0% found this document useful (0 votes)
49 views18 pages

Special Relativity

Uploaded by

holyfactstamil
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
49 views18 pages

Special Relativity

Uploaded by

holyfactstamil
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 18

Special relativity

For history and motivation, see History of special as spacetime. Events that occur at the same time for one
relativity. observer can occur at different times for another.
The theory is “special” in that it only applies in the special
In physics, special relativity (SR, also known as the spe- case where the curvature of spacetime due to gravity is
cial theory of relativity or STR) is the generally ac- negligible.[5][6] In order to include gravity, Einstein for-
cepted and experimentally well-confirmed physical the- mulated general relativity in 1915. Special relativity, con-
ory regarding the relationship between space and time. trary to some outdated descriptions, is capable of han-
In Albert Einstein's original pedagogical treatment, it is dling accelerated frames of reference.[7][8]
based on two postulates: As Galilean relativity is now considered an approxima-
tion of special relativity that is valid for low speeds, spe-
1. The laws of physics are invariant (i.e. identical) in cial relativity is considered an approximation of general
all inertial systems (non-accelerating frames of ref- relativity that is valid for weak gravitational fields, i.e. at
erence). a sufficiently small scale and in conditions of free fall.
Whereas general relativity incorporates noneuclidean ge-
2. The speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all ob- ometry in order to represent gravitational effects as the
servers, regardless of the motion of the light source. geometric curvature of spacetime, special relativity is re-
stricted to the flat spacetime known as Minkowski space.
It was originally proposed in 1905 by Albert Ein- A locally Lorentz-invariant frame that abides by special
stein in the paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving relativity can be defined at sufficiently small scales, even
Bodies".[1] The inconsistency of Newtonian mechanics in curved spacetime.
with Maxwell’s equations of electromagnetism and the
Galileo Galilei had already postulated that there is no ab-
lack of experimental confirmation for a hypothesized
solute and well-defined state of rest (no privileged ref-
luminiferous aether led to the development of special rel-
erence frames), a principle now called Galileo’s principle
ativity, which corrects mechanics to handle situations in-
of relativity. Einstein extended this principle so that it ac-
volving motions nearing the speed of light. As of today,
counted for the constant speed of light,[9] a phenomenon
special relativity is the most accurate model of motion at
that had been recently observed in the Michelson–Morley
any speed. Even so, the Newtonian mechanics model is
experiment. He also postulated that it holds for all the
still useful (due to its simplicity and high accuracy) as an
laws of physics, including both the laws of mechanics and
approximation at small velocities relative to the speed of
of electrodynamics.[10]
light.
Special relativity implies a wide range of consequences,
which have been experimentally verified,[2] including
length contraction, time dilation, relativistic mass, mass– 1 Postulates
energy equivalence, a universal speed limit and relativity
of simultaneity. It has replaced the conventional no- Einstein discerned two fundamental propositions that
tion of an absolute universal time with the notion of a seemed to be the most assured, regardless of the exact
time that is dependent on reference frame and spatial validity of the (then) known laws of either mechanics or
position. Rather than an invariant time interval be- electrodynamics. These propositions were the constancy
tween two events, there is an invariant spacetime inter- of the speed of light and the independence of physical
val. Combined with other laws of physics, the two postu- laws (especially the constancy of the speed of light) from
lates of special relativity predict the equivalence of mass the choice of inertial system. In his initial presentation
and energy, as expressed in the mass–energy equivalence of special relativity in 1905 he expressed these postulates
formula E = mc2 , where c is the speed of light in a as:[1]
vacuum.[3][4]
A defining feature of special relativity is the replacement • The Principle of Relativity – The laws by which the
of the Galilean transformations of Newtonian mechanics states of physical systems undergo change are not
with the Lorentz transformations. Time and space can- affected, whether these changes of state be referred
not be defined separately from each other. Rather space to the one or the other of two systems in uniform
and time are interwoven into a single continuum known translatory motion relative to each other.[1]

1
2 1 POSTULATES

any other system of coordinates K' moving in


uniform translation relatively to K.[14]

Henri Poincaré provided the mathematical framework for


relativity theory by proving that Lorentz transformations
are a subset of his Poincaré group of symmetry trans-
formations. Einstein later derived these transformations
from his axioms.
Many of Einstein’s papers present derivations of
the Lorentz transformation based upon these two
principles.[15]
Einstein consistently based the derivation of Lorentz in-
variance (the essential core of special relativity) on just
the two basic principles of relativity and light-speed in-
variance. He wrote:

The insight fundamental for the special the-


ory of relativity is this: The assumptions rela-
tivity and light speed invariance are compati-
Albert Einstein around 1905, the year his "Annus Mirabilis pa- ble if relations of a new type (“Lorentz trans-
pers" – which included Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper, formation”) are postulated for the conversion
the paper founding special relativity – were published. of coordinates and times of events... The uni-
versal principle of the special theory of rela-
tivity is contained in the postulate: The laws
• The Principle of Invariant Light Speed – "... light is
of physics are invariant with respect to Lorentz
always propagated in empty space with a definite ve-
transformations (for the transition from one in-
locity [speed] c which is independent of the state of
ertial system to any other arbitrarily chosen in-
motion of the emitting body” (from the preface).[1]
ertial system). This is a restricting principle for
That is, light in vacuum propagates with the speed
natural laws...[11]
c (a fixed constant, independent of direction) in at
least one system of inertial coordinates (the “station-
ary system”), regardless of the state of motion of the
light source. Thus many modern treatments of special relativity base
it on the single postulate of universal Lorentz covariance,
The derivation of special relativity depends not only on or, equivalently, on the single postulate of Minkowski
these two explicit postulates, but also on several tacit as- spacetime.[16][17]
sumptions (made in almost all theories of physics), in- From the principle of relativity alone without assuming
cluding the isotropy and homogeneity of space and the the constancy of the speed of light (i.e. using the isotropy
independence of measuring rods and clocks from their of space and the symmetry implied by the principle of
past history.[12] special relativity) one can show that the spacetime trans-
Following Einstein’s original presentation of special rela- formations between inertial frames are either Euclidean,
tivity in 1905, many different sets of postulates have been Galilean, or Lorentzian. In the Lorentzian case, one can
proposed in various alternative derivations.[13] However, then obtain relativistic interval conservation and a certain
the most common set of postulates remains those em- finite limiting speed. Experiments suggest that this speed
ployed by Einstein in his original paper. A more mathe- is the speed of light in vacuum.[18][19]
matical statement of the Principle of Relativity made later The constancy of the speed of light was motivated by
by Einstein, which introduces the concept of simplicity Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism and the lack of
not mentioned above is: evidence for the luminiferous ether. There is conflict-
ing evidence on the extent to which Einstein was influ-
Special principle of relativity: If a system enced by the null result of the Michelson–Morley experi-
of coordinates K is chosen so that, in relation ment.[20][21] In any case, the null result of the Michelson–
to it, physical laws hold good in their simplest Morley experiment helped the notion of the constancy of
form, the same laws hold good in relation to the speed of light gain widespread and rapid acceptance.
3

2 Lack of an absolute reference perspective in space which is not undergoing any change
in motion (acceleration), from which a position can be
frame measured along 3 spatial axes. In addition, a reference
frame has the ability to determine measurements of the
The principle of relativity, which states that there is no time of events using a 'clock' (any reference device with
preferred inertial reference frame, dates back to Galileo, uniform periodicity).
and was incorporated into Newtonian physics. However,
in the late 19th century, the existence of electromagnetic An event is an occurrence that can be assigned a single
waves led physicists to suggest that the universe was filled unique time and location in space relative to a reference
with a substance that they called "aether", which would frame: it is a “point” in spacetime. Since the speed of
act as the medium through which these waves, or vibra- light is constant in relativity in each and every reference
tions travelled. The aether was thought to constitute an frame, pulses of light can be used to unambiguously mea-
absolute reference frame against which speeds could be sure distances and refer back the times that events oc-
measured, and could be considered fixed and motionless. curred to the clock, even though light takes time to reach
Aether supposedly possessed some wonderful proper- the clock after the event has transpired.
ties: it was sufficiently elastic to support electromagnetic For example, the explosion of a firecracker may be con-
waves, and those waves could interact with matter, yet it sidered to be an “event”. We can completely specify an
offered no resistance to bodies passing through it. The event by its four spacetime coordinates: The time of oc-
results of various experiments, including the Michelson– currence and its 3-dimensional spatial location define a
Morley experiment, led to the theory of special relativity, reference point. Let’s call this reference frame S.
by showing that there was no aether.[22] Einstein’s solu-
In relativity theory we often want to calculate the position
tion was to discard the notion of an aether and the abso-
of a point from a different reference point.
lute state of rest. In relativity, any reference frame mov-
ing with uniform motion will observe the same laws of Suppose we have a second reference frame S′, whose spa-
physics. In particular, the speed of light in vacuum is al- tial axes and clock exactly coincide with that of S at time
ways measured to be c, even when measured by multiple zero, but it is moving at a constant velocity v with respect
systems that are moving at different (but constant) veloc- to S along the x-axis.
ities. Since there is no absolute reference frame in relativity
theory, a concept of 'moving' doesn't strictly exist, as ev-
erything is always moving with respect to some other ref-
3 Reference frames, coordinates, erence frame. Instead, any two frames that move at the
same speed in the same direction are said to be comoving.
and the Lorentz transformation Therefore, S and S′ are not comoving.

Main article: Lorentz transformation Define the event to have spacetime coordinates (t,x,y,z) in
Reference frames play a crucial role in relativity theory. system S and (t′,x′,y′,z′) in S′. Then the Lorentz transfor-
mation specifies that these coordinates are related in the
following way:

t′ = γ (t − vx/c2 )
x′ = γ (x − vt)
y′ = y
z ′ = z,
where

1
γ=√
The primed system is in motion relative to the unprimed system 1− v2
c2
with constant velocity v only along the x-axis, from the perspec-
tive of an observer stationary in the unprimed system. By the is the Lorentz factor and c is the speed of light in vacuum,
principle of relativity, an observer stationary in the primed sys- and the velocity v of S′ is parallel to the x-axis. The y and
tem will view a likewise construction except that the velocity they z coordinates are unaffected; only the x and t coordinates
record will be −v. The changing of the speed of propagation of are transformed. These Lorentz transformations form a
interaction from infinite in non-relativistic mechanics to a finite
one-parameter group of linear mappings, that parameter
value will require a modification of the transformation equations
mapping events in one frame to another.
being called rapidity.
There is nothing special about the x-axis, the transfor-
The term reference frame as used here is an observational mation can apply to the y or z axes, or indeed in any di-
4 4 CONSEQUENCES DERIVED FROM THE LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION

rection, which can be done by directions parallel to the


motion (which are warped by the γ factor) and perpen-
dicular; see main article for details.
A quantity invariant under Lorentz transformations is
known as a Lorentz scalar.
Writing the Lorentz transformation and its inverse in
terms of coordinate differences, where for instance one
event has coordinates (x1 , t 1 ) and (x′1 , t′1 ), another event
has coordinates (x2 , t 2 ) and (x′2 , t′2 ), and the differences
are defined as

∆x′ = x′2 − x′1 , ∆x = x2 − x1 ,


∆t′ = t′2 − t′1 , ∆t = t2 − t1 ,

we get

∆x′ = γ (
(∆x − v ∆t) )
, (∆x′ + v ∆t′ ) )
∆x = γ ( , Event B is simultaneous with A in the green reference frame, but
′ it occurs before A in the blue frame, and occurs after A in the red
v ∆x v ∆x
∆t′ = γ ∆t − 2 , ∆t = γ ∆t′ + .frame.
c c2

These effects are not merely appearances; they are ex-


cur simultaneously in the reference frame of one inertial
plicitly related to our way of measuring time intervals be-
observer, may occur non-simultaneously in the reference
tween events which occur at the same place in a given
frame of another inertial observer (lack of absolute si-
coordinate system (called “co-local” events). These time
multaneity).
intervals will be different in another coordinate system
moving with respect to the first, unless the events are From the first equation of the Lorentz transformation in
also simultaneous. Similarly, these effects also relate to terms of coordinate differences
our measured distances between separated but simulta-
neous events in a given coordinate system of choice. If ( )
these events are not co-local, but are separated by dis- ′ v ∆x
∆t = γ ∆t − 2
tance (space), they will not occur at the same spatial dis- c
tance from each other when seen from another moving
it is clear that two events that are simultaneous in frame
coordinate system. However, the spacetime interval will
S (satisfying Δt = 0), are not necessarily simultaneous in
be the same for all observers.
another inertial frame S′ (satisfying Δt′ = 0). Only if these
events are additionally co-local in frame S (satisfying Δx
= 0), will they be simultaneous in another frame S′.
4 Consequences derived from the
Lorentz transformation 4.2 Time dilation
See also: Twin paradox and Relativistic mechanics See also: Time dilation

The consequences of special relativity can be derived The time lapse between two events is not invariant from
from the Lorentz transformation equations.[23] These one observer to another, but is dependent on the relative
transformations, and hence special relativity, lead to dif- speeds of the observers’ reference frames (e.g., the twin
ferent physical predictions than those of Newtonian me- paradox which concerns a twin who flies off in a spaceship
chanics when relative velocities become comparable to traveling near the speed of light and returns to discover
the speed of light. The speed of light is so much larger that his or her twin sibling has aged much more).
than anything humans encounter that some of the effects
predicted by relativity are initially counterintuitive. Suppose a clock is at rest in the unprimed system S. The
location of the clock on two different ticks is then charac-
terized by Δx = 0. To find the relation between the times
4.1 Relativity of simultaneity between these ticks as measured in both systems, the first
equation can be used to find:
See also: Relativity of simultaneity and Ladder paradox
Two events happening in two different locations that oc- ∆t′ = γ ∆t for events satisfying ∆x = 0 .
5

This shows that the time (Δt′) between the two ticks as Notice that if the object were moving at the speed of light
seen in the frame in which the clock is moving (S′), is in the S system (i.e. u = c), then it would also be moving
longer than the time (Δt) between these ticks as measured at the speed of light in the S′ system. Also, if both u
in the rest frame of the clock (S). Time dilation explains and v are small with respect to the speed of light, we will
a number of physical phenomena; for example, the life- recover the intuitive Galilean transformation of velocities
time of muons produced by cosmic rays impinging on the
Earth’s atmosphere is measured to be greater than the life-
times of muons measured in the laboratory.[24] u′ ≈ u − v .
The usual example given is that of a train (frame S′ above)
4.3 Length contraction traveling due east with a velocity v with respect to the
tracks (frame S). A child inside the train throws a baseball
See also: Lorentz contraction due east with a velocity u′ with respect to the train. In
nonrelativistic physics, an observer at rest on the tracks
will measure the velocity of the baseball (due east) as u
The dimensions (e.g., length) of an object as measured by = u′ + v, while in special relativity this is no longer true;
one observer may be smaller than the results of measure- instead the velocity of the baseball (due east) is given by
ments of the same object made by another observer (e.g., the second equation: u = (u′ + v)/(1 + u′v/c2 ). Again,
the ladder paradox involves a long ladder traveling near there is nothing special about the x or east directions. This
the speed of light and being contained within a smaller formalism applies to any direction by considering parallel
garage). and perpendicular components of motion to the direction
Similarly, suppose a measuring rod is at rest and aligned of relative velocity v, see main article for details.
along the x-axis in the unprimed system S. In this sys-
tem, the length of this rod is written as Δx. To measure
the length of this rod in the system S′, in which the rod 5 Other consequences
is moving, the distances x′ to the end points of the rod
must be measured simultaneously in that system S′. In
5.1 Thomas rotation
other words, the measurement is characterized by Δt′ =
0, which can be combined with the fourth equation to find
See also: Thomas rotation
the relation between the lengths Δx and Δx′:

The orientation of an object (i.e. the alignment of its axes


∆x′ = ∆x
for events satisfying ∆t′ = 0 .
γ with the observer’s axes) may be different for different
observers. Unlike other relativistic effects, this effect be-
This shows that the length (Δx′) of the rod as measured comes quite significant at fairly low velocities as can be
in the frame in which it is moving (S′), is shorter than its seen in the spin of moving particles.
length (Δx) in its own rest frame (S).

5.2 Equivalence of mass and energy


4.4 Composition of velocities
Main article: Mass–energy equivalence
See also: Velocity-addition formula
As an object’s speed approaches the speed of light from
Velocities (speeds) do not simply add. If the observer in an observer’s point of view, its relativistic mass increases
S measures an object moving along the x axis at velocity thereby making it more and more difficult to accelerate it
u, then the observer in the S′ system, a frame of reference from within the observer’s frame of reference.
moving at velocity v in the x direction with respect to S, The energy content of an object at rest with mass m equals
will measure the object moving with velocity u′ where mc2 . Conservation of energy implies that, in any reaction,
(from the Lorentz transformations above): a decrease of the sum of the masses of particles must be
accompanied by an increase in kinetic energies of the par-
ticles after the reaction. Similarly, the mass of an object
dx′ γ (dx − vdt) (dx/dt) − v u− bevincreased
u′ = ′ = = = can . by taking in kinetic energies.
dt γ (dt − vdx/c2 ) 1 − (v/c2 )(dx/dt) 1 − uv/c2
In addition to the papers referenced above—which give
The other frame S will measure: derivations of the Lorentz transformation and describe
the foundations of special relativity—Einstein also wrote
at least four papers giving heuristic arguments for the
dx γ (dx′ + vdt′ ) (dx′ /dt′ ) + v u′ + v (and transmutability) of mass and energy, for
equivalence
u= = = = 2 2 .
dt γ (dt′ + vdx′ /c2 ) 1 + (v/c2 )(dx′ /dt′ ) E1 = + mc .
u′ v/c
6 6 CAUSALITY AND PROHIBITION OF MOTION FASTER THAN LIGHT

Mass–energy equivalence is a consequence of special rel- than 40 light years if the traveller is active between the
ativity. The energy and momentum, which are separate ages of 20 and 60. One would easily think that a traveller
in Newtonian mechanics, form a four-vector in relativity, would never be able to reach more than the very few solar
and this relates the time component (the energy) to the systems which exist within the limit of 20–40 light years
space components (the momentum) in a non-trivial way. from the earth. But that would be a mistaken conclusion.
For an object at rest, the energy–momentum four-vector Because of time dilation, a hypothetical spaceship can
is (E/c, 0, 0, 0): it has a time component which is the travel thousands of light years during the pilot’s 40 ac-
energy, and three space components which are zero. By tive years. If a spaceship could be built that accelerates
changing frames with a Lorentz transformation in the x at a constant 1 g, it will, after a little less than a year, be
direction with a small value of the velocity v, the energy travelling at almost the speed of light as seen from Earth.
momentum four-vector becomes (E/c, Ev/c2 , 0, 0). The This is described by:
momentum is equal to the energy multiplied by the ve- v(t) = √ at
locity divided by c2 . As such, the Newtonian mass of an 2 2
1+ ac2t
object, which is the ratio of the momentum to the velocity where v(t) is the velocity at a time, t, a is the acceler-
for slow velocities, is equal to E/c2 . ation of 1g and t is the time as measured by people on
The energy and momentum are properties of matter and Earth.[30] Therefore, after 1 year of accelerating at 9.81
radiation, and it is impossible to deduce that they form a m/s2 , the spaceship will be travelling at v = 0.77c relative
four-vector just from the two basic postulates of special to Earth. Time dilation will increase the travellers life
relativity by themselves, because these don't talk about span as seen from the reference frame of the Earth to 2.7
matter or radiation, they only talk about space and time. years, but his lifespan measured by a clock travelling with
The derivation therefore requires some additional phys- him will not change. During his journey, people on Earth
ical reasoning. In his 1905 paper, Einstein used the ad- will experience more time than he does. A 5-year round
ditional principles that Newtonian mechanics should hold trip for him will take 6½ Earth years and cover a distance
for slow velocities, so that there is one energy scalar and of over 6 light-years. A 20-year round trip for him (5
one three-vector momentum at slow velocities, and that years accelerating, 5 decelerating, twice each) will land
the conservation law for energy and momentum is exactly him back on Earth having travelled for 335 Earth years
true in relativity. Furthermore, he assumed that the en- and a distance of 331 light years.[31] A full 40-year trip at
ergy of light is transformed by the same Doppler-shift 1 g will appear on Earth to last 58,000 years and cover a
factor as its frequency, which he had previously shown to distance of 55,000 light years. A 40-year trip at 1.1 g will
be true based on Maxwell’s equations.[1] The first of Ein- take 148,000 Earth years and cover about 140,000 light
stein’s papers on this subject was “Does the Inertia of a years. A one-way 28 year (14 years accelerating, 14 de-
Body Depend upon its Energy Content?" in 1905.[25] Al- celerating as measured with the cosmonaut’s clock) trip at
though Einstein’s argument in this paper is nearly univer- 1 g acceleration could reach 2,000,000 light-years to the
sally accepted by physicists as correct, even self-evident, Andromeda Galaxy.[31] This same time dilation is why
many authors over the years have suggested that it is a muon travelling close to c is observed to travel much
wrong.[26] Other authors suggest that the argument was further than c times its half-life (when at rest).[32]
merely inconclusive because it relied on some implicit
assumptions.[27]
Einstein acknowledged the controversy over his deriva- 6 Causality and prohibition of mo-
tion in his 1907 survey paper on special relativity. There
he notes that it is problematic to rely on Maxwell’s equa- tion faster than light
tions for the heuristic mass–energy argument. The argu-
ment in his 1905 paper can be carried out with the emis- See also: Causality (physics) and Tachyonic antitelephone
sion of any massless particles, but the Maxwell equations In diagram 2 the interval AB is 'time-like'; i.e., there is
are implicitly used to make it obvious that the emission of a frame of reference in which events A and B occur at
light in particular can be achieved only by doing work. To the same location in space, separated only by occurring
emit electromagnetic waves, all you have to do is shake a at different times. If A precedes B in that frame, then A
charged particle, and this is clearly doing work, so that precedes B in all frames. It is hypothetically possible for
the emission is of energy.[28][29] matter (or information) to travel from A to B, so there
can be a causal relationship (with A the cause and B the
effect).
5.3 How far can one travel from the Earth? The interval AC in the diagram is 'space-like'; i.e., there is
a frame of reference in which events A and C occur simul-
See also: Space travel using constant acceleration taneously, separated only in space. There are also frames
in which A precedes C (as shown) and frames in which
Since one can not travel faster than light, one might con- C precedes A. If it were possible for a cause-and-effect
clude that a human can never travel farther from Earth relationship to exist between events A and C, then para-
7

7 Geometry of spacetime
Time Main article: Minkowski space

B 7.1 Comparison between flat Euclidean


space and Minkowski space
See also: line element
Special relativity uses a 'flat' 4-dimensional Minkowski

C y' y
t t'

A
v<c v=c

Space
v>c

x' x'

x x

Orthogonality and rotation of coordinate systems compared be-


tween left: Euclidean space through circular angle φ, right: in
Minkowski spacetime through hyperbolic angle φ (red lines la-
belled c denote the worldlines of a light signal, a vector is or-
thogonal to itself if it lies on this line).[36]

Diagram 2. Light cone space – an example of a spacetime. Minkowski spacetime


appears to be very similar to the standard 3-dimensional
Euclidean space, but there is a crucial difference with re-
doxes of causality would result. For example, if A was spect to time.
the cause, and C the effect, then there would be frames
In 3D space, the differential of distance (line element) ds
of reference in which the effect preceded the cause. Al-
is defined by
though this in itself won't give rise to a paradox, one can
show[33][34] that faster than light signals can be sent back
into one’s own past. A causal paradox can then be con-
ds2 = dx · dx = dx21 + dx22 + dx23 ,
structed by sending the signal if and only if no signal was
received previously. where dx = (dx1 , dx2 , dx3 ) are the differentials of the
Therefore, if causality is to be preserved, one of the con- three spatial dimensions. In Minkowski geometry, there
0
sequences of special relativity is that no information sig- is an extra dimension with coordinate X derived from
nal or material object can travel faster than light in vac- time, such that the distance differential fulfills
uum. However, some “things” can still move faster than
light. For example, the location where the beam of a
search light hits the bottom of a cloud can move faster ds = −dX0 + dX1 + dX2 + dX3 ,
2 2 2 2 2

than light when the search light is turned rapidly.[35] where dX = (dX0 , dX1 , dX2 , dX3 ) are the differentials
Even without considerations of causality, there are other of the four spacetime dimensions. This suggests a deep
strong reasons why faster-than-light travel is forbidden by theoretical insight: special relativity is simply a rotational
special relativity. For example, if a constant force is ap- symmetry of our spacetime, analogous to the rotational
plied to an object for a limitless amount of time, then in- symmetry of Euclidean space (see image right).[37] Just
tegrating F = dp/dt gives a momentum that grows without as Euclidean space uses a Euclidean metric, so space-
bound, but this is simply because p = mγv approaches time uses a Minkowski metric. Basically, special relativ-
infinity as v approaches c. To an observer who is not ity can be stated as the invariance of any spacetime inter-
accelerating, it appears as though the object’s inertia is val (that is the 4D distance between any two events) when
increasing, so as to produce a smaller acceleration in re- viewed from any inertial reference frame. All equations
sponse to the same force. This behavior is observed in and effects of special relativity can be derived from this
particle accelerators, where each charged particle is ac- rotational symmetry (the Poincaré group) of Minkowski
celerated by the electromagnetic force. spacetime.
8 8 PHYSICS IN SPACETIME

The actual form of ds above depends on the metric and If we reduce the spatial dimensions to 2, so that we can
on the choices for the X0 coordinate. To make the time represent the physics in a 3D space
coordinate look like the space coordinates, it can be
treated as imaginary: X0 = ict (this is called a Wick rota-
tion). According to Misner, Thorne and Wheeler (1971, ds2 = dx21 + dx22 − c2 dt2 ,
§2.3), ultimately the deeper understanding of both spe-
cial and general relativity will come from the study of the we see that the null geodesics lie along a dual-cone (see
Minkowski metric (described below) and to take X0 = ct, image right) defined by the equation;
rather than a “disguised” Euclidean metric using ict as the
time coordinate.
ds2 = 0 = dx21 + dx22 − c2 dt2
Some authors use X0 = t, with factors of c elsewhere to
compensate; for instance, spatial coordinates are divided or simply
by c or factors of c±2 are included in the metric tensor.[38]
These numerous conventions can be superseded by us-
ing natural units where c = 1. Then space and time have dx2 + dx2 = c2 dt2 ,
1 2
equivalent units, and no factors of c appear anywhere.
which is the equation of a circle of radius c dt.

7.2 3D spacetime
7.3 4D spacetime
If we extend this to three spatial dimensions, the null
geodesics are the 4-dimensional cone:

x2 ds2 = 0 = dx21 + dx22 + dx23 − c2 dt2

x1 so

dx21 + dx22 + dx23 = c2 dt2 .

This null dual-cone represents the “line of sight” of a

t x12 + x22 = t 2 point in space. That is, when we look at the stars and
say “The light from that star which I am receiving is X
years old”, we are looking down this line of sight: a
null geodesic.
√ We are looking at an event a distance
Three-dimensional dual-cone.
d = x21 + x22 + x23 away and a time d/c in the past.
For this reason the null dual cone is also known as the
'light cone'. (The point in the lower left of the picture
above right represents the star, the origin represents the
observer, and the line represents the null geodesic “line
of sight”.)
The cone in the −t region is the information that the point
is 'receiving', while the cone in the +t section is the infor-
mation that the point is 'sending'.
The geometry of Minkowski space can be depicted us-
t=1c ing Minkowski diagrams, which are useful also in under-
standing many of the thought-experiments in special rel-
ativity.
t=2c Note that, in 4d spacetime, the concept of the center of
t=3c mass becomes more complicated, see center of mass (rel-
ativistic).

t=4c
8 Physics in spacetime
Null spherical space.
8.1 Transformations of physical quantities between reference frames 9

8.1 Transformations of physical quantities where there



is an implied summation on ν from 0 to 3,
between reference frames and Λµ ν is a matrix.
More generally, all contravariant components of a four-
Above, the Lorentz transformation for the time coordi- vector T ν transform from one frame to another frame by
nate and three space coordinates illustrates that they are a Lorentz transformation:
intertwined. This is true more generally: certain pairs of
“timelike” and “spacelike” quantities naturally combine
on equal footing under the same Lorentz transformation. T µ′ = Λµ′ T ν
ν
The Lorentz transformation in standard configuration μ
above, i.e. for a boost in the x direction, can be recast Examples of other 4-vectors include the four-velocity U ,
into matrix form as follows: defined as the derivative of the position 4-vector with re-
spect to proper time:

      
ct′ γ −βγ 0 0 ct γct − γβx dX µ
 x′  −βγ γ 0 0  x  γx − βγctU µ
= = γ(v)(c, vx , vy , vz ) = γ(v)(c, v).
 ′ =    =  . dτ
y   0 0 1 0 y   y 
z′ 0 0 0 1 z z where the Lorentz factor is:

In Newtonian mechanics, quantities which have mag-


nitude and direction are mathematically described as 1
γ(v) = √ , v 2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2 .
3d vectors in Euclidean space, and in general they are 1 − (v/c)2
parametrized by time. In special relativity, this notion
is extended by adding the appropriate timelike quantity The relativistic energy E = γ(v)mc2 and relativistic
to a spacelike vector quantity, and we have 4d vectors, momentum p = γ(v)mv of an object are respectively
or "four vectors", in Minkowski spacetime. The compo- the timelike and spacelike components of a contravariant
nents of vectors are written using tensor index notation, four momentum vector:
as this has numerous advantages. The notation makes
it clear the equations are manifestly covariant under the
Poincaré group, thus bypassing the tedious calculations to P µ = mU µ = mγ(v)(c, vx , vy , vz ) = (E/c, px , py , pz ) = (E/c, p).
check this fact. In constructing such equations, we often
find that equations previously thought to be unrelated are, where m is the invariant mass.
in fact, closely connected being part of the same tensor The four-acceleration is the proper time derivative of 4-
equation. Recognizing other physical quantities as ten- velocity:
sors simplifies their transformation laws. Throughout, up-
per indices (superscripts) are contravariant indices rather
than exponents except when they indicate a square (this dU µ
Aµ = .
is should be clear from the context), and lower indices dτ
(subscripts) are covariant indices. For simplicity and con-
The transformation rules for three-dimensional velocities
sistency with the earlier equations, Cartesian coordinates
and accelerations are very awkward; even above in stan-
will be used.
dard configuration the velocity equations are quite com-
The simplest example of a four-vector is the position of plicated owing to their non-linearity. On the other hand,
an event in spacetime, which constitutes a timelike com- the transformation of four-velocity and four-acceleration
ponent ct and spacelike component x = (x, y, z), in a are simpler by means of the Lorentz transformation ma-
contravariant position four vector with components: trix.
The four-gradient of a scalar field φ transforms covari-
antly rather than contravariantly:
X ν = (X 0 , X 1 , X 2 , X 3 ) = (ct, x, y, z) = (ct, x).

where we define X0 = ct so that the time coordinate γ −βγ 0
has the same dimension of distance as the other spa- ( 1 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
) (
1 ∂ϕ ∂ϕ ∂ϕ
)−βγ
∂ϕ  γ 0
tial dimensions; so that space and time are treated c ∂t′ ∂x′ ∂y ′ ∂z ′ = c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z  0 0 1
[39][40][41]
equally. Now the transformation of the con- 0 0 0
travariant components of the position 4-vector can be
compactly written as: that is:

′ ′ ∂
X µ = Λµ ν X ν (∂µ′ ϕ) = Λµ′ ν (∂ν ϕ) , ∂µ ≡ .
∂xµ
10 8 PHYSICS IN SPACETIME

only in Cartesian coordinates. It’s the covariant derivative use different conventions – see Minkowski metric alter-
which transforms in manifest covariance, in Cartesian co- native signs.
ordinates this happens to reduce to the partial derivatives, The Poincaré group is the most general group of transfor-
but not in other coordinates. mations which preserves the Minkowski metric:
More generally, the covariant components of a 4-vector
transform according to the inverse Lorentz transforma-
′ ′
tion: ηαβ = ηµ′ ν ′ Λµ α Λν β

and this is the physical symmetry underlying special rel-


ν µ′ ν ativity.
Λ µ′ T =T
′ The metric can be used for raising and lowering indices on
where Λµ′ ν is the reciprocal matrix of Λµ ν .
vectors and tensors. Invariants can be constructed using
The postulates of special relativity constrain the exact the metric, the inner product of a 4-vector T with another
form the Lorentz transformation matrices take. 4-vector S is:
More generally, most physical quantities are best de-
scribed as (components of) tensors. So to transform from
α α β αβ
one frame to another, we use the well-known tensor trans- T Sα = T ηαβ S = Tα η Sβ = scalar invariant
[42]
formation law
Invariant means that it takes the same value in all inertial
frames, because it is a scalar (0 rank tensor), and so no
α′ β ′ ···ζ ′ ′ ′ ′ µν···ρ Λ appears in its trivial transformation. The magnitude
Tθ′ ι′ ···κ′ = Λα µ Λβ ν · · · Λζ ρ Λθ′ σ Λι′ υ · · · Λκ′ ϕ Tσυ···ϕ
of the 4-vector T is the positive square root of the inner
′ product with itself:
where Λχ′ ψ is the reciprocal matrix of Λχ ψ . All tensors
transform by this rule.
An example of a four dimensional second order |T| = √T α T
α
antisymmetric tensor is the relativistic angular momen-
tum, which has six components: three are the classical One can extend this idea to tensors of higher order, for a
angular momentum, and the other three are related to the second order tensor we can form the invariants:
boost of the center of mass of the system. The deriva-
tive of the relativistic angular momentum with respect to
proper time is the relativistic torque, also second order T α , T α T β , T α T β T γ = scalars invariant ,
α β α β γ α
antisymmetric tensor.
The electromagnetic field tensor is another second order similarly for higher order tensors. Invariant expressions,
antisymmetric tensor field, with six components: three particularly inner products of 4-vectors with themselves,
for the electric field and another three for the magnetic provide equations that are useful for calculations, because
field. There is also the stress–energy tensor for the one doesn't need to perform Lorentz transformations to
electromagnetic field, namely the electromagnetic stress– determine the invariants.
energy tensor.
8.3 Relativistic kinematics and invariance
8.2 Metric
The coordinate differentials transform also contravari-
The metric tensor allows one to define the inner product antly:
of two vectors, which in turn allows one to assign a magni-
tude to the vector. Given the four-dimensional nature of
µ′ µ′ ν
spacetime the Minkowski metric η has components (valid dX = Λ ν dX
in any inertial reference frame) which can be arranged in
a 4 × 4 matrix: so the squared length of the differential of the position
four-vector dXμ constructed using
 
−1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 dX2 = dX µ dXµ = ηµν dX µ dX ν = −(cdt)2 +(dx)2 +(dy)2 +(dz)2
ηαβ =
0

0 1 0
0 0 0 1 is an invariant. Notice that when the line element dX2
is negative that √−dX2 is the differential of proper time,
which is equal to its reciprocal, η , in those frames. while when dX2 is positive, √dX2 is differential of the
αβ

Throughout we use the signs as above, different authors proper distance.


11

The 4-velocity U μ has an invariant form: into the observer’s reference frame. This yields a 4-
vector called the four-force. It is the rate of change of
the above energy momentum four-vector with respect to
U2 = ηνµ U ν U µ = −c2 , proper time. The covariant version of the four-force is:

which means all velocity four-vectors have a magnitude


of c. This is an expression of the fact that there is no such Fν = dPν = mAν
thing as being at coordinate rest in relativity: at the least, dτ
you are always moving forward through time. Differen- In the rest frame of the object, the time component of
tiating the above equation by τ produces: the four force is zero unless the "invariant mass" of the
object is changing (this requires a non-closed system in
which energy/mass is being directly added or removed
2ηµν Aµ U ν = 0. from the object) in which case it is the negative of that
rate of change of mass, times c. In general, though, the
So in special relativity, the acceleration four-vector and components of the four force are not equal to the compo-
the velocity four-vector are orthogonal. nents of the three-force, because the three force is defined
by the rate of change of momentum with respect to coor-
dinate time, i.e. dp/dt while the four force is defined by
8.4 Relativistic dynamics and invariance the rate of change of momentum with respect to proper
time, i.e. dp/dτ.
The invariant magnitude of the momentum 4-vector gen-
erates the energy–momentum relation: In a continuous medium, the 3D density of force com-
bines with the density of power to form a covariant 4-
vector. The spatial part is the result of dividing the force
on a small cell (in 3-space) by the volume of that cell.
P = η Pµ Pν = −(E/c) + p .
2 µν 2 2
The time component is −1/c times the power transferred
We can work out what this invariant is by first arguing to that cell divided by the volume of the cell. This will be
that, since it is a scalar, it doesn't matter in which refer- used below in the section on electromagnetism.
ence frame we calculate it, and then by transforming to a
frame where the total momentum is zero.
9 Relativity and unifying electro-
magnetism
P2 = −(Erest /c)2 = −(mc)2 .
Main articles: Classical electromagnetism and special
We see that the rest energy is an independent invariant. A
relativity and Covariant formulation of classical electro-
rest energy can be calculated even for particles and sys-
magnetism
tems in motion, by translating to a frame in which mo-
mentum is zero.
Theoretical investigation in classical electromagnetism
The rest energy is related to the mass according to the
led to the discovery of wave propagation. Equations
celebrated equation discussed above:
generalizing the electromagnetic effects found that finite
propagation speed of the E and B fields required cer-
tain behaviors on charged particles. The general study
Erest = mc2 . of moving charges forms the Liénard–Wiechert potential,
which is a step towards special relativity.
Note that the mass of systems measured in their center
of momentum frame (where total momentum is zero) is The Lorentz transformation of the electric field of a mov-
given by the total energy of the system in this frame. It ing charge into a non-moving observer’s reference frame
may not be equal to the sum of individual system masses results in the appearance of a mathematical term com-
measured in other frames. monly called the magnetic field. Conversely, the mag-
netic field generated by a moving charge disappears and
To use Newton’s third law of motion, both forces must be becomes a purely electrostatic field in a comoving frame
defined as the rate of change of momentum with respect of reference. Maxwell’s equations are thus simply an em-
to the same time coordinate. That is, it requires the 3D pirical fit to special relativistic effects in a classical model
force defined above. Unfortunately, there is no tensor in of the Universe. As electric and magnetic fields are ref-
4D which contains the components of the 3D force vector erence frame dependent and thus intertwined, one speaks
among its components. of electromagnetic fields. Special relativity provides the
If a particle is not traveling at c, one can transform the transformation rules for how an electromagnetic field in
3D force from the particle’s co-moving reference frame one inertial frame appears in another inertial frame.
12 11 THEORIES OF RELATIVITY AND QUANTUM MECHANICS

Maxwell’s equations in the 3D form are already consistent observer were travelling together at the same veloc-
with the physical content of special relativity, although ity at all times.
they are easier to manipulate in a manifestly covariant
• The Trouton–Noble experiment (1903) showed that
form, i.e. in the language of tensor calculus.[43] See main
the torque on a capacitor is independent of position
links for more detail.
and inertial reference frame.
• The Experiments of Rayleigh and Brace (1902,
10 Status 1904) showed that length contraction doesn't lead
to birefringence for a co-moving observer, in accor-
dance with the relativity principle.
Main articles: Tests of special relativity and Criticism of
relativity theory
Particle accelerators routinely accelerate and measure the
properties of particles moving at near the speed of light,
Special relativity in its Minkowski spacetime is accurate where their behavior is completely consistent with rela-
only when the absolute value of the gravitational potential tivity theory and inconsistent with the earlier Newtonian
is much less than c2 in the region of interest.[44] In a strong mechanics. These machines would simply not work if
gravitational field, one must use general relativity. Gen- they were not engineered according to relativistic princi-
eral relativity becomes special relativity at the limit of a ples. In addition, a considerable number of modern ex-
weak field. At very small scales, such as at the Planck periments have been conducted to test special relativity.
length and below, quantum effects must be taken into Some examples:
consideration resulting in quantum gravity. However, at
macroscopic scales and in the absence of strong gravita- • Tests of relativistic energy and momentum – testing
tional fields, special relativity is experimentally tested to the limiting speed of particles
extremely high degree of accuracy (10−20 )[45] and thus ac-
cepted by the physics community. Experimental results • Ives–Stilwell experiment – testing relativistic
which appear to contradict it are not reproducible and are Doppler effect and time dilation
thus widely believed to be due to experimental errors. • Time dilation of moving particles – relativistic ef-
Special relativity is mathematically self-consistent, and it fects on a fast-moving particle’s half-life
is an organic part of all modern physical theories, most • Kennedy–Thorndike experiment – time dilation in
notably quantum field theory, string theory, and general accordance with Lorentz transformations
relativity (in the limiting case of negligible gravitational
fields). • Hughes–Drever experiment – testing isotropy of
space and mass
Newtonian mechanics mathematically follows from spe-
cial relativity at small velocities (compared to the speed • Modern searches for Lorentz violation – various
of light) – thus Newtonian mechanics can be considered modern tests
as a special relativity of slow moving bodies. See classical
mechanics for a more detailed discussion. • Experiments to test emission theory demonstrated
that the speed of light is independent of the speed
Several experiments predating Einstein’s 1905 paper are of the emitter.
now interpreted as evidence for relativity. Of these it is
known Einstein was aware of the Fizeau experiment be- • Experiments to test the aether drag hypothesis – no
fore 1905,[46] and historians have concluded that Einstein “aether flow obstruction”.
was at least aware of the Michelson–Morley experiment
as early as 1899 despite claims he made in his later years
that it played no role in his development of the theory.[21] 11 Theories of relativity and quan-
tum mechanics
• The Fizeau experiment (1851, repeated by Michel-
son and Morley in 1886) measured the speed of light Special relativity can be combined with quantum me-
in moving media, with results that are consistent chanics to form relativistic quantum mechanics. It is an
with relativistic addition of colinear velocities. unsolved problem in physics how general relativity and
• The famous Michelson–Morley experiment (1881, quantum mechanics can be unified; quantum gravity and
1887) gave further support to the postulate that a "theory of everything", which require such a unification,
detecting an absolute reference velocity was not are active and ongoing areas in theoretical research.
achievable. It should be stated here that, contrary The early Bohr–Sommerfeld atomic model explained the
to many alternative claims, it said little about the fine structure of alkali metal atoms using both special rel-
invariance of the speed of light with respect to the ativity and the preliminary knowledge on quantum me-
source and observer’s velocity, as both source and chanics of the time.[47]
13

In 1928, Paul Dirac constructed an influential relativistic | Velocity composition paradox | Lighthouse
wave equation, now known as the Dirac equation in his paradox
honour,[48] that is fully compatible both with special rela-
tivity and with the final version of quantum theory exist-
ing after 1926. This equation explained not only the in- 13 References
trinsic angular momentum of the electrons called spin, it
also led to the prediction of the antiparticle of the electron [1] Albert Einstein (1905) "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter
(the positron),[48][49] and fine structure could only be fully Körper", Annalen der Physik 17: 891; English transla-
explained with special relativity. It was the first founda- tion On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies by George
tion of relativistic quantum mechanics. In non-relativistic Barker Jeffery and Wilfrid Perrett (1923); Another En-
quantum mechanics, spin is phenomenological and can- glish translation On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bod-
not be explained. ies by Megh Nad Saha (1920).
On the other hand, the existence of antiparticles leads [2] Tom Roberts & Siegmar Schleif (October 2007). “What
to the conclusion that relativistic quantum mechanics is is the experimental basis of Special Relativity?". Usenet
not enough for a more accurate and complete theory of Physics FAQ. Retrieved 2008-09-17.
particle interactions. Instead, a theory of particles inter-
[3] Albert Einstein (2001). Relativity: The Special and the
preted as quantized fields, called quantum field theory,
General Theory (Reprint of 1920 translation by Robert W.
becomes necessary; in which particles can be created and
Lawson ed.). Routledge. p. 48. ISBN 0-415-25384-5.
destroyed throughout space and time.
[4] Richard Phillips Feynman (1998). Six Not-so-easy Pieces:
Einstein’s relativity, symmetry, and space–time (Reprint of
1995 ed.). Basic Books. p. 68. ISBN 0-201-32842-9.
12 See also
[5] Sean Carroll, Lecture Notes on General Relativity, ch.
1, “Special relativity and flat spacetime,” http://ned.ipac.
People: Hendrik Lorentz | Henri Poincaré
caltech.edu/level5/March01/Carroll3/Carroll1.html
| Albert Einstein | Max Planck | Hermann
Minkowski | Max von Laue | Arnold Sommer- [6] Wald, General Relativity, p. 60: "...the special theory of
feld | Max Born | Gustav Herglotz | Richard C. relativity asserts that spacetime is the manifold ℝ4 with a
Tolman flat metric of Lorentz signature defined on it. Conversely,
the entire content of special relativity ... is contained in
Relativity: Theory of relativity | History this statement ...”
of special relativity | Principle of relativity |
General relativity | Frame of reference | Inertial [7] Koks, Don (2006). Explorations in Mathematical Physics:
frame of reference | Lorentz transformations The Concepts Behind an Elegant Language (illustrated
| Bondi k-calculus | Einstein synchronisation | ed.). Springer Science & Business Media. p. 234. ISBN
Rietdijk–Putnam argument | Special relativity 978-0-387-32793-8. Extract of page 234
(alternative formulations) | Criticism of relativ- [8] Steane, Andrew M. (2012). Relativity Made Relatively
ity theory | Relativity priority dispute Easy (illustrated ed.). OUP Oxford. p. 226. ISBN 978-
0-19-966286-9. Extract of page 226
Physics: Newtonian Mechanics | spacetime |
speed of light | simultaneity | center of mass [9] Edwin F. Taylor & John Archibald Wheeler (1992).
(relativistic) | physical cosmology | Doppler ef- Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity. W.
fect | relativistic Euler equations | Aether drag H. Freeman. ISBN 0-7167-2327-1.
hypothesis | Lorentz ether theory | Moving
magnet and conductor problem | Shape waves | [10] Rindler, Wolfgang (1977). Essential Relativity: Special,
General, and Cosmological (illustrated ed.). Springer Sci-
Relativistic heat conduction | Relativistic disk |
ence & Business Media. p. §1,11 p. 7. ISBN 978-3-540-
Thomas precession | Born rigidity | Born coor-
07970-5.
dinates
[11] Einstein, Autobiographical Notes, 1949.
Mathematics: Derivations of the Lorentz
transformations | Minkowski space | four- [12] Einstein, “Fundamental Ideas and Methods of the Theory
vector | world line | light cone | Lorentz group of Relativity”, 1920
| Poincaré group | geometry | tensors | split-
complex number | Relativity in the APS for- [13] For a survey of such derivations, see Lucas and Hodgson,
malism Spacetime and Electromagnetism, 1990

Philosophy: actualism | conventionalism | [14] Einstein, A., Lorentz, H. A., Minkowski, H., & Weyl, H.
formalism (1952). The Principle of Relativity: a collection of origi-
nal memoirs on the special and general theory of relativity.
Paradoxes: Twin paradox | Ehrenfest para- Courier Dover Publications. p. 111. ISBN 0-486-60081-
dox | Ladder paradox | Bell’s spaceship paradox 5.
14 13 REFERENCES

[15] Einstein, On the Relativity Principle and the Conclusions [30] Baglio, Julien (26 May 2007). “Acceleration in special
Drawn from It, 1907; “The Principle of Relativity and Its relativity: What is the meaning of “uniformly accelerated
Consequences in Modern Physics”, 1910; “The Theory movement” ?" (PDF). Physics Department, ENS Cachan.
of Relativity”, 1911; Manuscript on the Special Theory Retrieved 22 January 2016.
of Relativity, 1912; Theory of Relativity, 1913; Einstein,
Relativity, the Special and General Theory, 1916; The [31] Philip Gibbs & Don Koks. “The Relativistic Rocket”. Re-
Principle Ideas of the Theory of Relativity, 1916; What trieved 30 August 2012.
Is The Theory of Relativity?, 1919; The Principle of Rel-
[32] The special theory of relativity shows that time and space
ativity (Princeton Lectures), 1921; Physics and Reality,
are affected by motion. Library.thinkquest.org. Retrieved
1936; The Theory of Relativity, 1949.
on 2013-04-24.
[16] Das, A. (1993) The Special Theory of Relativity, A Math-
[33] R. C. Tolman, The theory of the Relativity of Motion,
ematical Exposition, Springer, ISBN 0-387-94042-1.
(Berkeley 1917), p. 54
[17] Schutz, J. (1997) Independent Axioms for Minkowski
Spacetime, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, ISBN 0- [34] G. A. Benford; D. L. Book & W. A. Newcomb
582-31760-6. (1970). “The Tachyonic Antitelephone”. Physical Re-
view D. 2 (2): 263. Bibcode:1970PhRvD...2..263B.
[18] Yaakov Friedman (2004). Physical Applications of Homo- doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.2.263.
geneous Balls. Progress in Mathematical Physics. 40. pp.
1–21. ISBN 0-8176-3339-1. [35] Wesley C. Salmon (2006). Four Decades of Scientific Ex-
planation. University of Pittsburgh. p. 107. ISBN 0-
[19] David Morin (2007) Introduction to Classical Mechanics, 8229-5926-7., Section 3.7 page 107
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, chapter 11, Ap-
pendix I, ISBN 1-139-46837-5. [36] J.A. Wheeler; C. Misner; K.S. Thorne (1973). Gravita-
tion. W.H. Freeman & Co. p. 58. ISBN 0-7167-0344-0.
[20] Michael Polanyi (1974) Personal Knowledge: Towards a
Post-Critical Philosophy, ISBN 0-226-67288-3, footnote [37] J.R. Forshaw; A.G. Smith (2009). Dynamics and Relativ-
page 10–11: Einstein reports, via Dr N Balzas in response ity. Wiley. p. 247. ISBN 978-0-470-01460-8.
to Polanyi’s query, that “The Michelson–Morley experi-
ment had no role in the foundation of the theory.” and [38] R. Penrose (2007). The Road to Reality. Vintage books.
"..the theory of relativity was not founded to explain its ISBN 0-679-77631-1.
outcome at all.”
[39] Jean-Bernard Zuber & Claude Itzykson, Quantum Field
[21] Jeroen van Dongen (2009). “On the role of the Theory, pg 5, ISBN 0-07-032071-3
Michelson–Morley experiment: Einstein in Chicago”.
[40] Charles W. Misner, Kip S. Thorne & John A. Wheeler,
Archive for History of Exact Sciences. 63: 655–663.
Gravitation, pg 51, ISBN 0-7167-0344-0
arXiv:0908.1545 . doi:10.1007/s00407-009-0050-5.
[41] George Sterman, An Introduction to Quantum Field The-
[22] Staley, Richard (2009), “Albert Michelson, the Velocity
ory, pg 4 , ISBN 0-521-31132-2
of Light, and the Ether Drift”, Einstein’s generation. The
origins of the relativity revolution, Chicago: University of [42] Sean M. Carroll (2004). Spacetime and Geometry: An In-
Chicago Press, ISBN 0-226-77057-5 troduction to General Relativity. Addison Wesley. p. 22.
ISBN 0-8053-8732-3.
[23] Robert Resnick (1968). Introduction to special relativity.
Wiley. pp. 62–63. [43] E. J. Post (1962). Formal Structure of Electromagnetics:
[24] Daniel Kleppner & David Kolenkow (1973). An Introduc- General Covariance and Electromagnetics. Dover Publi-
tion to Mechanics. pp. 468–70. ISBN 0-07-035048-5. cations Inc. ISBN 0-486-65427-3.

[25] Does the inertia of a body depend upon its energy content? [44] Øyvind Grøn & Sigbjørn Hervik (2007). Einstein’s gen-
A. Einstein, Annalen der Physik. 18:639, 1905 (English eral theory of relativity: with modern applications in cos-
translation by W. Perrett and G.B. Jeffery) mology. Springer. p. 195. ISBN 0-387-69199-5. Extract
of page 195 (with units where c=1)
[26] Max Jammer (1997). Concepts of Mass in Classical and
Modern Physics. Courier Dover Publications. pp. 177– [45] The number of works is vast, see as example:
178. ISBN 0-486-29998-8. Sidney Coleman; Sheldon L. Glashow (1997). “Cosmic
Ray and Neutrino Tests of Special Relativity”. Physics
[27] John J. Stachel (2002). Einstein from B to Z. Springer. p.
Letters B. 405 (3–4): 249–252. arXiv:hep-ph/9703240 .
221. ISBN 0-8176-4143-2.
Bibcode:1997PhLB..405..249C. doi:10.1016/S0370-
[28] On the Inertia of Energy Required by the Relativity Princi- 2693(97)00638-2.
ple, A. Einstein, Annalen der Physik 23 (1907): 371–384 An overview can be found on this page

[29] In a letter to Carl Seelig in 1955, Einstein wrote “I had [46] John D. Norton, John D. (2004). “Einstein’s In-
already previously found that Maxwell’s theory did not vestigations of Galilean Covariant Electrodynamics
account for the micro-structure of radiation and could prior to 1905”. Archive for History of Exact Sci-
therefore have no general validity.”, Einstein letter to Carl ences. 59: 45–105. Bibcode:2004AHES...59...45N.
Seelig, 1955. doi:10.1007/s00407-004-0085-6.
13.2 Journal articles 15

[47] R. Resnick; R. Eisberg (1985). Quantum Physics of 13.2 Journal articles


Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei and Particles (2nd ed.).
John Wiley & Sons. pp. 114–116. ISBN 978-0-471- • Alvager, T.; Farley, F. J. M.; Kjellman, J.; Wallin,
87373-0. L.; et al. (1964). “Test of the Second Postulate of
[48] P.A.M. Dirac (1930). “A Theory of Electrons Special Relativity in the GeV region”. Physics Let-
and Protons”. Proceedings of the Royal Society. ters. 12 (3): 260. Bibcode:1964PhL....12..260A.
A126 (801): 360. Bibcode:1930RSPSA.126..360D. doi:10.1016/0031-9163(64)91095-9.
doi:10.1098/rspa.1930.0013. JSTOR 95359.
• Darrigol, Olivier (2004). “The Mystery of the
[49] C.D. Anderson (1933). “The Positive Electron”. Phys. Poincaré–Einstein Connection”. Isis. 95 (4): 614–
Rev. 43 (6): 491–494. Bibcode:1933PhRv...43..491A. 26. doi:10.1086/430652. PMID 16011297.
doi:10.1103/PhysRev.43.491.
• Wolf, Peter; Petit, Gerard (1997). “Satel-
lite test of Special Relativity using the Global
13.1 Textbooks Positioning System”. Physical Review A. 56
(6): 4405–09. Bibcode:1997PhRvA..56.4405W.
• Einstein, Albert (1920). Relativity: The Special and doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.56.4405.
General Theory.
• Special Relativity Scholarpedia
• Einstein, Albert (1996). The Meaning of Relativity.
Fine Communications. ISBN 1-56731-136-9 • Special relativity: Kinematics Wolfgang
Rindler, Scholarpedia, 6(2):8520. doi:
• Logunov, Anatoly A. (2005) Henri Poincaré and the 10.4249/scholarpedia.8520
Relativity Theory (transl. from Russian by G. Pon-
tocorvo and V. O. Soleviev, edited by V. A. Petrov)
Nauka, Moscow.
14 External links
• Charles Misner, Kip Thorne, and John Archibald
Wheeler (1971) Gravitation. W. H. Freeman & Co. 14.1 Original works
ISBN 0-7167-0334-3
• Post, E.J., 1997 (1962) Formal Structure of Electro- • Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper Einstein’s orig-
magnetics: General Covariance and Electromagnet- inal work in German, Annalen der Physik, Bern
ics. Dover Publications. 1905

• Wolfgang Rindler (1991). Introduction to Special • On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies English
Relativity (2nd ed.), Oxford University Press. ISBN Translation as published in the 1923 book The Prin-
978-0-19-853952-0; ISBN 0-19-853952-5 ciple of Relativity.

• Harvey R. Brown (2005). Physical relativity: space–


time structure from a dynamical perspective, Oxford 14.2 Special relativity for a general audi-
University Press, ISBN 0-19-927583-1; ISBN 978- ence (no mathematical knowledge re-
0-19-927583-0 quired)
• Qadir, Asghar (1989). Relativity: An Introduction
to the Special Theory. Singapore: World Scientific • Einstein Light An award-winning, non-technical
Publications. p. 128. ISBN 9971-5-0612-2. introduction (film clips and demonstrations) sup-
ported by dozens of pages of further explanations
• Silberstein, Ludwik (1914) The Theory of Relativ- and animations, at levels with or without mathemat-
ity. ics.
• Lawrence Sklar (1977). Space, Time and Spacetime. • Einstein Online Introduction to relativity theory,
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-03174- from the Max Planck Institute for Gravitational
1. Physics.
• Lawrence Sklar (1992). Philosophy of Physics. • Audio: Cain/Gay (2006) – Astronomy Cast. Ein-
Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-0625-6. stein’s Theory of Special Relativity
• Taylor, Edwin, and John Archibald Wheeler (1992)
Spacetime Physics (2nd ed.). W.H. Freeman & Co. 14.3 Special relativity explained (using
ISBN 0-7167-2327-1
simple or more advanced mathemat-
• Tipler, Paul, and Llewellyn, Ralph (2002). Modern ics)
Physics (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman & Co. ISBN 0-
7167-4345-0 • Greg Egan’s Foundations.
16 14 EXTERNAL LINKS

• The Hogg Notes on Special Relativity A good in- • Animation clip on YouTube visualizing the Lorentz
troduction to special relativity at the undergraduate transformation.
level, using calculus.
• Original interactive FLASH Animations from John
• Relativity Calculator: Special Relativity – An alge- de Pillis illustrating Lorentz and Galilean frames,
braic and integral calculus derivation for E = mc2 . Train and Tunnel Paradox, the Twin Paradox, Wave
Propagation, Clock Synchronization, etc.
• MathPages – Reflections on Relativity A complete
online book on relativity with an extensive bibliog- • lightspeed An OpenGL-based program developed
raphy. to illustrate the effects of special relativity on the
appearance of moving objects.
• Relativity An introduction to special relativity at the
undergraduate level, without calculus. • Animation showing the stars near Earth, as seen
from a spacecraft accelerating rapidly to light speed.

• Relativity: the Special and General Theory at Project


Gutenberg, by Albert Einstein

• Special Relativity Lecture Notes is a standard in-


troduction to special relativity containing illustrative
explanations based on drawings and spacetime dia-
grams from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
University.

• Understanding Special Relativity The theory of spe-


cial relativity in an easily understandable way.

• An Introduction to the Special Theory of Relativity


(1964) by Robert Katz, “an introduction ... that is
accessible to any student who has had an introduc-
tion to general physics and some slight acquaintance
with the calculus” (130 pp; pdf format).

• Lecture Notes on Special Relativity by J D Cresser


Department of Physics Macquarie University.

• SpecialRelativity.net - An overview with visualiza-


tions and minimal mathematics.

14.4 Visualization
• Raytracing Special Relativity Software visualizing
several scenarios under the influence of special rel-
ativity.

• Real Time Relativity The Australian National Uni-


versity. Relativistic visual effects experienced
through an interactive program.

• Spacetime travel A variety of visualizations of rel-


ativistic effects, from relativistic motion to black
holes.

• Through Einstein’s Eyes The Australian National


University. Relativistic visual effects explained with
movies and images.

• Warp Special Relativity Simulator A computer pro-


gram to show the effects of traveling close to the
speed of light.
17

15 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses


15.1 Text
• Special relativity Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_relativity?oldid=745840485 Contributors: AxelBoldt, RjLesch, The
Cunctator, Derek Ross, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Tarquin, Ap, -- April, XJaM, Christian List, William Avery, Roadrunner,
DrBob, Heron, Karl Palmen, Bth, Ram-Man, Stevertigo, Edward, Bdesham, Nealmcb, Patrick, Chas zzz brown, Boud, Michael Hardy,
Tim Starling, Alan Peakall, Cole Kitchen, Ixfd64, Chinju, Zulu~enwiki, Alfio, Dgrant, CesarB, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier,
Cyp, Stevenj, CatherineMunro, Kevin Baas, Salsa Shark, Whkoh, Wooster, Agtx, Reddi, Jitse Niesen, Kbk, Wik, Jeepien, Lfwlfw,
Patrick0Moran, Morwen, Taxman, Bevo, Sokane, Banno, PuzzletChung, Craig Stuntz, Astronautics~enwiki, Gregors, Fredrik, Altenmann,
Lowellian, Mayooranathan, Gandalf61, Academic Challenger, Sdw25, PxT, DHN, Robinh, Fuelbottle, Anthony, Cyrius, Carnildo, Davedx,
Alan Liefting, Giftlite, Christopher Parham, Patrik~enwiki, Wolfkeeper, Netoholic, Fastfission, Fropuff, Xerxes314, Muke, Alex.atkins,
Wwoods, Everyking, Bkonrad, Michael Devore, Alvestrand, Długosz, Leonard Vertighel, Chowbok, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Knutux,
Antandrus, Sbyers11, MisfitToys, Ablewisuk, MadIce, Kesac, Spoirier~enwiki, Icairns, Sam Hocevar, Avihu, Fermion, Zondor, Blue-
mask, Mike Rosoft, Chris Howard, D6, Smokris, Sysy, Ultratomio, Klaas van Aarsen, Discospinster, Mageaere, ElTyrant, Rich Farm-
brough, ThomasK, Masudr, Pjacobi, Kooo, Xezbeth, François-Dominique~enwiki, Paul August, Gonzalo Diethelm, Dmr2, Mwm126,
Bender235, Kjoonlee, Blogjack, RJHall, Livajo, El C, Rgdboer, Lankiveil, Laurascudder, Joaopais, Bobo192, Nigelj, Army1987, Marco
Polo, Wood Thrush, Robotje, Teorth, GTubio, WoKrKmFK3lwz8BKvaB94, Novakyu, Rje, Jonathunder, Geschichte, Passw0rd, Jumbuck,
Red Winged Duck, Danski14, Hackwrench, Keenan Pepper, Jengeldk, Ricky81682, SlimVirgin, PAR, BernardH, Hu, Ksnow, KingTT,
Psmither, DonQuixote, Eddie Dealtry, Count Iblis, CloudNine, DAnderson, DV8 2XL, HenryLi, KTC, Loxley~enwiki, Siafu, Hoziron,
Boothy443, Igny, Etacar11, Sabejias, StradivariusTV, TheNightFly, Neomundus, Robert K S, Mpatel, Jok2000, Shahbaznihal, El Suizo,
Joke137, Jonathan48, Christopher Thomas, Palica, Pfalstad, Theo F, Gerbrant, LRC, Marudubshinki, Rnt20, Graham87, Magister Math-
ematicae, Ilya, Qwertyus, RxS, Melesse, Ketiltrout, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Seidenstud, Саша Стефановић, WingZero, Mkuehn10, R.O.C,
Thechamelon, R.e.b., Ems57fcva, Yamamoto Ichiro, Wragge, FlaBot, Gringo300, Old Moonraker, Arnero, Musical Linguist, Latka, Alfred
Centauri, Nimur, Jrtayloriv, Enon, Fresheneesz, Tysto, Srleffler, David H Braun (1964), Silivrenion, Chobot, DVdm, VolatileChemical,
Bgwhite, YurikBot, Wavelength, Ec-, Kafziel, Hillman, Brandmeister (old), Hyad, Loom91, JabberWok, Stephenb, Manop, Archelon,
Gaius Cornelius, Chaos, NawlinWiki, Msikma, ErkDemon, Welsh, Trovatore, Długosz, Proyster, Tailpig, Schlafly, Krea, SCZenz, Ming-
shey~enwiki, Muu-karhu, Fr~enwiki, SFC9394, Elkman, Wknight94, Yisraelasper, Perspicacious, Light current, Enormousdude, Licens-
edlunacy, Zzuuzz, Lt-wiki-bot, Errabee, Izabela Furjan, Sambc, Willtron, Ilmari Karonen, Profero, Infinity0, Sbyrnes321, Sardanaphalus,
SmackBot, RDBury, Slashme, KnowledgeOfSelf, WilyD, Nickst, Eskimbot, Harald88, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Dauto, Bluebot, Keegan,
Quinsareth, MalafayaBot, Silly rabbit, Complexica, RayAYang, Whispering, Geometer, Sbharris, Rkinch, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Danielkueh, Ioscius, Rrburke, Xyzzyplugh, E4mmacro, Downwards, Khukri, Nakon, Bubby the Tour G, Lpgeffen, Jon Aw-
brey, DMacks, Murf42, Acdx, Andrei Stroe, Mearnhardtfan, Ohconfucius, Nmnogueira, Lambiam, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Cronholm144,
SilkTork, Adj08, Loadmaster, Dr Greg, Techsmith, Kpengboy, SandyGeorgia, Dr.K., Politepunk, Quaeler, Belltower, Ssiruuk25, Joseph
Solis in Australia, Andreas Rejbrand, MOBle, GDallimore, Nfutvol, CapitalR, Gornly, Yskyflyer, Tawkerbot2, JRSpriggs, DKqwerty, Fal-
conus, Robinhw, JForget, TristanJ, Sakurambo, CmdrObot, Diegueins, Linus M., Ruslik0, Minor Crank, Arnavion, WeggeBot, Myasuda,
Icek~enwiki, Cydebot, Abebasal, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Xxanthippe, Agne27, Edgerck, Francis Pym, Michael C Price, Christian75,
DumbBOT, DBaba, ErrantX, Omicronpersei8, SummonerMarc, Epbr123, LeBofSportif, Markus Pössel, Pmkost, Martin Hogbin, N5iln,
Headbomb, Jojan, Yzmo, X201, Tellyaddict, Davidhorman, Elhector, Iviney, Thljcl, D.H, Big Bird, Sean William, Austin Maxwell, An-
tiVandalBot, Gioto, Der alte Hexenmeister, Elmoosecapitan, Magencalc, Gnixon, Xaethos~enwiki, Fashionslide, Tim Shuba, Knotwork,
JAnDbot, Husond, Em3ryguy, CosineKitty, Moshier, Hut 8.5, Autotheist, .Absolution., Pervect, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II,
Faizhaider, TxAlien, Stijn Vermeeren, Cyktsui, JJ Harrison, LorenzoB, StuFifeScotland, User A1, DerHexer, EightBall1989, Edward321,
Biggy P, MartinBot, Ken Seto, Vox Rationis, E.Shubee, Jschilling, N4nojohn, Vanwhistler, J.delanoy, Trizow, R. Baley, JamesR, 3halfinch-
floppy, OttoMäkelä, Hodja Nasreddin, Lantonov, M C Y 1008, BobEnyart, Silas S. Brown, Iimd1931, WaiteDavid137, M-le-mot-dit,
SouthParkFan, JohnAnthonyCarey, Pope Bonny Eberndu, NewEnglandYankee, SJP, Tgooding, Touch Of Light, I gave you a twenty, I
know the pizza didn't cost that much, Fylwind, Shadow Android, Jake roman, Chris O'Riordan, Ken g6, Moroder~enwiki, Champion-
dante, Wildsurmise, Pdcook, Bgtgwazi, VolkovBot, Jeff G., JohnBlackburne, Optokinetics, Fences and windows, Philip Trueman, TXiK-
iBoT, Coder Dan, Red Act, Nxavar, Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, Einstein, NOT!, DennyColt, Corvus cornix, Fizzackerly, Oren neu dag,
Wjkiely, Fbs. 13, Seb az86556, Geometry guy, Wenli, RobertFritzius, Andy Dingley, Synthebot, Antixt, Sylviaelse, Webrider, Woojamon,
Gth759k, C0N6R355, SaltyBoatr, YohanN7, Dnarby, SieBot, Timb66, Nubiatech, Hertz1888, Likebox, RadicalOne, Arjen Dijksman,
Udirock, Rafimoor, Arthana, Fedosin, Coldcreation, H1nkles, TFCforever, ShajiA, ImageRemovalBot, Martarius, ClueBot, Dypteran,
NickCT, IceUnshattered, Plastikspork, Wwheaton, R000t, RYNORT, Flyingcar73242, Glibik, Eric.brasseur, Agge1000, Anaholic, Chan-
dlerMapBot, Oxnard27, RAmesbury, Paulcmnt, Ajoykt, Denveron, PixelBot, Tamaratrouts, Brews ohare, NuclearWarfare, Hans Adler,
Hasteur, DS1000, Friedlibend und tapfer, Roger491127, Aitias, John C. Huang, Dkress14, Steve D. Gage, DumZiBoT, Antti29, Timoth-
yRias, RQG, Helixweb, BarretB, XLinkBot, Namreh ekim, Johanley, Rror, WikHead, Cleatus 69, Truthnlove, Mitrg, MTessier, Addbot,
Eric Drexler, Some jerk on the Internet, Jojhutton, Smdowney, Haruth, Booger Eating Moron, Fluffernutter, Cst17, EconoPhysicist, De-
laszk, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Bob K31416, Patton123, Lightbot, ScAvenger, Gameseeker, Blablablob, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou,
LGB, RHB100, KamikazeBot, Szajci, Synchronism, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Jim1138, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Piano non troppo,
Classicalmatter, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Wavgfkl, Tasudrty, Amareto2,
Capricorn42, Nasnema, Nanog, Jzhuo, Gap9551, NOrbeck, Almabot, GrouchoBot, Efield, RibotBOT, Waleswatcher, Victamonn, Char-
vest, Rayclipper, The Wiki ghost, Schekinov Alexey Victorovich, A. di M., Nym6433, Cooguy77, CES1596, FrescoBot, Baz.77.243.99.32,
Paine Ellsworth, Ironboy11, Lipsquid, Tzviscarr, Sławomir Biały, Rymmen, Citation bot 1, Jimfarley, Greenrev, Pinethicket, Jonesey95,
Tsester, Tom.Reding, Zanzapod, Lithium cyanide, Number67c, Tcnuk, Riccardo.fabris, IVAN3MAN, Corinne68, Meier99, Kfchurchill,
TobeBot, Trappist the monk, Callanecc, Cardinality, Iphegenia, Earthandmoon, Sandman888, Andrea105, Mean as custard, Rjwilm-
siBot, Alph Bot, Ripchip Bot, WildBot, EmausBot, John of Reading, Troubled asset, WikitanvirBot, Docjudith, Jazzalex, Heracles31,
Benschopp8, RenamedUser01302013, Slightsmile, Netheril96, Dcirovic, K6ka, Coffeefilter, Hhhippo, Empty Buffer, Albertolanzoni71,
Kharoutinian, Juan Fco. Araya, Quondum, EWikist, Iiar, Ashell2, Bsmith671, Maschen, Donner60, Bill william compton, Rjowsey,
ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, NTox, Vadher lalit, Alexandrevennes, Petrb, ClueBot NG, Bloodjam, TehGrauniad, SusikMkr, Cntras,
David.bertalan, Braincricket, Richukuttan, Bopomofo, Helpful Pixie Bot, Witherpshins, Anofein, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Hewhoamareis-
myself, Gresavage, Datechanger, Bonginkosi zwane, Afbrat151, F=q(E+v^B), Bobo123456, Harizotoh9, Tremere2, Klilidiplomus, Tabish
rafiq, Jffjgfjgfgf, Zhaofeng Li, Stigmatella aurantiaca, Khazar2, Ewjohnsonjohnson, JYBot, Dexbot, Twhitguy14, CuriousMind01, TwoT-
woHello, 1Todd1, OneToddWon, Shivamshaiv, Mrvd42, Jamesx12345, Kmuflahi, Shivamshaivpatel, Andyhowlett, Shivam scientist, Gmx-
ian89, NeapleBerlina, Jwratner1, DavRosen, Frinthruit, Anrnusna, Unifiedfields, Mezafo, Macjames4444, Mahusha, Abhishek.m.patel89,
18 15 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Monkbot, JhonASF, Gjbayes, TE5ITA, Zachman727, Neeraj Bhakta, Jayache88, ChamithN, JoKent, The Average Wikipedian, Bondy11u,
Corsairio, Tetra quark, Spyridon Vossos, 2TonyTony, Nøkkenbuer, Grammarian3.14159265359, KasparBot, Kafishabbir, Sir Cumference,
DamnLetMeLogIn, Trambak J Chall, Wikidalien, Mysticdan, Harshumarathe, Goodphy, JGS952, HLEO kixxs, M0a1r1c7h and Anony-
mous: 768

15.2 Images
• File:Einstein_patentoffice.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Einstein_patentoffice.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: Cropped from original at the Historical Museum of Berne. Original artist: Lucien Chavan [#cite_note-author-1 [1]]
(1868 - 1942), a friend of Einstein’s when he was living in Berne.
• File:Frames_of_reference_in_relative_motion.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/Frames_of_
reference_in_relative_motion.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Krea
• File:Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Free-to-read_lock_75.svg License: CC0
Contributors: Adapted from 9px|Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white_green.svg Original artist: This version:Trappist_the_monk (talk)
(Uploads)
• File:Light_cone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Light_cone.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: Own work Original artist: Sakurambo
• File:Orthogonality_and_rotation.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Orthogonality_and_rotation.svg
License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Maschen
• File:Relativity_of_Simultaneity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b1/Relativity_of_Simultaneity.svg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Derivative work of en:File:Relativity_of_simultaneity_(color).png Original artist: User:Army1987
created the original PNG file; Acdx converted it to SVG.
• File:Spacetime_curvature.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Spacetime_curvature.png License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Special_relativity-_Three_dimensional_dual-cone.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/76/Special_
relativity-_Three_dimensional_dual-cone.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors:
Author
Original artist:
User:Yzmo
• File:Sr3.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/78/Sr3.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Sr3.jpg Original artist: Sr3.jpg: user:Kevin Baas
• File:Stylised_Lithium_Atom.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Stylised_atom_with_three_Bohr_
model_orbits_and_stylised_nucleus.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: based off of Image:Stylised Lithium Atom.png by Halfdan.
Original artist: SVG by Indolences. Recoloring and ironing out some glitches done by Rainer Klute.
• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wikiversity-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Wikiversity-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p) Original artist: Snorky (optimized and cleaned up by verdy_p)
• File:Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg License: CC BY-
SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dan Polansky based on work currently attributed to Wikimedia Foundation but originally
created by Smurrayinchester
• File:World_line.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/World_line.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-
tors: Transferred from en.wikipedia.
Original artist: SVG version: K. Aainsqatsi at en.wikipedia

15.3 Content license


• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0

You might also like