Unit 2

Energy Conservation in Electrical Machines

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 1

 Electric motors play a vital role in industrial, commercial,
agricultural, and residential sectors and consume huge amounts of
energy.
 Earlier induction motor design and fabrication was based more with
initial cost of motor, rather than how much it consumes. Therefore
such motors were having low p.f., more losses and low efficiency.
 Inefficient motors need large amount of power to operate which
results in depletion of precious fuels and resources at a faster rate.
 Cost of electricity is increasing day by day, as a result, for
maximum savings, motors must work at higher efficiencies.
 Hence in order to prevent depletion and wastage of energy sources
its necessary to follow the practices of conserving energy in
induction motors.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 2
 Transformer is a vital power equipment in electric power system, which
plays significant role in transmission and distribution of electrical energy.
 Since the transformers are integral part of power system and large in
numbers, whether they are on load or no load, they always remain on line.
 The power losses in windings (no load primary copper losses due to no
load current) and in magnetic core (due to rated voltage across primary)
results in energy wastage.
 As rated voltage and no load current are there around the clock (i.e.
continuously), reduction in these losses in transformer leads to large
amount of energy savings over the period, which can be used for some
other good reason.
 In distribution system, the demand of distribution transformer is ever
increasing.
 Therefore, energy conservation in transformer is extremely necessary.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 3
 a) Improving Power quality
 b) Motor survey
 c) Matching motor with loading
 d) Minimizing the idle and redundant running of motor
 e) Operating in star mode
 f) Rewinding of motor
 g) Replacement by energy efficient motor
 h) Periodic maintenance
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 4
 a) Improving Power quality
 Power quality is defined by the closeness of the following
to specified values:
 1) Voltage
 2) Frequency
 3) Closeness of the supply to sine waveform (knowing
the harmonic content of the supply)

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 5

 a) Improving Power quality-
 1) Voltage-
 Maintaining the voltage at the rated value for motors results in the
properly expected torque speed characteristics available to drive the
load.
 Lower voltage leads to excessive current drawn by the motor, due
to which the line losses will increase, machine copper losses will
increase and line voltage drop will also increase.
 If the voltage is above the required value, higher flux density will
occur and which will lead to higher iron losses.
 Thus lower as well as higher voltage levels than the desired will
lead to decrease in efficiency of a motor. Hence proper voltage has
to be maintained.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 6
 a) Improving Power quality-
 2) Frequency-
 It governs the speed related losses and iron losses.
 If its value is more than rated, these losses will increase.
 As, speed is directly proportional to the frequency, speed dependent
friction and windage losses will increase that will decrease the efficiency.
 Iron losses- hysteresis loss (proportional to the frequency) and eddy
current loss (proportional to the square of the frequency) will also increase
with increase in frequency.
 Lower value of frequency leads to lower speed that affects the output
power.
 Hence frequency has to be maintained at rated value.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 7

 a) Improving Power quality-
 3) Closeness of the supply to sine waveform (knowing the
harmonic content of the supply)
 When the supply waveform is purely sinusoidal, the harmonics are
absent, which means that there are no iron and copper losses due to
harmonic voltage and currents.
 Harmonics even if very small will lead to production of unwanted
harmonic torques and over heating in motors which will need to be
overcome.
 This requires energy which is wasteful. Hence the supply voltage
must be as near as possible to sine wave in case of AC motors.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 8

 b) Motor survey-
 Large industries have a ample number of LT motors.
 Load survey of these motors, over the time, can be taken-up in
an appropriate manner to identify improvement options.
 The Survey of motors with respect to the load can be
conducted in 3 steps:
 1. Sampling
 2. Measurement of parameters
 3. Analysis of observations
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 9
 b) Motor survey-
 1) Sampling
 Motors are categorised by applying various sampling criteria-
 i. Hours of operation ie. Utilization factor- Motor drives which are
continuously operated are given preference.
 ii. Illustrative sample representative- One motor out of a typical
group of application is analyzed and used as illustrative sample for
that class of motors. e.g. Cooling Tower Fans, Air Washer Units,
etc.
 iii. Probable conservation potential- where drive motors with
inefficient capacity controls on the machine side, fluctuating load
drive systems, etc., are looked into.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 10

 b) Motor survey-
 2) Measurement of parameters
 Electrical load parameters as well as machine side mechanical
parameters are measured for the purpose of motor performance
study.
 Studies on selected motors involve measurement of electrical load
parameters namely volts, amperes, power factor, kW drawn.
 Observations on machine side parameters such as speed, load,
pressure, temperature, etc. are also taken.
 Availability of capacitors for PF correction, energy meters for
monitoring is also looked into for each case.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 11
 b) Motor survey-
 3) Analysis of observations
 Analysis of observations on representative motors and
connected drives is carried out towards following outputs:
 − Motor load on KW basis and estimated energy consumption.
 −Scope for improving monitoring systems to facilitate energy
audit regular basis.
 − Search areas for energy conservation with related cost
benefits and source information.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 12
 b) Motor survey-
 3) Analysis of observations
 The surveys should indicate the following aspects:
 a) % loading in kW, % voltage unbalance if any, voltage, current, frequency, power factor.
 b) Machine side conditions like load / unload condition, pressure, flow, temperature, damper /
throttle operation, whether it is a rewound motor, idle operations, metering provisions, etc.
 The findings / recommendations of the survey may include:
 Identified motors with less than 50 % loading, 50 – 75 % loading, 75 – 100 % loading, over
100% loading.
 Identified motors with low voltage / low power factor / voltage imbalance for needed
improvement measures.
 Identified motors with machine side losses / inefficiencies like idle operations, throttling /
damper operations for avenues like automatic controls / interlocks, variable speed drives, etc.
 Motor load survey would help to bring out savings in driven machines and systems, which
can give 30 – 40 % energy savings.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 13

 c) Matching motor with loading-
 Industrial motors frequently operate under varying load conditions
due to process requirements.
 A common practice in cases where such variable-loads are found is
to select a motor based on the highest anticipated load.
 Under-loading of the motor results in lower efficiency and poor
power factor and higher initial cost of the motor and related control
equipment.
 Proper selection of the range of the motor according to load
requirements will reduce the power consumption.
 The optimum rating for the motor is selected on the basis of the
load duration curve for the particular application.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 14

 c) Matching motor with loading-
 The operation within the thermal capacity of the motor
insulation is of greatest concern in a motor operating at higher
than its rated load.
 The motor rating is selected as that which would result in the
same temperature rise under continuous full-load operation as
the weighted average temperature rise over the actual
operating cycle.
 Under extreme load changes, e.g. frequent starts / stops, or
high inertial loads, this method of calculating the motor rating
is unsuitable since it would underestimate the heating that
would occur.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 15
 c) Matching motor with loading-
 Where loads vary substantially with time, in addition to
proper motor sizing, the control strategy employed can
have a significant impact on motor electricity use.
 Traditionally, mechanical means (e.g. throttle valves in
piping systems) have been used when lower output is
required.
 More efficient speed control mechanisms include multi-
speed motors, eddy-current couplings, fluid couplings,
and solid-state electronic variable speed drives.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 16
 d) Minimizing the idle and redundant running of motor –
 1. Loss of energy as the no load power drawn is approximately about 12%
to 16% of rated power output in most of motors. Therefore, idle running
should be avoided.
 2. Unnecessary heat production at friction points such as bearings, leading
to wearing of bearing.
 3. Motor being highly inductive load under idle running as no real power
(mechanical load) on it, the p.f. of such no-load running is low. Lower
power factor results in increase in line current resulting in unnecessary
line losses.
 4. This results in reduction in overall system energy efficiency over period
of time.
 5. Hence in order to prevent unnecessary wastage of energy, the idle and
redundant running of the motor should be avoided.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 17
 e) Operating in star mode-
 i) In some applications it is observed that there occurs a reduction in load
for a substantially long duration.
 ii) In such cases if the load is less than 30%, it means that the torque
required by load is less than 30%. Hence current requirement is reduced.
 iii) When connected in star, the phase voltage reduces to (1/ 3) times that
in delta mode. As the torque generated by motor is directly proportional to
the (applied voltage per phase)2 , the torque produced falls to 1/3 as
compared to delta mode.
 iv) Due to decreased phase voltage, the iron losses decrease to nearly 1/3,
as total iron losses are proportional to (applied voltage per phase)2 before
saturation.
 v) Due to reduction in phase voltage the current drawn in the lines also
reduces leading to lower copper losses in motor and decrease line losses.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 18
 f) Rewinding of motor-
 1. During rewinding by preserving the original winding
characteristics such as material quality, design and structure, it is
possible to maintain the original operating characteristics.
 2. Using larger cross section area of conductors and better
insulation, the copper losses can be minimized.
 3. Rewinding for the required torque and power or speed results in
lowering of the losses, thus resulting in better efficiency and hence
energy savings.
 4. Extension of coils beyond the slot insulation must be minimized
to reduce the amount of copper used that leads to lowering of the
copper losses.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 19

 g) Replacement by energy efficient motor-
 1. Energy efficient motors (EEM) are the one, in which,
design improvements are incorporated specifically to increase
operating efficiency over motors of standard design.
 2. Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor
losses.
 3. Improvements include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a
longer core, thicker wire, thinner laminations, smaller air gap
between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars in
the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan etc.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 20

 g) Replacement by energy efficient motor-
 Significant features of Energy Efficient Motors-
 1. Material used is of high quality which results in High flux
density & High current density.
 2. The core laminations used are thin and hence core size will
be less which will result in lower core losses.
 3. Due to precise air gap between stator and rotor reduces the
losses.
 4. The starting and running torque is comparatively more.
 5. Improved power Factor.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 21
 h) Periodic maintenance-
 1. Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly
increase losses and lead to unreliable operation. For example,
improper lubrication can cause increased friction in both the
motor and associated drive transmission equipment.
 2. Resistance losses in the motor, which increase with increase
in temperature.
 3. Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling
ducts clean can help to dissipate heat to reduce excessive
losses.
 4. The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 22

 h) Periodic maintenance-
 A list of periodic maintenance practices to help insure proper motor operation is as follows:
 1. Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and housings (to reduce frictional losses)
and for dirt/dust in motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
 2. Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over or under loaded.
 3. Lubricating appropriately : Manufacturers generally give recommendations for how and
when to lubricate their motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as noted above.
Over-lubrication can also create problems, e.g. excess oil or grease from the motor bearings
can enter the motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing premature failure or creating
a fire risk.
 4. Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor and the driven equipment:
Improper alignment can cause shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to
both the motor and the driven equipment.
 5. Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly sized and installed. Inspect
regularly the connection at the motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 23

 a) Loading sharing
 b) Parallel operation
 c) Isolating techniques
 d) Replacement by energy efficient transformers
 e) Periodic maintenance

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 24

 a) Loading sharing -
 The problems like overloading, variation in voltage and heating are very
common in transformers.
 Due to overload the efficiency drops and the secondary winding gets
overheated or it may burn because of excess heat.
 It takes a lot of time for its repairing and maintenance and also involves
high cost. Load sharing protects the transformer under overload condition.
 When the loads on transformer are constant, the total active power loss
and reactive power consumption of transformer will be changed with the
variation of load distribution between the transformers.
 Therefore, the transformer total active power loss and reactive power
consumption can be reduced to minimum values according to economic
dispatch of loads between transformers, so as to achieve transformer
energy conservation.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 25
 b) Parallel operation –
 1. The transformers operate near their maximum efficiency around 70 % to 100 % of their
rated loads.
 2. For huge establishments which are drawing high varying powers at different times,
supplying from single transformer, will be uneconomical and inefficient at low loads.
 3. This occurs because at light loads. A higher rated transformer has higher constant losses
compared to a lower rated one, also the allied systems for the transformers draw power.
Thus reducing the overall efficiency.
 4. Hence to operate the system at the highest possible efficiency, parallel operation of
transformer is done.
 5. Parallel connected transformers are utilized such that at lower power requirements one of
those with lower capacity (and hence lower power losses) in parallel will supply at around
its maximum efficiency while the other is switched off thus saving its low load losses. This
is done as per the requirements of the loads.
 6. Hence Parallel operation of transformers reduces the losses and promotes energy
conservation.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 26

 c) Isolating techniques –
 1. Isolation is defined as cutting of electrical supply to the system in
order to ensure the safety of those working on the equipment by
making those parts dead which are live in normal service.
 2. When transformers are operating in parallel to share a particular
load, it is necessary to remove and isolate some transformers when
load demand is less, so that other transformers will supply energy at
their maximum efficiency.
 3. At the time of removing the transformer from circuit, first the
secondary side load is removed by tripping the circuit breaker by
opening the load (Iron Clad Triple Pole-ICTP) switches having high
rupturing capacity fuses.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 27

 c) Isolating techniques –
 4. Now transformer will remain connected to bus, without sharing
any load. However, even during no load condition , the transformer
primary is still connected to the line. This may result in no load
primary copper losses due to no load current and magnetic core
losses (due to rated voltage across primary). This results in energy
wastage
 5. To prevent the above mentioned energy wastage, the circuit
breaker and isolator switch on the primary side is opened, so that
transformer is isolated and removed from bus-bar completely.
 6. Thus isolating technique prevents unnecessary energy wastage
and promotes energy conservation.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 28

 d) Replacement by energy efficient transformers –
 1. Most of the energy loss in conventional transformers occurs through heat or
vibration from core.
 2. The new high-efficiency transformers minimize these losses.
 3. The conventional transformer is made up of silicon alloyed iron (grain-oriented)
core and are are prone to losses as the iron loss of any transformer depends on the
type of core used in the transformer.
 4. However the latest technology is to use amorphous material or epoxy resin for
the core.
 Transformers with such materials are called as energy efficient transformers.
 5. The expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si, Fe core)
transformers is roughly around 70%, which is quite significant.
 6. Such transformers provide high efficiencies even at low loads, 98.5% efficiency
at 35% load.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 29

 d) Replacement by energy efficient transformers –
 Features of energy efficient transformers include:
 1. They have less operating losses.
 2. Less heat is generated due to less losses.
 3. They have longer life.
 4. Better cost effectiveness.
 5. Low field magnetization, reduces hysteresis loss.
 6. High electrical resistivity of core material reduces eddy currents
and eddy current loss.
 7. Low magnetizing current and low iron losses, reduce no load
current.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 30

 e) Periodic maintenance –
 A transformer, unlike any machine is required to be maintained periodically to ensure its
appropriate functioning. If the transformer is not maintained the following faults may occur:
 1. Loose core bolts and clamps results into more vibrations of stampings and more noise.
 2. Improper supports and clamps for windings result in collapse of winding during external
short circuit fault.
 3. Bad soldering results into more heating at joints and carbonising of oil in contact with it.
 4. Oil leakage will reduce oil in tank resulting in over heating of transformer oil and
windings.
 5. Dirt and dust deposited on the insulators (bushings) will provide low resistance to
leakage current resulting into flash over and damaging the insulator.
 6. If sludge is formed in transformer oil, it blocks free circulation of oil and results into over
heating.
 7. Cracks or broken bushing may result into failure of transformer.
 8. Loose connections in conducting parts results in over heating.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 31

 e) Periodic maintenance –
 In order to perform appropriate maintenance of the transformer, the
following parameters should be checked:
 1. Check the Voltage, current, temperature and other parameters.
 2. Check for winding resistance.
 3. Check the oil level and dielectric strength of oil.
 4. Check the breather and silica gel.
 5. Check for the cooling arrangement.
 6. Check for the Insulation resistance.
 Periodic maintenance will result in better performance and prevent
wastage of energy thus
 promoting energy conservation.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 32

 a) Soft starters
 b)Automatic star delta convertor
 c)Variable Frequency Drives
 d)Automatic p. f. controller (APFC)
 e)Intelligent p. f. controller (IPFC) Active
 f)Harmonic filters (AHF)

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 33

 a) Soft starters-
 Soft starter delivers a controlled power to the motor to provide smooth, step
less acceleration and deceleration.
 It consists of thyristor in main circuit and the motor voltage is regulated with a
printed circuit board.
 So using soft starter, the voltage is low at the time of starting, current and the
torque developed will be also low, which enables to adjust the play between
the gear wheels or stretching driving belts or chains etc. In other words it
eliminates unnecessary jerks during the start.
 Gradually the voltage and the torque increase so that the machinery starts to
accelerate.
 Voltage drop in the line and losses at the time of starting are thus very low.
 It provides a reliable and economical solution to overcome problem related
with starting.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 34

 a) Soft starters-
 Induction motor at the time of starting, develops more torque than is required at
full speed. This stress is transferred to the mechanical transmission system
resulting in excessive wear and premature failure of chains, belts, gears,
mechanical seals, etc.
 Additionally, rapid acceleration also has a massive impact on electricity supply
with high inrush currents drawing more than 600% of the normal run current.
 The use of Star Delta option only provides a partial solution to the problem.
 Soft starter provides a reliable and economical solution to these problems by
delivering a controlled release of power to the motor, thereby providing smooth,
stepless acceleration and deceleration.
 Motor life will be extended as damage to windings and bearings is reduced.
 Soft Start and Soft Stop is built into 3 phase units, providing controlled starting and
stopping with a selection of ramp times and current limit settings to suit all
applications.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 35
 a) Soft starters-

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 36

 a) Soft starters-
 Advantages of soft starter over conventional starter:
 1) Motor starts (without jerk) smoothly.
 2) Severe spikes of starting currents are eliminated.
 3) Loss of energy during starting is minimized to about 40 to 50%.
 4) Severe wear and tear of mechanical parts such as bearing etc. during starting
is eliminated leading to longer life of bearings and other related components.
 5) Very low mechanical stress.
 6) As starting currents are highly inductively limiting their magnitudes results
in improved power factor.
 7) As current peaks are controlled the MD is reduced which may lead to lower
MD billing.
 8) Less mechanical maintenance.
 9) Saving in operating costs.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 37
 a) Soft starters-
 Comparison of soft starter with conventional/DoL starter :

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 38

 a) Soft starters-
 Applications of soft starter-
 Steel industries (Rolling mills and processing lines)
 Cement industries
 Sugar plants
 Paper and pulp
 Rubber and plastic
 Textile industries
 Machine tool applications
 Power sector
 Water supply scheme
 And various process control applications

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 39

 b)Automatic star delta convertor-
 It is used under variable load conditions to save the energy
during variable load conditions of three phase induction motor.
 This is done by using a microcontroller.
 About 25 to 30% of energy is saved by incorporating star delta
conversion module.
 This arrangement leads to better p.f.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 40

 c)Variable Frequency Drives-
 The rotational speed of an AC induction motor depends on the number of poles in that
stator and the frequency of the applied AC power.
 The number of poles in an induction motor cannot be altered easily, variable speed can
be achieved through a variation in frequency.
 The VFD rectifies standard 50 cycle AC line power to DC, then synthesizes the DC to a
variable frequency AC output.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 41

 c)Variable Frequency Drives-
 Motors connected to VFD provide variable speed mechanical output
with high efficiency.
 Now-a-days, the technology of AC variable frequency drives (VFD)
has evolved into highly sophisticated digital microprocessor control,
along with high switching frequency IGBTs (Insulated Gate Bi Polar
Transistors) power devices.
 This has led to significantly advanced capabilities from the ease of
programmability to expanded diagnostics.
 The two most important benefits from the evolution in technology
have been that of cost and reliability, in addition to the significant
reduction in physical size.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 42
 c)Variable Frequency Drives-
 Advantages-
 1. Energy saving due to optimum use for applications.
 2. Smooth starting feature can start the motor under load condition smoothly
hence losses are avoided.
 3. Smooth speed control: Losses and shocks during speed control and speed
changing operations are avoided as smooth increase (to 300%) or decrease
(to11%) of the rated speed is possible.
 4. Better process control, (with Micro controller and IGBT (Insulated Gate Bi-
polar Transistor) optimization of input variables to get required outputs.
 5. Less maintenance cost due to optimum working.
 6. Higher life span with very low losses for bearing and motors due to which we
have improved optimal output power quality.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 43
 c)Variable Frequency Drives-
 Applications-
 1. For conveyers, machine tools and other production line equipment machine
starting and controlling
 2. Tunnel boring, mining and oil drilling platform machines staring and
controlling
 3. For controlling motor driven centrifugal pumps, fans and blowers.
 4. Textile Industry Machines
 5. Paper industry Machines
 6. Pumps used for fluids with different viscosity.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 44

 d)Automatic p.f. controller (APFC)-
 1. The pf controller is used to maintain the pf at unity using
capacitor bank across the line. It is controlled through
microcontroller and contactor arrangement.
 2. Power factor of load is sensed and accordingly capacitors are
connected / disconnected on the basis of KVAR demand.
 3. Maintaining the pf at unity leads to reduction in the current
through the lines as real power = apparent power x pf.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 45

 d)Automatic p.f. controller (APFC)-
The Supply main terminals are connected
to input of APFC Panel. Power factor is sensed
by the CT and PT placed in line side. As per
the requirement the capacitor banks are operated
to achieve calculated power factor by
microprocessor based APFC relay. The
appropriate capacitor bank will operate with
respect to kVAR required to achieve target PF
by APFC panel. After it CT and PT will check
the feedback from the switching capacitors.
Finally the required set power factor is
achieved.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 46

 e)Intelligent p. f. controller (IPFC) -
 1. This controller determines the rating of capacitance connected
in each step during the first hour of its operation and stores them
in memory.
 2. Based on this measurement, the IPFC switches on the most
appropriate steps, thus eliminating the hunting problems normally
associated with capacitor switching.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 47

 e)Intelligent p. f. controller (IPFC)
 1. Unlike conventional power factor controllers which sense voltage
from two phases and current from the other phase, an IPFC is based on 3
phase sensing which renders it accurate for controlling power factor even
an unbalanced condition
 2. It’s rightly called intelligent as it increases the life of the correction
capacitor, by controlling based on the capacitor bank switching
information and ON time (i.e. switching history.)
 3. The most vital Salient Features of an IPFC Include:
 Three Phase Sensing
 Intelligent Power Factor Controlling based on the capacitor bank
switching history (Number of Operations, ON Time etc.) which
improves the capacitor life time
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 48
 e)Intelligent p. f. controller (IPFC)
 Advantages-

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 49

 f) Active Harmonic filters (AHF)-
 In an electric power system, a harmonic is a voltage or current at a multiple of
the fundamental frequency of the system, produced by the action of non-linear
loads such as rectifiers, discharge lighting, or saturated magnetic devices.
 Harmonic frequencies in the power grid are a frequent cause of power quality
problems.
 Harmonics in power systems result in-
 Increased heating in the equipment and conductors,
 Misfiring in variable speed drives
 Malfunctioning of equipments
 Mis-operation of relays
 Torque pulsations in motors.
 Hence it is necessary to remove harmonics from the system so as to ensure
optimal and energy efficient operation
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 50
 f) Active Harmonic filters (AHF)-
 Active filters are relatively new types of devices for eliminating harmonics.
They are based on sophisticated power electronics and are much more
expensive than passive filters.
 Active filters have distinct advantage that they do not resonate with the system.
 Active filters can work independently of the system impedance characteristics.
 Thus, Active filters can be used in very difficult circumstances where passive
filters cannot operate successfully because of parallel resonance problems.
 Active filters can also address more than one harmonic at a time and overcome
other power quality problems such as flicker.
 Active filters are particularly useful for large, distorting loads fed from
relatively weak points on the power system.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 51

 f) Active Harmonic filters (AHF)-
 An electronic control monitors the line voltage and/or current, switching the power
electronics very precisely to track the load current or voltage and force it to be sinusoidal.

 As shown, there are two fundamental approaches: one that uses an inductor to store current
to be injected into the system at the appropriate instant and one that uses a capacitor.
 Therefore, while the load current is distorted to the extent demanded by the nonlinear load,
the current seen by the system is much more sinusoidal.
 Active filters can typically be programmed to correct for the power factor as well as
harmonics.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 52

 1. Most of the energy loss in dry type transformers occurs through heat or vibration from
core. The new high-efficiency transformers minimize these losses.
 2. The conventional transformer is made up of silicon alloyed iron (grain-oriented) core. The
iron loss of any transformer depends on the type of core used in the transformer.
 3. However the latest technology uses amorphous material, a metallic glass alloy for the core.
 4. The expected reduction in energy loss over conventional (Si, Fe core) transformers is
roughly around 70%, which is quite significant.
 5. By using an amorphous core with unique physical and magnetic properties, these new type
of transformers have increased efficiencies even at low loads, 98.5% efficiency at 35% load.
 6. Electrical distribution transformers made with amorphous metal cores provide excellent
opportunity to conserve energy right from the installation.
 7. Though these transformers are a little costlier than conventional iron core transformers, the
overall benefit towards energy savings will compensate for the higher initial investment.
 8. At present amorphous metal core transformers are available upto 1600 kVA.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 53

 Advantages of Energy Efficient Transformers-
 (a) Less operating losses.
 (b) Less heat is generated due to less losses.
 (c) Longer life.
 (d) Better cost effective.
 (e) Problem of small thickness of core can be overcome to some extent with the
development of amorphous metal strips.
 (f) Low field magnetization, reduces hysteresis loss.
 (g) High electrical resistivity of core material reduces eddy currents and eddy current
loss.
 (h) Low magnetizing current and low iron losses, reduce no load current.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 54

 Amorphous core transformer -
 1. Amorphous core transformer is an energy efficient transformer. The magnetic core is made
up of amorphous metal. This core can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
 2. The amorphous alloy is made up of iron, boron, silicon alloy and molten metal mixture.
When this mixture is cooled to solid state at a very high speed rate, they retain a random
atomic structure that is not crystalline. This thus forms an amorphous core. As this core
resembles to glass, it is also referred as glass metal core.
 3. In case of amorphous core material, size of core, conductor, tank and insulating oil is
increased.
 4. The amorphous material is 9 times harder than CRGO steel. Hardness along with small
thickness makes slitting and shearing process more difficult.
 5. The amorphous material consists of high electrical resistivity and low field magnetization.
Due to low field magnetization, hysteresis loss is low. Due to high electrical resistivity, eddy
current loss is suppressed.
 6. Hence amorphous core transformer is approximately 20 to 30 % costlier than conventional
core transformer, however its much more efficient due to reduced core losses.
 7. These cores allow, smaller, lighter and more efficient design in many high frequency
applications for inverters, u.p.s. (un-interrupted power system), adjustable speed drives etc.
Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 55
 Advantages of amorphous core transformer-
 1) Lowest hysteresis loss.
 2) Low eddy current loss.
 3) Low temperature rise.
 4) Up to 75% energy saving using amorphous metal than conventional metal.
 5) Reduced carbon dioxide emission.
 6) Reduction in fossil fuel consumption.
 7) Reduced magnetizing current.
 8) Better overload capacity.
 9) High Reliability.
 10) Excellent short circuit capacity.
 11) Less maintenance cost.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 56

 Epoxy resin type or dry type transformer w.r.t energy conservation-
 1. Epoxy resin impregnated-
 In this transformer, the polyster sealent is applied on the transformer winding and then the coils
are poured in suitable chemical liquids. Further it is dried in the oven. Due to this procedure
 the winding resistance for corona increases and corona effect decreases. As a result the capacity to
sustain high voltage increases. Due to this process, there will be more resistance to the moisture
and due to epoxy resin impregnation there will be high temperature resistance. Hence on account
of all the factors, the losses in the transformer is reduces and efficiency of the transformer
increases.
 2. Cast resin impregnated-
 Basically the dielectric strength of the cast resin insulation is more than epoxy resin impregnation.
It is equal to insulation level of transformer oil. The overload capacity of these transformers is
more. The lighting surges caused due to any reasons have the least effect on such cast resin
transformers.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 57

 Epoxy resin transformers-
 1. Epoxy resin transformer is a dry type transformer. The Core used in such transformers is
of CRGO M4-M3 circular size, which minimizes leakage reactance and hence core losses
will be low.
 2. Windings consist of flexible rope of copper instead of rectangular strips or rod. Therefore
current carry capacity is more and cooling effect is better.
 3. Insulation consists of high quality epoxy resin which is capable to withstanding high
temperature and also provides minimum clearance as per voltage requirement.
 4. As the transformer is fully encapsulated, routine maintenance is less.
 5. As cooling oil is absent the total weight of transformer is less.
 6. Due to less weight loading & unloading of the transformer is easy.
 7. In the absence of oil there is no need of testing the dielectric strength of oil or no filtration
of oil.
 8. As this transformer is encapsulated and almost maintenance free, it is more suitable to be
used in hazardous areas.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 58

 Opportunities / Techniques for energy conservation in transformers-
 i) Use of energy efficient transformer.
 ii) Use amorphous core containing ferromagnetic elements like iron, cobalt alloy. This
material has high resistivity than silicon steel. Due to this core losses are reduced so less
energy wasted.
 iii) Use encapsulated dry type transformer.
 iv) Use tapped transformer, usually auto transformer leading to saving in copper.
 v) Use thinner laminations of superior CRGO steel in transformer core to reduce iron losses.
 vi) Carry out periodic maintenance of transformer.
 vii) Use better quality low resistance copper conductors to reduce copper losses.
 viii) Maintain operating voltage and frequency at the rated values (power quality) so that
losses are minimized.
 ix) Use better quality insulation materials to improve overload capacity and decrease
dielectric leakages.

Mrs. M.H. Bilgi 59