwashing phase differs, depending on whether the filter operation is
continuous or semicontinuous. In semi-continuous filtration, the filtering and
cleaning operations occur sequentially, whereas in continuous filtration the
filtering and cleaning operations occur simultaneously. The operational
characteristics of the various forms of granular medium filters commonly used for
wastewater filtration are illustrated in Figure 7.9.
Influent
Influent

1-2 ft Anthracite
Sand or
2-3 ft Anthracite 1-2 ft Sand

Effluent Effluent
Underdrain Underdrain
System System

(a) Conventional Mono-medium Downflow (b) Conventional Dual-medium Downflow

Overflow
Influent Trough

Effluent

Grid to
Retain Sand

Anthracite Sand
4-8 ft 6-10 ft

Effluent Influent
Underdrain Retaining Screen
System for Sand

(c) Conventional Mono-medium (d) Conventional Mono-medium

Deep-bed Downflow Deep-bed Downflow 167
Environmental Figure 7.9 : Granular Medium Filters
Engineering

7.10 CHEMICAL UNIT PROCESSES

Chemical processes used in wastewater treatment are designed to bring about
some form of change by means of chemical reactions. They are always used in
conjunction with physical unit operations and biological processes. In general,
chemical unit processes have an inherent disadvantage compared to physical
operations in that they are additive processes. That is to say, there is usually a net
increase in the dissolved constituents of the wastewater. This can be a significant
factor if the wastewater is to be reused. This section discusses the main chemical
unit processes, including chemical precipitation, adsorption, disinfection,
dechlorination and other applications.
7.10.1 Chemical Precipitation
Chemical coagulation of raw wastewater before sedimentation promotes the
flocculation of finely divided solids into more readily settleable flocs, thereby
enhancing the efficiency of suspended solid, BOD and phosphorus removal as
compared to plain sedimentation without coagulation (Table 7.3). The degree of
clarification obtained depends on the quantity of chemicals used and the care with
which the process is controlled.
Table 7.3 : Removal Efficiency of Plain Sedimentation
vs Chemical Precipitation
Parameter Percentage Removal
Plain Chemical
Sedimentation Precipitation
Total suspended solids 40-90 60-90
(TSS)
BOD 25-40 40-70
COD 30-60
Phosphorus 5-10 70-90
Bacteria loadings 50-60 80-90

Coagulant selection for enhanced sedimentation is based on performance,

reliability and cost. Performance evaluation uses jar tests of the actual wastewater
to determine dosages and effectiveness. Chemical coagulants that are commonly
used in waste-water treatment include alum (Al2(SO4)3.18.3 H2O), ferric chloride
(FeCl3.6H2O), ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3), ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) and
lime (Ca(OH)2). Organic polyelectrolytes are sometimes used as flocculation
aids. Suspended solids removal through chemical treatment involves a series of
three unit operations: rapid mixing, flocculation and settling. First, the chemical is
added and completely dispersed throughout the wastewater by rapid mixing for
20-30 seconds in a basin with a turbine mixer. Coagulated particles are then
brought together via flocculation by mechanically inducing velocity gradients
within the liquid. Flocculation takes 15 to 30 minutes in a basin containing
turbine or paddle-type mixers. The final step is the clarification by gravity. A
once-through chemical treatment system is illustrated in Figure 7.10.
The advantages of coagulation include greater removal efficiency, the feasibility
of using higher overflow rates and more consistent performance. On the other
hand, coagulation results in a larger mass of primary sludge that is often more
168
difficult to thicken and dewater. It also entails higher operational costs and Treatment of
Wastewater
demands greater attention on the part of the operator.
Chemical
Flocculation Aid

Feed Clarification
Neutralization

Effluent
Flash Mix

Flocculation

Lime
Sludge Alum Sludge

To Sludge Disposal

Figure 7.10 : A Once-Through Chemical Treatment System

7.10.2 Adsorption with Activated Carbon
Adsorption is the process of collecting soluble substances within a solution on a
suitable interface. In wastewater treatment, adsorption with activated carbon – a
solid interface – usually follows normal biological treatment, and is aimed at
removing a portion of the remaining dissolved organic matter. Particulate matter
present in the water may also be removed. Activated carbon is produced by
heating char to a high temperature and then activating it by exposure to an
oxidizing gas at high temperature. The gas develops a porous structure in the char
and thus creates a large internal surface area. The activated char can then be
separated into various sizes with different adsorption capacities. The two most
common types of activated carbon are granular activated carbon (GAC), which
has a diameter greater than 0.1 mm, and powdered activated carbon (PAC), which
has a diameter of less than 200 mesh. A fixed-bed column is often used to bring
the waste-water into contact with GAC. The water is applied to the top of the
column and withdrawn from the bottom, while the carbon is held in place.
Backwashing and surface washing are applied to limit headloss build-up.
Expanded-bed and moving-bed carbon contactors have been developed to
overcome the problem of headloss build-up. In the expanded-bed system, the
influent is introduced at the bottom of the column and is allowed to expand. In the
moving-bed system, spent carbon is continuously replaced with fresh carbon.
Spent granular carbon can be regenerated by removal of the adsorbed organic
matter from its surface through oxidation in a furnace. The capacity of the
regenerated carbon is slightly less than that of the virgin carbon. Wastewater
treatment using PAC involves the addition of the powder directly to the biological
treatment effluent or the physiochemical treatment process, as the case may be.
PAC is usually added to wastewater in a contacting basin for a certain length of
time. It is then allowed to settle to the bottom of the tank and removed. Removal
of the powdered carbon may be facilitated by the addition of polyelectrolyte
coagulants or filtration through granular-medium filters. A major problem with
the use of powdered activated carbon is that the methodology for its regeneration
is not well defined.
7.10.3 Disinfection
Disinfection refers to the selective destruction of disease-causing
micro-organisms. This process is of importance in wastewater treatment owing to
169
Environmental the nature of wastewater, which harbours a number of human centeric organisms
Engineering
that are associated with various waterborne diseases. Commonly used means of
disinfection include the following :
(a) Physical agents such as heat and light.
(b) Mechanical means such as screening, sedimentation, filtration, and so
on.
(c) Radiation, mainly gamma rays.
(d) Chemical agents including chlorine and its compounds, bromine,
iodine, ozone, phenol and phenolic compounds, alcohols, heavy
metals, dyes, soaps and synthetic detergents, quaternary ammonium
compounds, hydrogen peroxide and various alkalis and acids.
The most common chemical disinfectants are the oxidizing chemicals, and of
these, chlorine is the most widely used.
Disinfectants act through one or more of a number of mechanisms, including
damaging the cell wall, altering cell permeability, the colloidal nature of the
protoplasm and inhibiting enzyme activity. In applying disinfecting agents,
several factors need to be considered, i.e. contact time, concentration and type of
chemical agent, intensity and nature of physical agent, temperature, number of
organisms, and nature of suspending liquid.
Dechlorination
Dechlorination is the removal of free and total combined chlorine residue
from chlorinated wastewater effluent before its reuse or discharge to
receiving waters. Chlorine compounds react with many organic compounds
in the effluent to produce undesired toxic compounds that cause long-term
adverse impacts on the water environment and potentially toxic effects on
aquatic microorganisms. Dechlorination may be brought about by the use of
activated carbon, or by the addition of a reducing agent such as sulphur
dioxide (SO2), sodium sulphite (Na2SO3) or sodium metabisulphite
(Na2S2O5). It is important to note that dechlorination will not remove toxic
by-products that have already been produced.
7.10.4 Other Chemical Applications
In addition to the chemical processes described above, various other applications
are occasionally encountered in wastewater treatment and disposal. Table 7.4 lists
the most common applications and the chemicals used.
Table 7.4 : Other Chemical Applications in Wastewater
Treatment and Disposal
Application Chemical Used Remarks
Treatment
¾ pH control KOH, NaOH,
Ca (OH)2
¾ Filter-fly control Cl2 Residual at filter nozzles,
used during fly season
¾ Sludge-bulking control Cl2, H2O2, O3 Temporary control
measure
¾ Odour control Cl2, H2O2, O3
¾ Oxidation of refractory O3
organic compounds
Disposal
¾ Bacterial reduction Cl2, H2O2, O3 Plant effluent, overflows,
170
 and stormwater Treatment of
Wastewater
¾ Odour control Cl2, H2O2, O3

7.11 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT UNITS AND

PROCESSES
Biological unit processes are used to convert the finely divided and dissolved
organic matter in wastewater into flocculent settleable organic and inorganic
solids. In these processes, micro-organisms, particularly bacteria, convert the
colloidal and dissolved carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into
cell tissue, which is then removed in sedimentation tanks. Biological processes
are usually used in conjunction with physical and chemical processes, with the
main objective of reducing the organic content (measured as BOD, TOC or COD)
and nutrient content (notably nitrogen and phosphorus) of wastewater.
Biological processes used for wastewater treatment may be classified under five
major headings :
(a) Aerobic processes.
(b) Anoxic processes.
(c) Anaerobic processes.
(d) Combined processes.
(e) Pond processes.
These processes are further subdivided, depending on whether the treatment takes
place in a suspended growth system, an attached-growth system or a combination
of both. This unit will be concerned with the most commonly used biological
processes, including trickling filters, the activated sludge process, aerated
lagoons, rotating biological contactors and stabilization ponds.

7.12 THE ROLE OF MICRO-ORGANISMS IN

BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Micro-organisms, such as bacteria, play an important role in the natural cycling of
materials and particularly in the decomposition of organic wastes. The role of
micro-organisms is elaborated further here because they are also important in the
treatment of wastewater. What is waste for humans and higher vertebrates
becomes a useful food substrate for the micro-organisms. In both natural and
engineered treatment systems, micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa,
and crustaceans play an essential role in the conversion of organic waste to more
stable less polluting substances. They form what is termed a ‘food chain’. For
example, inorganic and organic substances in wastes are consumed by bacteria,
fungi and algae. These are in turn consumed by protozoa and nematodes (some
fungi however trap nematodes) and the latter by rotifers.
Micro-organisms are always present in the environment and given the right
conditions of food availability, temperature and other environmental factors, they
grow and multiply. Micro-organisms require cellular building blocks, such as
C (carbon), H (hydrogen), O (oxygen), N (nitrogen), P (phosphorus) and minerals
for growth. These can be obtained through consuming organic substances
containing these elements, or from inorganic materials, such as carbon dioxide,
water, nitrate and phosphate. Micro-organisms also require energy. They obtain
171
Environmental this through respiration. In this process, organic carbon is oxidised to release its
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energy. Oxygen or other hydrogen acceptors is needed for the respiration process.
Algae and photosynthetic bacteria can also utilise energy from sunlight, while
certain types of bacteria can utilise energy from chemical reactions not involving
respiration. The building blocks and energy are used to synthesise more cells for
growth and also for reproduction.
In the treatment of wastewater, three types of overall processes are distinguished
to represent the conversion of organic wastes by micro-organisms. The
classification is based on whether the environment where the process takes place
is aerobic, anaerobic or photosynthetic. Under aerobic conditions (in the presence
of oxygen), micro-organisms utilise oxygen to oxidise organic substances to
obtain energy for maintenance, mobility and the synthesis of cellular material.
Under anaerobic conditions (in the absence of oxygen), the micro-organisms
utilise nitrates, sulphates and other hydrogen acceptors to obtain energy for the
synthesis of cellular material from organic substances. Photosynthetic organisms
use carbon dioxide as a carbon source, inorganic nutrients as sources of
phosphate and nitrogen and utilise light energy to drive the conversion process.
Micro-organisms also produce waste products, some of which are desirable and
some undesirable. Gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen are desirable, since
they can be easily separated and do not produce pollution. Gases such as
hydrogen sulphide and mercaptans, although easily separated require treatment
for odour. Micro-organisms’ cellular materials are organic in nature and can also
cause pollution. It would be desirable if the cellular materials have undergone self
oxidation (endogeneous respiration utilising own body cells) to produce
non-biodegradable materials that are relatively stable. Self-oxidation is achieved
when there is no substrate/food available.
The microbiological conversion reactions of organic waste into cellular material
can be empirically represented as shown in Figure 7.11.
Aerobic Oxidation

New Cells
Organic Matter + Bacteria + O2

CO2 NH3 H2O

Anaerobic Oxidation

New Cells
Organic Matter + Bacteria
Intermediate
Products + Bacteria
CH4, H2S, CO2, NH3, H2O

Figure 7.11 : Microbiological Conversion Reactions

Conversion under Aerobic Conditions
Under aerobic conditions ammonia is further oxidised to nitrate.
Phosphorus and sulphur contained in the organic substances are oxidised to
phosphate and sulphate. These can be further utilised by the
micro-organisms for synthesis.
Conversion under Anaerobic Conditions
172
 Methane (CH4) is a useful gaseous by-product of anaerobic conversion, Treatment of
Wastewater
because it can be combusted to produce heat/energy. On the other hand if it
is released to the atmosphere without being combusted, it contributes to the
greenhouse gas effect.
Conversion under Photosynthetic Conditions
Sunlight and CO2 + rH2O + tNH3 Cw Hx Oy Nz + bO2
As shown by the conversion reactions (the utilisation of organic wastes for
food by micro-organisms) the product is mainly the cellular material of the
micro-organisms, i.e. more organisms are produced. The growth yield is the
weight of micro-organisms produced per unit weight of organic substances
consumed by the micro-organisms. The growth yield depends on the type of
substrate and environmental conditions. The smaller the value of the growth
yield the better it is for waste treatment, because less sludge is produced
which requires disposal. Its value is usually between 0.2 and 0.5 for aerobic
conversion, while the corresponding value for anaerobic conversion is
smaller

SAQ 3

Explain the role of micro-organisms in aerobic biological conversion.

7.13 BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF

WASTEWATER
Biological treatment utilizes microbial action to decompose these high-energy
molecules. There are two basic approaches to biological treatment, differing in
the manner in which the waste is brought into contact with the micro-organisms.
In suspended growth reactors, the organisms and waste material are mixed
together, while in fixed film reactors, the organisms are held in place and the
waste stream is passed by.
7.13.1 Activated Sludge Process
The most commonly applied biological treatment system is a suspended growth
approach called the activated sludge process.
The activated-sludge process is an aerobic, continuous-flow system containing a
mass of activated micro-organisms that are capable of stabilizing organic matter.
Activated sludge systems are designed to maintain intimate contact between the
wastewater, a large population of bacteria and oxygen. The micro-organisms are
“activated” for rapid uptake of new substrate, thus the term activated sludge. The
process consists of delivering clarified wastewater, after primary settling, into an
aeration basin where it is mixed with an active mass of micro-organisms, mainly
bacteria and protozoa, which aerobically degrade organic matter into carbon
dioxide, water, new cells and other end products. The bacteria involved in
activated sludge systems are primarily gram-negative species, including carbon
oxidizers, nitrogen oxidizers, floc formers and non-floc formers, and aerobes and
facultative anaerobes. The protozoa, for their part, include flagellates, amoebas
and ciliates. An aerobic environment is maintained in the basin by means of
diffused or mechanical aeration, which also serves to keep the contents of the
reactor (or mixed liquor) completely mixed. After a specific retention time, the 173
Environmental mixed liquor passes into the secondary clarifier, where the sludge is allowed to
Engineering
settle and a clarified effluent is produced for discharge. The process recycles a
portion of the settled sludge back to the aeration basin to maintain the required
activated sludge concentration (Figure 7.12). The process also intentionally
wastes a portion of the settled sludge to maintain the required solids retention
time (SRT) for effective organic removal.
Air

Influent
Waste Water Effluent
Waste Water
Aeration Final
Basin Clarifier

Return Activated Sludge

Waste Activated Sludge

Figure 7.12(a) : Typical Flow Diagram for an Activated-sludge Process :

Aeration Tank and Secondary Clarifier

Waste Cl2 or
Screenings Grit Sludge Sludge NaOCl

Influent Grit Primary Chlorine Influent

Bar Aeration Settling
Chamber Sediment Contact
Rackes Tank Tank
ation Chamber
Waste
Sludge Return Sludge

Figure 7.12(b) : Typical Flow Diagram for an Activated-sludge Process : Sequence of

Wastewater Treatment Units Including Aeration Tank and Secondary Clarifier
Control of the activated-sludge process is important to maintain a high treatment
performance level under a wide range of operating conditions. The principal
factors in process control are the following :
(a) Maintenance of dissolved oxygen levels in the aeration tanks.
(b) Regulation of the amount of returning activated sludge.
(c) Control of the waste activated sludge.
Design of Activated Sludge Process
Effluent from the primary clarifier is introduced to an aeration tank and
mixed with a mass of micro-organisms comprised bacteria, fungi, rotifers
and protozoa. This mixture of liquid, solid waste and micro-organisms is
called the mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS, mg/l). The organisms
absorb dissolved organics and break them down into carbon dioxide, water
and some stable compounds. Bacteria are primarily responsible for
assimilating the organic matter in wastewater, and the rotifers and protozoa
are helpful in removing the dispersed bacteria which otherwise would not
settle out. The energy derived from the decomposition process is used for
cell maintenance and to produce more micro-organisms. Once most of the
dissolved organics have been used up, the MLSS is routed to the secondary
(or final) clarifier for separation. As with primary settling, two streams are
produced : a clarified effluent, which is sent to the next stage of treatment
174
and a liquid sludge comprised largely of micro-organisms. Lying at the Treatment of
Wastewater
bottom of the final clarifier, without a food source, these organisms become
nutrient-starved or “activated”. A portion of the sludge is then pumped to
the head of the tank (return activated sludge) where the process starts all
over again. The remainder of the sludge is processed for disposal (waste
activated sludge). It is necessary to continuously add waste sludge to
balance the gain through microbial growth.
The activated sludge system is a continuous process involving the
introduction, uptake and breakdown of BOD and the growth and decay of
micro-organisms. An equilibrium is reached where the rate of food
introduction and the size of the microbial population are in balance leading
to a constant BOD concentration in the effluent. The rate of food
introduction (BOD loading) is largely fixed by the sewage inflow rate (Qo)
and BOD (So) of the influent. The size of the microbial population is equal
to the product of the MLSS concentration in the reactor (X) and the reactor
volume (V). Operating experience in waste treatment plants suggests that
MLSS concentrations in the reactor should be maintained at levels ranging
from 1000-4000 mg/l. Too low concentrations (< 1000 mg/l) lead to poor
settling and too high concentrations (> 4000 mg/l) result in solids loss in the
clarifier overflow and excessive oxygen requirements. The key process
design parameter, used to estimate the required tank volume, is the food to
micro-organism (F/M) ratio. Essentially a feeding rate, the F/M ratio is
equivalent to the BOD loading rate divided by the mass of MLSS in the
reactor :
F Q S0
=
M (X . V )
where, So = Influent BOD concentration (kg/m3),
Q = Wastewater Inflow (m3/d),
X = MLSS concentration (kg/m3), and
V = Reactor volume (m3).
V
Hydraulic retention time (θ) = .
Q
Because So, Qo, and X are largely fixed, a particular reactor volume is
selected to achieve the desired F/M ratio. It is clear from the equation above
that the F/M ratio is really a feeding rate. The lower the F/M ratio, the
lower the feeding rate, the hungrier the micro-organisms and the more
efficient the removal.
At low F/M ratios, the micro-organisms are maintained in the death or
endogenous growth phase, i.e. they are starved and, thus, very efficient at
BOD removal. Because So is relatively constant for domestic wastes and
because there are limits on the levels of X which a reactor can support,
maintenance of a low F/M ratio requires either a very small flow or a very
large tank volume. In either case, this leads to a long hydraulic residence
(aeration) time. Activated sludge operated at low F/M ratios is termed
extended aeration. The cost of operation and maintenance is high for large
tank volumes and thus extended aeration is largely limited to systems with
small organic loads, e.g. mobile home parks and recreational facilities. At
high F/M ratios, the micro-organisms are maintained in the accelerating or
exponential growth phase.
175
Environmental These organisms are more food-saturated, i.e. there is an excess of
Engineering
substrate, and, thus, BOD removal is less efficient. This approach is termed
high-rate activated sludge. In this approach, higher MLSS concentrations
are employed and, thus, a shorter hydraulic residence time is achieved and
smaller aeration tank volumes are required.
Operation of the activated sludge process at mid-range F/M ratios, with
micro-organisms in the declining growth phase, is termed conventional
activated sludge. This option offers a balance between removal efficiency
and cost of operation. In addition to influencing BOD removal efficiency,
the selection of an F/M ratio impacts the settleability of the sludge flocs
and, thus, the efficiency of SS removal. In general, as the F/M ratio
decreases the settleability of the sludge increases. Starving micro-organisms
flocculate and, thus, settle well, while those maintained at high F/M ratios
form buoyant filamentous growths, which settle poorly, a condition termed
sludge bulking.
In order to keep the F/M stable, some MLSS must be continuously wasted
to balance micro-organism biomass produced through growth. The design
and operation parameter for determining rates of MLSS wastage is the
solids retention time or sludge age (θc, days), defined as the mass of solids
present in the reactor over the mass of solids wasted per unit time :

⎡ X ×V ⎤
θc = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ X w × Qw ⎦
where Qw is the waste sludge flow from the reactor (m3/d). Values for θc
ranging from 3-15 days result in the production of a stable, high-quality
effluent with excellent settling characteristics. Values of X and V are
dictated by F/M design considerations. Thus, recommended values for θc
can be used to calculate the required waste sludge flow.
We can also write,

1 ⎡ X × Qw ⎤
=⎢ w
θc ⎣ X × V ⎥⎦

A rational loading parameter, which has found wide acceptance, is the

specific substrate utilization rate, U, per day, which is defined as,
( So − S )
U=Q
VX
where, S is the effluent substrate concentration or effluent soluble BOD.
Under steady state operation the mass of waste activated sludge is given by
Qw X s = Y Q ( So − S ) − kd X V

where, Y = Maximum yield coefficient (microbial mass synthesized/mass

of substrate utilized),
kd = Micro-organism decay coefficient,
Xs = MLSS concentration in waste activated sludge from secondary
settling tank underflow (g/m3), and

176 Qw = Waste activated sludge rate (m3/day).

Example Problem : Design of the Aeration Basin Based on Solids Retention Treatment of
Wastewater
Time
You are provided the following information about a municipal wastewater
treatment plant. This plant will use the traditional activated sludge process.
Population = 150,000 people, flow rate of 33.75 × 106 l/day (equals
225 l/person/day) and influent BOD5 concentration of 444 mg/l (note this is
high strength wastewater). Assume that the regulatory agency enforces an
effluent standard of BOD5 = 20 mg/l and suspended solids standard of
20 mg/l in the treated wastewater. A wastewater sample is collected from
the biological reactor and is found to contain a suspended solids
concentration of 4,300 mg/l. The suspended solids concentration in the
secondary sludge is 15,000 mg/l and the concentration in the secondary
sludge is 5,000 mg/l. The concentration of suspended solids in the plant
influent is 200 mg/l and that which leaves the primary clarifier is
100 mg/l. The microorganisms in the activated sludge process can convert
100 grams of BOD5 into 55 grams of biomass. They have a maximum
growth rate of 0.1/day, a first-order death rate constant of 0.05/day, and
they reach 1/2 of their maximum growth rate when the BOD5 concentration
is
10 mg/l. The mean cell retention time of the solids is 4 days and sludge is
processed on the belt filter press every 5 days.
Example 7.1 through 7.4 given below are based on the above data.

Example 7.1

What is the design volume of the aeration basin?

Solution
Assuming that 30% of the plant influent BOD5 is removed during primary
sedimentation, this means that So = 444 mg/l × 0.70 = 310 mg/l.
1
Qc =
t
1 ⎡ (Q × Y ) ⎤
Thus, =⎢ o ( So − S ) ⎥ − kd
Qc ⎣ (V × X ) ⎦
1 ⎡ − 1 ⎤ 55 ⎡g⎤ ⎛ ⎡ mg ⎤ ⎡ mg ⎤ ⎞
= [days] = 33.75 × 106 ⎢ ⎥ × ⎢ g ⎥ × ⎜ 310 ⎢ l ⎥ − 2 ⎢ l ⎥ ⎟
4 ⎣ d ⎦ 100 ⎣ ⎦ ⎝ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦⎠
⎡ mg ⎤ ⎡ 1 ⎤
V [l ] × 4300 ⎢ ⎥ − 0.05 ⎢ ⎥
⎣ l ⎦ ⎣ day ⎦
Solving for V, we get V = 5007558 l = 5,00,000 l.

Example 7.2

What is the plant’s aeration period?

Solution
The plant’s aeration period is the number of hours that the wastewater is
aerated during the activated sludge process. This equals the hydraulic
detention time of the biological reactor.

177
Environmental V 5, 000, 000 l
Engineering θ= = = 0.15 day = 3.6 hours .
Q 33.75 × 106 l / day

Example 7.3

How many kg of primary and secondary dry solids need to be processed

daily from the treatment plant?
Solution
The amount of solids processed from the primary sedimentation tanks
equals the difference in suspended solids concentrations measured across
the sedimentation tanks multiplied by the plant flow rate. Thus,
33.75 × 106 l/day (200 mg SS/l – 100 mg SS/l) × kg/1,000,000 mg
= 3375 kg primary solids per day.
We are not provided with the concentration difference of suspended solids
across the secondary sedimentation tanks so we can determine the amount
of secondary solids produced daily in the same manner that we used for
primary solids. However, careful examination of the expression of solids
retention time shows that the term Qw Xw can be estimated as the following :
X
4 days = V = × X w = 5,000,000 l (4,300 mg SS/l)/Qw × Xw
Qw
Solve for Qw Xw which equals 5375 kg or say 5400 kg secondary dry solids
per day.

Example 7.4

Determine the F/M ratio (in units of lbs BOD5/lb MLSS-day) using data
provided in the above example problem.
Solution
By definition,
F/M = Q So/X V = [33.75 × 106 l/day × 310 mg/l)/[4,300 mgSS/l
× 5,000,000 l] = 0.49 kg BOD5/kg MLSS-day
Various reactor configurations are available, each with its own set of
advantages and disadvantages. The two basic types are plug flow (PF) and
completely mixed flow (CMF) reactors. PF reactors offer a higher treatment
efficiency than CMF reactors, but are less able to handle spikes in the BOD
load. Other modifications of the process are based on the manner in which
waste and oxygen are introduced to the system.
Operational Aspects of Activated Sludge Process
The main operational problem encountered in a system of this kind is
sludge bulking, which can be caused by the absence of phosphorus,
nitrogen and trace elements and wide fluctuations in pH, temperature and
dissolved oxygen (DO). Bulky sludge has poor settleability and
compactibility due to the excessive growth of filamentous micro-organisms.
This problem can be controlled by chlorination of the return sludge.
Conventional
activated-sludge processes and various modifications (Figures 7.13 to 7.15)
are described below.
178
Conventional Plug Flow Treatment of
Wastewater
Settled wastewater and recycled activated sludge enter the head of the
aeration tank and are mixed by diffused air or mechanical aeration.
Air application is generally uniform throughout the tank length.
During the aeration period, adsorption, flocculation, and oxidation of
organic matter occur. Activated-sludge solids are separated in a
secondary settling tank. BOD removal efficiency varies between
85-95%.
Aeration Tank

Influent 1º
2º
Clarifier
Clarifier Effluent

Primary
Sludge

Waste Sludge

Figure 7.13 : Conventional Plug Flow Activated Sludge Process

Complete-mix Process
This is an application of the flow regime of a continuous-flow stirred
tank reactor. Settled wastewater and recycled activated sludge are
typically introduced at several points in the aeration tank. The organic
load on the aeration tank and the oxygen demand are uniform
throughout the tank length. BOD removal efficiency varies between
85-95%.
Aeration Basin
Alternate Waste
Sludge Point

Influent 2º
Clarifier Effluent

Return Sludge
Waste Sludge

Figure 7.14 : Completely Mix Activated Sludge Process

Tapered Aeration
Tapered aeration is a modification of the conventional plug-flow
process. Varying aeration rates are applied over the tank length,
depending on the oxygen demand. Greater amounts of air are supplied
to the head end of the aeration tank, and the amounts diminish as the
mixed liquor approaches the effluent end. Tapered aeration is usually
achieved by using different spacing of the air diffusers over the tank
length.

179
Environmental Aerator
Engineering

Influent Liquids Effluent

Contactor Solids
Separation

Recycled Solids

Figure 7.15 : Tapered Aeration Activated Sludge Process

Step-feed Aeration
Step feed is a modification of the conventional plug-flow process in
which the settled waste-water is introduced at several points in the
aeration tank to equalize the food to micro-organism (F/M) ratio, thus
lowering peak oxygen demand. Three or more parallel channels are
commonly used. Flexibility of operation is one of the important
features of this process. BOD removal efficiency varies between
85-95%.
Contact Stabilization
Contact stabilization uses two separate tanks for the treatment of the
wastewater and the stabilization of the activated sludge. The
stabilized activated sludge is mixed with the influent (either raw or
settled) wastewater in a contact tank. The mixed liquor is settled in a
secondary settling tank and return sludge is aerated separately in a
re-aeration basin for stabilization of the organic matter. Aeration
volume requirements are typically 50% less than in the case of
conventional plug flow. BOD removal efficiency varies between
80-90%.
Extended Aeration
The extended aeration process is similar to the conventional plug-
flow process except that it operates in the endogenous respiration
phase of the growth curve, which requires a low organic loading and
long aeration time. The process is used extensively for prefabricated
package plants for small communities. BOD removal efficiency varies
between 75-95%.
High-Rate Aeration
High-rate aeration is a process modification in which high mixed
liquor suspended solids (MLSS) concentrations are combined with
high volumetric loadings. The combination allows high F/M ratios
and low mean cell-residence times with relatively short hydraulic
detention times. Adequate mixing is very important. BOD removal
efficiency varies between 75-90%.
Oxidation Ditch
The oxidation ditch consists of a ring- or oval-shaped channel and is
equipped with mechanical aeration devices (Figure 7.16). Screened
wastewater enters the ditch, is aerated, and circulates about 0.25 to
0.35 m/s. Oxidation ditches typically operate in an extended aeration
mode with long detention and solids retention times. Secondary
sedimentation tanks are used for most applications. BOD removal
efficiency varies between 75-95%.

180
 Aeration Rotor Treatment of
Wastewater
Influent

Return Sludge Effluent

2º
Clarifier
Waste Sludge

Figure 7.16 : Oxidation Ditch Activated Sludge Process

Aerated Lagoons
An aerated lagoon is a basin between 1 and 4 metres in depth in
which wastewater is treated either on a flow-through basis or with
solids recycling. The microbiology involved in this process is similar
to that of the activated-sludge process. However, differences arise
because the large surface area of a lagoon may cause more
temperature effects than are ordinarily encountered in conventional
activated-sludge processes. Wastewater is oxygenated by surface,
turbine or diffused aeration. The turbulence created by aeration is
used to keep the contents of the basin in suspension. Depending on
the retention time, aerated lagoon effluent contains approximately one
third to one half the incoming BOD value in the form of cellular
mass. Most of these solids must be removed in a settling basin before
final effluent discharges (Figure 7.17).
Cl or
2
Screenings Sludge NaOCl
Return Sludge

Influent Bar Aerated Settling Chlorine Effluent

Racks Lagoon Tank Contact
Chamber

Figure 7.17 : Typical Flow Diagram for Aerated Lagoons

SAQ 4

(a) An activated sludge system is to be used for secondary treatment of

10000 m3/d of municipal wastewater. After primary clarification, the
BOD is 150 mg/l and it is desired to have not more than 5 mg/l of
soluble BOD in effluent. A completely mixed reactor to be used and
pilot plant analysis has established the following kinetic values :
Y = 0.5 kg/kg, kd = 0.05 d – 1. Assuming MLSS concentration of
3000mg/l and an underflow concentration of 10000mg/l from
secondary clarifier, determine
(i) the volume of reactor, and
(ii) the mass and volume of solids that must be wasted each day.
(b) Define F/M ratio and sludge bulking.
(c) Write short note on the following aspects of activated sludge
processes.
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Environmental (i) Step feed aeration
Engineering
(ii) Contact stabilization
(iii) Extended aeration
(iv) Combined plug flow.

7.13.2 Trickling Filters

The trickling filter is the most commonly encountered aerobic attached-growth
biological treatment process used for the removal of organic matter from
wastewater. It consists of a bed of highly permeable medium to which organisms
are attached, forming a biological slime layer, and through which wastewater is
percolated. The filter medium usually consists of rock or plastic packing material.
The organic material present in the wastewater is degraded by adsorption onto the
biological slime layer. In the outer portion of that layer, it is degraded by aerobic
micro-organisms. As the micro-organisms grow, the thickness of the slime layer
increases and the oxygen is depleted before it has penetrated the full depth of the
slime layer. An anaerobic environment is, thus, established near the surface of the
filter medium. As the slime layer increases in thickness, the organic matter is
degraded before it reaches the micro-organisms near the surface of the medium.
Deprived of their external organic source of nourishment, these micro-organisms
die and are washed off by the flowing liquid. A new slime layer grows in their
place. This phenomenon is referred to as ‘sloughing’. After passing through the
filter, the treated liquid is collected in an underdrain system, together with any
biological solids that have become detached from the medium (Figure 7.18). The
collected liquid then passes to a settling tank where the solids are separated from
the treated wastewater. A portion of the liquid collected in the underdrain system
or the settled effluent is recycled to dilute the strength of the incoming
wastewater and to maintain the biological slime layer in moist condition.

Rotary Distributor

Stone Media
Inlet
Waste

Underdrain Effluent
Grit System
Primary
Sewage in Chamber Settling Tank
Rack
Secondary
Influent
SettlingTank
Disinfection
Trickling Stream
Filter
Digester
Effluent
Digester

Recirculation

Figure 7.18 : Typical Flow Diagram for Trickling Filters

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 Treatment of
7.13.3 Rotating Biological Contactors Wastewater
A rotating biological contactor (RBC) is an attached-growth biological process
that consists of one or more basins in which large closely-spaced circular disks
mounted on horizontal shafts rotate slowly through waste-water (Figure 7.19).
The disks, which are made of high-density polystyrene or polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), are partially submerged in the wastewater, so that a bacterial slime layer
forms on their wetted surfaces. As the disks rotate, the bacteria are exposed
alternately to wastewater, from which they adsorb organic matter, and to air, from
which they absorb oxygen. The rotary movement also allows excess bacteria to be
removed from the surfaces of the disks and maintains a suspension of sloughed
biological solids. A final clarifier is needed to remove sloughed solids. Organic
matter is degraded by means of mechanisms similar to those operating in the
trickling filters process. Partially submerged RBCs are used for carbonaceous
BOD removal, combined carbon oxidation and nitrification, and nitrification of
secondary effluents. Completely submerged RBCs are used for denitrification.
Primary treatment Secondary treatment

Influent Effluent

Solids removal

Figure 7.19 : RBC System Configuration

A typical arrangement of RBCs is shown in Figure 7.20. In general, RBC systems
are divided into a series of independent stages or compartments by means of
baffles in a single basin or separate basins arranged in stages.
Compartmentalization creates a plug-flow pattern, increasing overall removal
efficiency. It also promotes a variety of conditions where different organisms can
flourish to varying degrees. As the wastewater flows through the compartments,
each subsequent stage receives influent with a lower organic content than the
previous stage; the system, thus, enhances organic removal.
Waste Cl2 or
Screenings Grit Sludge Sludge NaOCl

Influent Grit Primary Chlorine Influent

Bar Aeration Settliing
Chamber Sediment Contact
Rackes Tank Tank
ation Chamber
Waste
Sludge Return Sludge

Figure 7.20 : Typical Flow Diagram for RBC Units

7.13.4 Stabilization Ponds
A stabilization pond is a relatively shallow body of wastewater contained in an
earthen basin, using a completely mixed biological process without solids return.
Mixing may be either natural (wind, heat or fermentation) or induced (mechanical
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Environmental or diffused aeration). Stabilization ponds are usually classified on the basis of the
Engineering
nature of the biological activity that takes place in them, as aerobic, anaerobic or
aerobicanaerobic (Table 7.5). Aerobic ponds are used primarily for the treatment
of soluble organic wastes and effluents from wastewater treatment plants.
Aerobic-anaerobic (facultative) ponds are the most common type and have been
used to treat domestic wastewater and a wide variety of industrial wastes.
Anaerobic ponds, for their part, are particularly effective in bringing about rapid
stabilization of strong concentrations of organic wastes. Aerobic and facultative
ponds are biologically complex. The bacterial population oxidizes organic matter,
producing ammonia, carbon dioxide, sulphates, water and other end products,
which are subsequently used by algae during daylight to produce oxygen.
Bacteria then use this supplemental oxygen and the oxygen provided by wind
action to break down the remaining organic matter. Wastewater retention time
ranges between 30 and 120 days. This is a treatment process that is very
commonly found in rural areas because of its low construction and operating
costs.
Table 7.5 : Types and Applications of Stabilization Ponds
Type of Pond Common Characteristics Application
Name
Aerobic Low-rate pond Designed to maintain Treatment of soluble
aerobic conditions organic wastes and
throughout the liquid depth secondary effluents
High-rate Designed to optimize the Nutrient removal,
pond production of algal cell treatment of soluble
tissue and achieve high organic wastes, conversion
yields of harvestable of wastes
proteins
Maturation Similar to low-rate ponds Used for polishing
pond but very lightly loaded effluents from
conventional secondary
treatment processes such
as trickling filter or
activated sludge
Aerobic-anaerobic Facultative Deeper than high-rate pond; Treatment of screened
(supplemental pond with aeration and photosynthesis untreated or primary
aeration) aeration provide oxygen for aerobic settled wastewater
stabilization in upper layers.
Lower layers are facultative.
Bottom layer of solids
undergoes anaerobic
digestion
Aerobic-anaerobic Facultative As above, except without Treatment of screened
(oxygen from pond supplemental aeration. untreated or primary
algae) Photosynthesis and surface settled wastewater
reaeration provide oxygen
for upper layers

Anaerobic Anaerobic Anaerobic conditions prevail Treatment of municipal

lagoon, throughout; usually followed waste-water and industrial
anaerobic by aerobic or facultative wastes
pretreatment ponds
pond

Anaerobic Pond system Combination of pond types Complete treatment of

followed by described above. Aerobic- municipal wastewater and
aerobic anaerobic anaerobic ponds may be industrial wastes with high
followed by an aerobic bacterial removal
pond. Recirculation
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 frequently used from aerobic Treatment of
to anaerobic ponds Wastewater

7.13.5 Completely Mixed Anaerobic Digestion

Anaerobic digestion involves the biological conversion of organic and inorganic
matter in the absence of molecular oxygen to a variety of end-products including
methane and carbon dioxide. A consortium of anaerobic organisms work together
to degrade the organic sludges and wastes in three steps, consisting of hydrolysis
of high-molecular-mass compounds, acidogenesis and methanogenesis.
The process takes place in an airtight reactor. Sludge is introduced continuously
or intermittently and retained in the reactor for varying periods of time. After
withdrawal from the reactor, whether continuous or intermittent, the stabilized
sludge is reduced in organic and pathogen content and is non-putrescible. The
two most widely used types of anaerobic digesters are standard-rate and high-rate.
In the standard-rate digestion process, the contents of the digester are usually
unheated and unmixed, and are retained for a period ranging from 30 to 60 days.
In the high-rate digestion process, the contents of the digester are heated and
mixed completely, and are retained, typically, for a period of 15 days or less. A
combination of these two basic processes is known as the two-stage process, and
is used to separate the digested solids from the supernatant liquor. However,
additional digestion and gas production may occur. Anaerobic digesters are
commonly used for the treatment of sludge and wastewaters with high organic
content. The disadvantages and advantages of a system of this kind, as compared
to aerobic treatment, stem directly from the slow growth rate of methanogenic
bacteria. A slow growth rate requires a relatively long retention time in the
digester for adequate waste stabilization to occur; however, that same slow
growth means that only a small portion of the degradable organic matter is
synthesized into new cells. Another advantage of this type of system is the
production of methane gas, which can be used as a fuel source, if produced in
sufficient quantities. Furthermore, the system produces a well-stabilized sludge,
which can be safely disposed off in a sanitary landfill after drying or dewatering.
On the other hand, the fact that high temperatures are required for adequate
treatment is a major drawback.
7.13.6 Biological Nutrient Removal
Nitrogen and phosphorus are the principal nutrients of concern in wastewater
discharges. Discharges containing nitrogen and phosphorus may accelerate the
eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs and stimulate the growth of algae and
rooted aquatic plants in shallow streams. Significant concentrations of nitrogen
may have other adverse effects as well : depletion of dissolved oxygen in
receiving waters, toxicity to aquatic life, adverse impact on chlorine disinfection
efficiency, creation of a public health hazard and wastewater that is less suitable
for reuse. Nitrogen and phosphorus can be removed by physical, chemical and
biological methods. Biological removal of these nutrients is described below.
Nitrification-Denitrification
Nitrification is the first step in the removal of nitrogen by means of this
process. Biological nitrification is the work of two bacterial genera:
Nitrosomonas, which oxidize ammonia to the intermediate product nitrite,
and Nitrobacter, which converts nitrite to nitrate. Nitrifying bacteria are
sensitive organisms and are extremely susceptible to a wide variety of
inhibitors such as high concentrations of ammonia and nitrous acid, low DO
levels (< 1 mg/l), pH outside the optimal range (7.5-8.6), and so on.
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Environmental Nitrification can be achieved through both suspended-growth and
Engineering
attached-growth processes. In suspended-growth processes, nitrification is
brought about either in the same reactor that is used for carbonaceous BOD
removal, or in a separate suspended-growth reactor following a
conventional activated sludge treatment process. Ammonia is oxidized to
nitrate with either air or high-purity oxygen. Similarly, nitrification in an
attached-growth system may be brought about either in the same
attached-growth reactor that is used for carbonaceous BOD removal or in a
separate reactor. Trickling filters, rotating biological contactors and packed
towers can be used for nitrifying systems.
Denitrification involves the removal of nitrogen in the form of nitrate by
conversion to nitrogen gas under anoxic conditions. In denitrifying systems,
DO is a critical parameter. Its presence suppresses the enzyme system
needed for denitrification. The optimal pH lies between 7 and 8.
Denitrification can be achieved through both suspended- and
attached-growth processes. Suspended-growth denitrification takes place in
a plug-flow type of activated-sludge system. An external carbon source is
usually necessary for micro-organism cell synthesis, since the nitrified
effluent is low in carbonaceous matter. Some denitrification systems use the
incoming wastewater for this purpose. A nitrogen-gas-stripped reactor
should precede the denitrification clarifier because nitrogen gas hinders the
settling of the mixed liquor. Attached-growth denitrification takes place in a
column reactor containing stone or one of a number of synthetic media
upon which the bacteria grow. Periodic backwashing and an external carbon
source are necessary in a system of this kind.
Phosphorus Removal
Phosphorus appears in water as orthophosphate (PO4− 3), polyphosphate
(P2O7), and organically bound phosphorus. Microbes utilize phosphorus
during cell synthesis and energy transport. As a result, 10 to 30% of all
influent phosphorus is removed during secondary biological treatment.
More phosphorus can be removed if one of a number of specially developed
biological phosphorus removal processes is used. These processes are based
on the exposure of microbes in an activated-sludge system to alternating
anaerobic and aerobic conditions. This stresses the micro-organisms, so that
their uptake of phosphorus exceeds normal levels.

SAQ 5

Discuss working principle of Trickling Filter. Also draw a flow diagram in

schematic form of a wastewater treatment plant that includes Trickling
Filter.

7.14 SUMMARY
This unit describes the physical processes involved in wastewater treatment. In a
typical wastewater treatment plan before secondary treatment, some physical
treatment is always required. The physical treatment includes screens, grit
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chamber, communitors, flow equalization, oil and grease trap, and sedimentation. Treatment of
Wastewater
In some specific treatment physical treatment, like disinfections, adsorption and
chemical precipitation are also required. This unit provides basic concept of these
processes.
This unit discusses the various types of aerobic, anaerobic and facultative
biological process and their application in wastewater treatment. Micro-
organisms convert dissolved organic solids present in wastewater by aerobic and
anaerobic processes selectively. Some of the most commonly used biological
processes include, activated sludge process, trickling filters, stabilization ponds
and anaerobic reactors. Also nutrient (N and P) removal processes are briefly
discussed.

7.15 ANSWERS TO SAQs

SAQ 1
Refer Sections 7.1, 7.2 and 7.3.
SAQ 2
Refer Section 7.7.
SAQ 3
Refer Section 7.12.
SAQ 4
(a) Volume = 1611 m3, Volume of solid wasted = 48.3 m3/d.
(b) Refer Section 7.13.1.
(c) Refer Section 7.13.1.
SAQ 5
Refer Section 7.13.2.

187