CHAPTER 8

ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
Displacement Current
Ampere's circuital law states that the line integral of the magnetic field surrounding closed-loop
equals to 𝜇0 times the total current passing through the loop.
If a time varying current 𝑖(𝑡) passes through the loop, then the magnetic field enclosed by it is
given by

⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖(𝑡) ---------------------> (1)

Consider a parallel plate capacitor of capacitance 𝐶 with area of plates as 𝐴, and a total charge 𝑄
as given in Fig.1. The magnetic field at 𝑃 can be found using equation (1).

(i.e) 𝐵 (2𝜋𝑟) = µ0 𝑖 (𝑡) -----------------------> (2)

Consider the surfaces [shaded in blue colour] in Fig.2 & Fig.3. with the same perimeter as that in
Fig.1. On applying Ampere’s circuital law to such surfaces with the same perimeter, the left hand
side of equation (1) has not changed but the right hand side is zero and not µ0 𝑖 (𝑡), since no
current passes through the surface of Fig. (2) and (3). Thus, there is discrepancy or missing term in
Ampere’s law. The missing term can be found by considering the change in electric field as given
below.

The magnitude of the electric field 𝐸 between the plates is given by

𝜎 𝑄
𝐸 = =
𝜖0 𝐴𝜖0

The corresponding electric flux is given by

𝑄
𝜑𝐸 = 𝐸𝐴 =
𝜖0
Now if the charge 𝑄 on the capacitor plates changes with time, there is a current 𝑖 = (𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑡),
and hence the rate of change of flux can be given as

Electromagnetic waves 127

 𝑑𝜑𝐸 1 𝑑𝑄
=
𝑑𝑡 𝜖0 𝑑𝑡
Or
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝜑𝐸
= 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
This is the missing term in Ampere’s circuital law. And it is called as displacement current or
Maxwell’s displacement current and is denoted by 𝑖𝑑 .

Thus, according to Maxwell, The source of a magnetic field is not just the conduction electric
current, but also the time rate of change of electric field. (i.e.) The total current 𝑖 is the sum of the
conduction current denoted by 𝑖𝑐 , and the displacement current denoted by 𝑖𝑑 .
𝑑𝜑𝐸
∴ 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 = 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜖0
𝑑𝑡

Outside the capacitor plates, 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑐 and 𝑖𝑑 = 0. On the other hand, inside the capacitor, there
is no conduction current, (i.e.), 𝑖𝑐 = 0, and there is only displacement current, so that 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑑 .

Hence the modified Ampere’s law states that, “the total current passing through any surface of
which the closed loop is the perimeter” is the sum of the conduction current and the displacement
current. The generalised law is

𝑑𝜑
⃗ . ⃗⃗⃗
∮𝐵 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝑖𝑐 + 𝜇0 𝜖0 𝐸
𝑑𝑡

and is known as Ampere-Maxwell law.

Sources of electromagnetic waves
A charge oscillating with some frequency is an example of accelerating charge. This produces an
oscillating electric field in space, which produces an oscillating magnetic field, which in turn, is a
source of oscillating electric field, and so on. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields thus
regenerate each other, as the wave propagates through the space. Thus, electromagnetic waves
are produced by an oscillating charge. Neither stationary charges nor charges in uniform motion
(steady currents) can be sources of electromagnetic waves.
The frequency of the electromagnetic wave naturally equals the frequency of oscillation of the
charge. The energy associated with the propagating wave comes at the expense of the energy of
the source – the accelerated charge.
Nature of electromagnetic waves
An electromagnetic wave consists of electric and magnetic fields that are perpendicular to each
other and perpendicular to the direction of propagation.

Consider an electromagnetic wave travelling along positive 𝑧 − axis, with its electric field and
magnetic field along 𝑥 −axis and 𝑦 −axis respectively as given in the following graph.

Electromagnetic waves 128

The electric and magnetic fields can be represented mathematically as given below.

𝐸𝑥 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑧– 𝜔𝑡) ----------------------------> (3)

And 𝐵𝑦 = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑧– 𝜔𝑡) ----------------------------> (4)

In vector form

𝑬 = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑧– 𝜔𝑡) 𝑖̂

And 𝑩 = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝑘𝑧– 𝜔𝑡) 𝑗̂
where

• 𝑘 ⟹ Magnitude of the wave vector called propagation vector. Its direction will be the
direction of 𝑬 × 𝑩. It is related to wavelength by the equation,
2𝜋
𝑘=
𝜆
• 𝜔⟹ Angular frequency of the wave and is related to linear frequency 𝜈 of the wave as
𝜔 = 2 𝜋𝜈
Speed
The speed of propagation of the wave is
𝜔
𝑣= ----------------------------> (5)
𝑘
Using Maxwell’s equations, it can be proved that:
𝜔 1
𝑣= = for electromagnetic waves in free space.
𝑘 √𝜇0 𝜀0
1
(i.e.) 𝑐=
√𝜇0 𝜀0
For any material medium, with permittivity 𝜀 and permeability 𝜇 the speed of electromagnetic
wave is given by
1
𝑣=
√𝜇 𝜀
Substituting 𝜔 and 𝑘 in equation (5) speed of electromagnetic wave becomes
𝑣 = 𝜈𝜆
From Maxwell’s equations, it can also be proved, that the electric field amplitude 𝐸0 and the
magnetic field amplitude 𝐵0 in an electromagnetic wave are related as:
𝐸0
𝑐=
𝐵0

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Energy density
Electromagnetic waves do carry energy and momentum, like other waves. Consider a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave. If there are electric
charges (like the free electrons in a conductor) in this plane, they will be set and sustained in motion
by the electric and magnetic fields of the electromagnetic wave. The charges thus acquire energy
and momentum from these waves.

In a region of free space, with electric field 𝑬, there is an average energy density of
1
̅𝑢̅̅𝐸̅ =  𝐸 2
2 0
𝐸 represents the rms value of electric field in the above equation.
𝐸0
Since 𝐸= ,
√2
2
1 0 𝐸0 1 2
̅𝑢̅̅𝐸̅ = = 0 𝐸0
2 2 4
Similarly, if there is a magnetic field, the associated average magnetic energy density is
1
𝑢𝐵̅ =
̅̅̅ 𝐵2
2𝜇0
where 𝐵 represents the rms value of magnetic field.
𝐵0
Since 𝐵 = ,
√2
2
1 𝐵0
𝐵20
1
𝑢𝐵̅ =
̅̅̅ =
2𝜇 2 4𝜇 0 0
Hence total average energy density of electromagnetic wave is given by
𝑢̅ = ̅𝑢̅̅𝐸̅ + ̅̅̅
𝑢𝐵̅
It can be proved that ̅𝑢̅̅𝐸̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑢𝐵̅
∴ 𝑢̅ = 2 ̅𝑢̅̅𝐸̅
Since electromagnetic waves contain both electric and magnetic fields, there is non-zero energy
density associated with the electromagnetic waves and therefore, they carry energy.
The great technological importance of electromagnetic waves stems from their capability to carry
energy from one place to another. The radio and TV signals from broadcasting stations carry
energy. Light carries energy from the sun to the earth, thus making life possible on the earth.
Radiation pressure & momentum
Since electromagnetic waves carry momentum, they can also exert pressure, called radiation
pressure and is given by
𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑀 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑠
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐹 1 ∆𝑝
(∵ 𝑃 = 𝐴
=
𝐴 ∆𝑡
)
If the total energy transferred to a surface, in time 𝑡, is 𝑈, then the total momentum imparted to
the surface, for complete absorption is
𝑈
𝑝=
𝑐
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Intensity

The intensity of electromagnetic radiation (𝐼), during the propagation of the electromagnetic
wave, at a point, is defined as the amount of energy passing through unit normal area around that
point in unit time.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦⁄
( 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 ) 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
(i.e.) 𝐼= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
If 𝑢
̅ is the total average energy density transferred by the electromagnetic wave to the surface of
surface area 𝐴 and thickness 𝑑 , then the total energy

𝑈 = 𝑢̅ 𝐴𝑑
𝑢̅ 𝐴𝑑 𝑑
∴ Intensity 𝐼 = = 𝑢̅ 𝑐 (∵ = 𝑐)
𝐴𝑡 𝑡
1
Or Intensity 𝐼 = 𝑢̅ 𝑐 = 0 𝑐𝐸02
2

Electromagnetic spectrum

Electromagnetic waves 131

Electromagnetic waves include visible light waves, X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves,
ultraviolet and infrared waves. The classification of electromagnetic waves according to frequency
is the electromagnetic spectrum as given in Fig.4.

Different types of electromagnetic waves, their production, and detections

Wavelength Frequency
Type Production Detection
range range
Rapid acceleration and Receiver’s aerials
5 x 105 Hz to
Radio > 0.1m decelerations of
109 Hz
electrons in aerials
Klystron valve, Point contact diodes
1 GHz to 300
Microwave 0.1m to 1mm magnetron valve, Gun
GHz
diodes etc.
Vibration of atoms and Thermopiles
11
3×10 Hz to molecules Bolometer, Infrared
Infrared 1mm to 700 nm
4×1014 Hz - Emitted by all hot photographic film
objects and molecules
Electrons in atoms The eye
emit light when they Photocells
4×1014 Hz to
Visible rays 700nm to 400nm move from one energy Photographic film
7×1014 Hz
level to a lower energy
level
Inner shell electrons in Photocells
8×1014 Hz to atoms moving from Photographic film
Ultraviolet 400nm to 1nm
5×1016 Hz one energy level to a
lower level
X-ray tubes or inner Photographic film
shell electrons or to Geiger tubes
1016 Hz to
X-rays 1nm to 10-3 nm bombard a metal Ionisation chamber
3×1021 Hz target by high energy
electrons
< 10-3 nm Radioactive decay of Photographic film
3×1018 Hz to
Gamma rays the -nucleus Geiger tubes
5×1022 Hz Ionisation chamber

Applications of different regions of electromagnetic waves

(i) Radio Waves
✓ These waves are used as carrier waves to transport message signals (audio and video) in
radio, TV and mobile communication systems.
(ii) Microwaves
✓ By virtue of their short wavelength, microwaves can be transmitted through large distances,
without much spreading, like a narrow beam. Thus, they are very effectively used in RADAR
systems, aircraft navigation and satellite communication.
✓ Microwaves are used in speed guns to measure the speed of fast-moving objects and
detecting the service speeds of tennis and squash balls, cricket balls, automobile vehicles
etc.

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 ✓ Microwaves are also used in Microwave oven for cooking purposes. (Microwave oven works
on the principle of resonance between the electric field vibrations of the microwaves and
electric field variations around the highly polarised water molecules (or dipoles) due to the
vibrational and rotational motions of the water molecules. They both have the same or
almost same frequencies, producing resonance. It may be noted that at resonance
maximum absorption of energy takes place. Hence water molecules absorb energy from
microwaves due to resonance. In the microwave oven, the energy absorbed by water
molecules heats up these molecules and they then conduct (transfer) the heat to the other
food particles, heating the entire food).
(iii) Infrared Waves
✓ They are produced or emitted by all hot objects and molecules. These waves are easily
absorbed by objects in the surroundings, thereby causing heating effect in them. Because
of this, infrared (IR) radiations are sometimes referred to as heat waves.
✓ Infrared waves (or radiations) are used for a variety of applications like:
✓ Physical therapy for treating muscular strain (infrared lamps are used for this).
✓ Solar water heater, solar cooker, solar cells, remote sensing satellites.
✓ Drying purposes (fruits and vegetables).
✓ Night vision goggles
✓ Infrared LEDs, used in remote controls to operate electronic systems in TV sets, video
recorders, hi-fi system, ACs, set-top boxes etc.
✓ Green houses to keep plants warm. (Infrared waves trapped by greenhouse gases like CO2
and water vapour, helps keep the earth warm. But excessive greenhouse gases can cause
global warming).

(iv) Visible Light

Visible light emitted or reflected from objects around us provides us information about the world.
Our eyes are sensitive to this range of wavelengths. Different animals are sensitive to different
range of wavelengths. For example, snakes can detect infrared waves, and the ‘visible’ range of
many insects extends well into the ultraviolet.
(v) Ultraviolet Waves (UV Rays)
Ultraviolet radiations are used:
✓ in preserving food stuff, by killing germs and bacteria using U-V rays.
✓ in burglar alarms.
✓ In the detection of forged documents.
✓ in fingerprint analysis.
✓ in checking and testing mineral samples (through fluorescence caused by U-V rays).
✓ UV lamps are used to kill germs in water purifiers.
✓ Due to its shorter wavelengths, UV radiations can be focussed into very narrow beams for
high precision applications such as LASIK (Laser assisted in situ keratomileusis) eye surgery.
Harmful effect & protection

• Exposure to UV radiation induces the production of more melanin, causing tanning of the
skin.

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 ➢ UV radiation is absorbed by ordinary glass. Hence, one cannot get tanned or sunburn
through glass windows. Welders wear special glass goggles or face masks with glass
windows to protect their eyes from large amount of UV produced by welding arcs.
(vi) X–rays
✓ X–rays are used as diagnosing tool for medical application.
✓ They are used as treatment tool for certain forms of cancer.
✓ These rays are used for detection of bone fractures, unauthorised presence of hidden
objects like precious metals and stones, bullets etc. inside human body as well as explosive
and drugs hidden in the body.
✓ These rays are used for scientific research in crystal structure etc.
✓ They are used in engineering, to detect and test any faults, cracks and flows in structures
built with metals and concrete.
✓ They are also used to test the uniformity of insulating materials and to detect leakage of
oils in underground pipes.

Harmful effect
• Over-exposure to X–rays can damage or even destroy living tissues and organisms
(vii) Gamma Rays (  –rays)
✓ They are used in medical field to destroy cancer cells (radio-therapy).
✓ Soft  –rays are used to kill micro-organisms to help preserve food-stuff for longer period.
✓ They are used in the study of the structure of nucleus of atoms and also to detect and test
faults in constructed structures.

Harmful effect
• They have extremely high penetrating power and can cause huge biological damage to
tissues and organisms.
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