ENVE 303

UNIT OPERATIONS AND PROCESSES

OF WATER TREATMENT

COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION
Surface Water Treatment

• Colloidal clay
• Large organic molecules (color)
• Oxides of Fe, Mn, Si
1
• Protein, carbohydrates and oil
 Settling Velocities
Particle Diameter, mm !
Pebble (sand) 10 0.73

Gravity
settling not settling
Coarse sand 1 0.23 m/s
Fine sand 0.1 0.14 m/min
Silt 0.01 8.6 m/min

possible
Large colloid 0.001 0.3 m/year

Gravity
Small colloid 0.000001 3 m/million year

Colloidal particles
2
(0.001 - 1 µm)
 Colloidal particles
(0.001 - 1 µm)

Figure. Particulates in water and miscellaneous other reference sizes.

(Image: Davis, M.L., Water and Wastewater Engineering, Design Pinciples and Practice, 2010)

3
Sedimentation of Small Particles?
• How could we increase the sedimentation rate of
small (colloidal) particles?

Increase d (form flocs)

• Stokes’ Law:
Increase g (centrifuge)

Settling d 2 g (r p - r w )
Velocity: Vt = Increase density difference
18µ (flotation)

Decrease viscosity (increase T)

4
Coagulation-flocculation
• Coagulation & flocculation consist of adding a floc-
forming chemical reagent to a water or wastewater to
combine small dispersed particles into larger particles
which can be removed by (in most cases) sedimentation
or by floatation or filtration.

• Raw water with 10 NTU à 0.2 NTU with optimal

coagulation

Hydrophobic (clay)
• Solids
Hydrophilic (proteins)
à high affinity for water retards flocculation
5
Coagulation-flocculation
+
+ +
+ +
+ +
+ + +
++ + + ++
+ +
+ ++
+ + ++ +
+ + ++ ++
++
+
Colloidal particles + +
(0.001 - 1 µm) +

floc
(1 - 100 µm)
6
Coagulation-flocculation
• Two types of colloidal systems in water and wastewater
applications:
1. Solid in water (colloidal suspension)
2. Insoluble liquid (oil) in water (emulsion)

• Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of a

coagulant, the resulting destabilization of the colloidal and
fine suspended solids, and the initial aggregation of the
destabilized particles.

• Flocculation is the agglomeration of destabilized particles

into large size particles known as flocs which can be
effectively removed by sedimentation. 7
Coagulation-flocculation

• Coagulant chemical used to destabilize the colloidal

particles in water so that floc formation / initial
aggregation can result

• Flocculant chemical used to enhance floc formation

8
Coagulation-flocculation

• Hydrophobic colloids (clay, gold, other metals) have no

affinity for water and are considered to derive their
stability from the possession of charge.
Electric double layer a potential gradient in the particle vicinity

Ø Hydrophobic particles are stabilized by electrical repulsive forces

• Hydrophilic (water soluble groups on the surface)

colloids possess high affinity for water. Their stability is
mainly due to bound water layers (which prevent close
contact between particles), although charge is also
caused to contribute to their stability.
9
Coagulation-flocculation
Colloids possess electrical properties which create a
repelling force and prevent agglomeration and settling.

• Charge is due to:

1. Adsorption of ions onto the particle surface
• E.g.: Humic acid onto silica surface
• Colloidal particles (like oil droplets, gas bubbles, or other chemically
inert substances when dispersed in water) usually adsorb anions
• The adsorbed ions are called peptizing ions.

10
Coagulation-flocculation
• Charge is due to (cont’d) :

2. Ion dissolution
• Electric charge unequal dissolution of oppositely
charged ions

Silica;
-Si-OH2+ -Si-OH -Si-O-
pH<<2 pH 2 pH>>2

11
 Coagulation-flocculation
• Charge is due to (cont’d) :
3. Ionization of surface sites
• In the case of substances such as proteins or
microorganisms; ionization of surface functional groups
( carboxylic groups, amino groups) leads to charge.

At high pH why? At low pH At isoelectric point

COO- COOH COO-

R R R
NH2 NH3+ NH3+

12
 Coagulation-flocculation
• Charge is due to (cont’d) : is not due to something related with pH

4. Isomorphous replacement
• In clay and similar particles, charge development occur
because of broken bonds on crystal edge
• Charge as a result of isomorphic replacement within the
crystal lattice
• Ions in the structure are replaced with ions from solution

13
The Electric Double Layer

(Image: Davis, M.L., Water and Wastewater Engineering, Design Pinciples and Practice, 2010) 14
The Electric Double Layer
• Although individual colloids have an electrical charge, a
colloid dispersion does not have a net electric charge.
For electroneutrality, the charge on the colloidal particle
must be counterbalanced by ions of opposite charge.
• Surface charge can not be measured directly. But the
potential at some distance from the particle can be
calculated.
• To measure the magnitude of charge: Zeta potential, Zp
• Zeta potential : Value of the surface charge at the plane
of shear

15
The Electric Double Layer
!"#$
Zp =
%
Where;
q: charge on the particle
&: thickness of the zone of influence of the charge on the particle
(~thickness of diffuse layer)
D: dielectric constant of the liquid

• Zp is a rough measure of the stability of colloidal particle

• The greater are the repulsion forces between the colloids, the more
stable is the colloidal suspension

16
Coagulation Theory
• To induce particles to aggregate, two distinct steps must
occur:
1. The repulsion must be reduced (destabilization)
2. Particle transport must be achieved to provide contacts

• Destabilization can be achieved by four mechanisms:

1) Double-layer compression
Coagulation
2) Adsorption-charge neutralization

3) Enmeshment in a precipitate
Flocculation
4) Adsorption and interparticle bridging
17
Forces acting on a particle

1. Repulsive Forces due to surface

charge (electrostatic zeta potential)

2. Attractive Van der Waals Forces of

intermolecular attraction

The net resultant force is

attractive out to the distance x.

Beyond this point, the net

resultant force is repulsive.
18
Particle agglomeration

• To induce aggregation of colloidal particles, two

distinct steps must occur:
– Destabilization: The repulsion forces must be
reduced (i.e., the particle must be destabilized)
– Aggregation: Contacts between destabilized
particles must be provided for agglomeration to occur.

19
Mechanisms for Destabilization
of Colloidal Dispersions

1. Double layer compression

2. Adsorption and charge neutralization
3. Enmeshment in a precipitate (sweep
flocculation)
4. Adsorption and interparticle bridging

20
1. Double Layer Compression
• If an electrolyte is added, the surface charge will remain
unchanged (if charge originates from crystal
imperfections)
• In case of nonsorbable ions
• When an electrolyte is added, charge density in the
diffuse layer increases
• Less volume of the diffuse layer is required to neutralize
the surface charge
• Double layer repulsion force decreases à van der waals
more dominant
• EXAMPLE: Delta formation at river mouths 21
1. Double Layer Compression

Attractive and repulsive forces that result when two particles are brought together.
(Repulsive curve no.1 and net energy curve no.1 result when no coagulant is
present. Coagulant reduces the repulsion to curve no.2.) 22
(Image: Davis, M.L., Water and Wastewater Engineering, Design Pinciples and Practice, 2010)
1. Double Layer Compression

Van der Waals forces can not be manipulated but electrostatic forces can be. The
two principal methods:
1. Reduce or neutralize the charges on the colloids
2. Increase the density of counter-ion field & thus reduce the range of the repulsive
effect 23
(Image: Davis, M.L., Water and Wastewater Engineering, Design Pinciples and Practice, 2010)
1. Double Layer Compression

Ionic strength is increased

24
(Image: Davis, M.L., Water and Wastewater Engineering, Design Pinciples and Practice, 2010)
2. Adsorption-charge neutralization
• When coagulant is added to a water numerous
species of hydroxo-metallic complexes are formed.
• The generalized expression for these complexes is
Mex(OH)yz+
• For an aluminum salt, some of the resulting
polymers are Al6(OH)15+3, Al7(OH)17+4 , Al8(OH)20+4 ,
Al13(OH)34+5
• For an iron salt, some of the resulting polymers are
Fe2(OH)2+4 and Fe2(OH)4+5
25
2. Adsorption-charge neutralization
• These aquametallic ions possess high positive charges,
and are adsorbed to the surface of the negative colloids,
where they neutralize the surface charge.
Al2(SO4)3 à 2Al+3 + 3SO4-2
Aquametallic
Al+3 + H2O à Al(OH)+2 + H+ ions adsorbed &
Al+3 + 2H2O à Al(OH)2+ + 2H+ do charge
neutralization
7Al+3 + 17H2O à Al7(OH)17+4 + 17H+
Acidity!
Destruction
of alkalinity!
Al+3 + 3H2O à Al(OH)3 + 3H+
2. Adsorption-charge neutralization

• Aquametallic ions continue to polymerize until they form

an insoluble metallic hydroxide.
• Al(OH)3 and Fe(OH)3 precipitates are formed after
supersaturation.
• pH controls the solubility of Al(OH)3. If there is not
enough alkalinity pH will drop.
• Sufficient alkalinity must be present to produce
hydroxide floc. NaOH to provide alkalinity (not CaCO3, its not soluble)
• Certain water may not have sufficient natural alkalinity, in
this case alkalinity must be added.
27
28
29
 3. Enmeshment in a Precipitate
(Sweep Coagulation)
• With doses exceeding saturation of the metal hydroxide,
Al & Fe salts form insoluble precipitates and particulate
matter is entrapped in the precipitate.

– Nucleation of the precipitate on a particle surface followed by

growth of an amorphous precipitate that entraps other particle

Al(OH)3 + colloid à colloid.Al(OH)3

30
4. Adsorption & Interparticle
Bridging
• Polymer chains adsorb on particle surface. The
adsorption is a result of;
– coulombic, charge-charge interactions
– dipole interaction
– hydrogen bonding
– Van der Waals forces

• Other sites on the polymer chain extend into solution and

adsorbed on surfaces of other particles, thus creating a
“bridge” between the particles.

àlarge particles à denser sludge à quick settlement

Coagulation Theory
Frequently used coagulation terms;

– Electrokinetic à coagulation due to Zp reduction and

double layer compression
– Perikinetic à coagulation due to interparticle contacts
resulting from Brownian movement
– Orthokinetic à coagulation resulting from interparticle
contacts caused by fluid motion due to agitation

32
Summary: Stages in Agglomeration
Stage Factors Term

Rxn w/ water
Addition of coagulant Hydrolysis
Ionization, hydrolysis, polymerization

1) Double layer compression Electrokinetic coagulation

2) Adsorption & charge neutralization
Al(OH)3, Fe(OH)3, Mg(OH)2,
3) Inclusion of the colloid in a
Destabilization CaCO3 colloids serve as
hydroxide precipitate (sweep-floc)
condensation nuclei
4) Adsorption and interparticle linkage
Polymer+particle àdestabilized
by polymeric species of coagulant
particle

Brownian movement (interparticle

contacts due to Brownian motion) Perikinetic coagulation
Transport
Velocity gradient (interparticle
contacts caused by fluid motion due to Orthokinetic coagulation
agitation)
JAR TEST

34
Jar Test

• Coagulation is not yet an exact science

àselection and optimum dosages of coagulants are
determined experimentally by the jar test instead of
quantitatively by the formula.

à JAR TEST: A laboratory procedure to determine

the optimum pH and the optimum coagulant
dose.

35
 Jar Test

• Experiment:

– a series of glass containers (>1 L)

– uniform power input
– pH, turbidity, alkalinity are measured
– one jar is used as a control
– Various dosages of the coagulant are added
– 1 min rapid mixing, 15-20 min slow mixing, 30 min
settle
36
Jar Test

100 150
mg/L mg/L
50 mg/L
25 mg/L
10 mg/L
Coagulant doses applied
Control
37
Jar Test

Flocs 38
Flocs

39
An Example

Optimum coagulant dose: 12.5 mg/L

Optimum dose
is the lowest
dose which
will produce
readily
settleable floc.

40
Optimum pH

pH 7
pH 6
pH 5
pH 4
pH 3
pH valuees adjusted
Control
41
An Example

Optimum pH: 6.3

42
Zp = f ( pH, concentration of ions in solution)
Coagulant application and
destabilization
1. Sorbable species are capable of destabilizing colloids
at much lower dosages than nonadsorbable.
2. Destabilization by adsorption is stoichiometric, but
double layer compression is not.
3. It is possible to overdose a system with an adsorbable
species and cause restabilization; i.e. charge reversal.
• Most water treatment plants utilizing alum
operate at a pH of 6.0-7.5 with an alum dose of
5-50 mg/L.
• These conditions proved coagulation by a
combination of adsorption – enmeshment. 43
Charge difference
between leads to dose Non-adsorbable cations
that is needed for the
process Double Layer Compression

? Charge reversal (overdosing)

Mechanism ?
Sorbable ion

? ?
Charge reversal Mechanism ?
(restabilization)

44
45
Coagulant application and
destabilization
• Mechanism depends on colloid concentration
and coagulant concentration
• From the figure in previous slide:
– Zone 1 àinsufficient coagulant, destabilization does
not occur
– Zone 2 àincreasing coagulant dose, provides
coagulation
– Zone 3 àfurther increase results in restabilization
– Zone 4 àsufficient coagulant, provides sweep-floc
46
 Restabilization of highly turbid
waters is seldom a problem

Higher dosage is required to

cause a charge reversal on the
increased surface area

At higher colloidal
concentration, increased
contact à charge
neutralizationàcharge
reversal; finally sweep floc

Limited contact until the

coagulant concentration is high
enough to cause sweep floc

47
Figure. Results of jar tests at increasing turbidities
COAGULATION PRACTICES
AND
MIXING DEVICES

48
Coagulation Practice
• Al(III) or Fe(II) or Fe(III) salts are commonly used.

Typical Solubility
Al salts pH effective
dosage (g/100 g water)

65.3 at 10°C
Alum (Al2(SO4)3.14H2O) 10-150 mg/L 6.0-7.4
71 at 20°C

Polyaluminium chloride
(PACl) - - 4.5-9.5

Fe salts Typical Solubility

pH effective
dosage (g/100 g water)
Ferric chloride (FeCl3) 5-150 mg/L 74.4 at 0°C 4.0-11.0
Ferric sulphate (Fe2(SO4)3)
10-250 mg/L 300 at 20°C 4.0-11.0
Coagulation Practice

• Alum is cheaper – works best at pH 4.5-5

• Polyaluminium chloride (PACl) is less affected by
– low T
– pH compared to Alum
– alkalinity compared to Alum
• Fe salts are effective over a wider pH range
• Fe salts can cause color
• The most effective for the removal of NOM, in
order of increasing effectiveness; iron, alum, PACl.
50
Coagulation Practice

Alum;
Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14 H2O + 6CO2

natural alkalinity

• If natural alkalinity is not sufficient:

Lime

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Ca(OH)2 → 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 14 H2O

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 3Na2CO3 + 3H2O → 2Al(OH)3 ↓ + 3Na2SO4 + 3CO2 + 14 H2O

51
Coagulation Practice
Fe(III);
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2

2FeCl3+ 3Ca(HCO3)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2

Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(OH)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaSO4

2FeCl3 + 3Ca(OH)2 → 2Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 3CaCl2

Fe(II);
FeSO4 + Ca(HCO3)2 → Fe(OH)2 ↓ + CaSO4 + 2CO2

52
Coagulation Practice
Coagulation with Polymers;
• can be effective as coagulants or coagulant aids

• is referred as a polyelectrolyte (P.E.) if its monomers

contain ionizable groups:
Øcationic
Øanionic
Ønonionic

53
Coagulation Practice
Coagulation with Polymers;
• Cationic polymers are effective in coagulating (-) charged
particles
• Dosage: 0.5-1 mg/L (for cationic P.E.s)
• More difficult dosage control (overdosing → restabilization)
• When treating low alkalinity waters, use of P.E.s is advantageous
(No H+ release)
• Not effective in removing NOM
• Reduced sludge volume, easy to dewater, no carry over of light
flocs, no carry over of soluble Al.
54
Coagulation Practice
Coagulant Aids: to improve floc properties and to enhance
coagulation
Flocculant Aids: to build stronger flocs

Coagulant Aids Flocculant Aids

Alkalinity Polymers
(Nonionic or anionic)
Polyelectrolytes Activated silica
Turbidity addition Na-silica
(silica, clay, activated carbon)
pH adjustment
55
Coagulation Practice
Surface waters can be grouped into four general categories

Group I : High turbidity, Low alkalinity

(>100 JTU) (<50mg/L as CaCO3)

• Easily coagulated by adsorption and charge

neutralization
• pH control is important
• Hydroxo-metallic ions are formed at pH 4-6
56
Coagulation Practice
Group II : High turbidity, High alkalinity
(>100 JTU) (>250 mg/L as CaCO3 )

• pH is relatively unaffected

• Easiest to coagulate

57
Coagulation Practice
Group III : Low turbidity, High alkalinity
(<10 JTU) (>250 mg/L as CaCO3 )

• Difficult coagulation even if the particle charge has been

neutralized

• Principle mechanism: Sweep coagulation

• Coagulant aid is needed

58
Coagulation Practice
Group IV : Low turbidity, Low alkalinity
(<10 JTU) (<50 mg/L as CaCO3 )

• Very difficult to coagulate

• Low alkalinity prevents Mex(OH)y (precipitate like

Al(OH)3) formation

• Alkalinity or turbidity should be added

59
MIXING

60
MIXING
• The degree of mixing or mixing intensity is based on the
power provided, which is measured by the velocity
gradient (G).
• The mechanical power is required to facilitate turbulent
mixing and is based on the velocity gradient.
• The degree of mixing is proportional to velocity gradient.
• Velocity gradient for any two particles that are 0.05 ft apart
with a relative velocity 2 fps is equal to:

∆' & )*/,

G= = = 40 2-1
∆( -.-/ )*

61
∆" = "$ − "&
The mean velocity gradient

• The mean velocity gradient G for mechanical

mixing system is:
$ (/*
G= (%&)
where

G = mean velocity gradient, s-1

P = power imparted to the water, Nm/s (W)
μ = absolute viscosity, N-s/m2
V = volume of basin, m3
62
Velocity Gradient

• The rate of particle collision ∝ G

• Shear force ∝ G

• Total number of particle collisions ∝ Gtd, where td

is the detention time

• In coagulation;
G= 700-1000 sec-1
td= 20-50 sec
63
The velocity gradient for baffle basins

Power dissipation in
hydraulic devices like
baffle basins;

P = ρgQh.

!∗#$
G=
%∗&'

( : Specific weight of water (ρg)

ρ : Density of fluid
g ∶ Gravitational acceleration
hL: head loss due to friction and turbulence
td : detention time 64
FLOCCULATION

65
Flocculation
• The rate of change of particle concentration by
perikinetic flocculation can be expressed as:
!"# (
%& ')*
Jpk = !$
= +,
N. /

Nº : total concentration of particles in suspension at time t

h : a collision efficiency factor ( fraction of collisions that produce
aggregates)
k0 : Boltzman constant (1.38 * 10-16 erg/degree)
T : absolute temperature (K)
µ : fluid viscosity 66
Flocculation

• The rate of change of particle concentration as a

result of orthokinetic flocculation
!"# %&' ( !) ("# ),
Jok = !$
= -

G : velocity gradient
d : particle diameter

./0 3 4 5)
The ratio : = 68
.10 &7
67
Flocculation
• For small particles ( <0.1 µm), perikinetic flocculation
!
dominates (!"# < 1)
$#

• For particles as large as 0.1 µm,

J&' = J(' only if G = 10000 s-1, which is too high and not
feasible.

• For particles with 1 µm, J&' = J(' G = 10 s-1

• Small particles must aggregate to a size of 1 µm

diameter by Brownian motion (perikinetic). But once
they reach that size, stirring must be provided for
further aggregation (orthokinetic). 68
 Design Criteria for Coagulation

td 1-10 s td (s) G (s-1)

G 400-1000 s-1
20 1000
Liquid 0.5-1.1 * basin diameter or 30 900
depth basin width
40 750
Impeller 0.3-0.5 * basin diameter or
diameter basin width 50 700

G = 3000 - 5000 sec-1 td= 0.5 s (adsorption / charge neutralization)

G = 600 - 1000 sec-1 td= 1-10 s (sweep coagulation)

• Design value of G depends on the coagulant used

25 -100 sec-1 for Fe(III), Al(III) 69

15-20 sec-1 for Polymer
Design Criteria for Flocculation

Vp 0.09-0.9 m/s
td 20-30 min
G 10-75 s-1 (25-65 s-1 most common)
G. td 20000-200000
Less than 15-20% of the area in the place
Paddle area
of paddle rotation
<2 ft/s weak floc
Paddle tip speed
<4 ft/s strong floc
70-80% of paddle speed (without baffles)
Relative velocity (!)
100% of paddle speed is approached
between water and paddle
(with baffles)

!" : Paddle velocity

! = !" - !& = !" - k !" = !" (1 − k)
ν$ : Fluid velocity 70
Gtd Values for Flocculation

Type G (1/s) Gtd (Unitless)

Low Turbidity, color
20 – 70 60000 – 200000
removal

High turbidity, solids

30 – 80 36000 – 96000
removal

Softening, 10%
130 – 200 200000 – 250000
solids

Softening, 30%
150 – 300 300000 – 400000
solids

71
MIXING DEVICES
Power for rapid mixing may be imparted to the
water by:

1. Mechanical agitation
2. Hydraulic mixers
3. Pneumatic agitation

72
Mixing Devices

Mechanical Hydraulic Pneumatic

mixers mixers mixers

• Propeller mixer • Venturi sections • Air diffusers

• Turbine mixer • Hydraulic jumps
• Baffled mixing
• Paddle mixer
chambers
• Parshall flume
• Weirs

73
Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers
1) Mechanical mixers

• Most common method because it is

Ø Reliable
Ø Very effective
Ø Extremely flexible

• Aim is to impart motion and turbulence to the water

• Equipment with adjustable speed must be chosen

74
Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers
The following relations exist in an !: Velocity of the impeller
impeller mixer: N: Rate of revolution
D: Impeller diameter
• # µ ND (1) FD: Drag force
P: Power
• A µ D2 (2)
• P µ FD # (3) It is also found experimentally that

Ø=KRep
By using (1) & (3) power number
(Ø) is obtained: where

K: a characteristics constant of an
$
Ø= impeller and tank geometry
r% & ' ( Re : Reynolds number
p : -1 for laminar flow
p : 0 for turbulent flow 75
Ø: Power number
Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers

Figure. Typical plot of power number as a function of the

Reynolds number 76
Ø=KRep

Impeller coefficient: K

77
Coagulation (Rapid Mixing)

78
Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers
Types of impellers

a. Propellers
• High speed impellers (400-1750 rpm)
• Used in small tanks (V<1000 gal)
• Low viscosity

b. Paddles
• Slower speed agitators (2-150 rpm)
• Two or four bladed are common
• Used in flocculation tanks 79
 Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers
Types of impellers

c. Turbines
• Multibladed paddle agitator with short blades
• Moderate speed (~ 150 rpm)
• Effective over a wide range of viscosities

80
 Marine Propeller Flat Blade Turbine

Curved Blade Turbine Paddle

81
82
Types of Blades

83
Propeller mixer

84
Tank – Impeller Geometries for Mixing

Geometric Ratio Range

D/T (Radial) 0.14 – 0.5
D/T (Axial) 0.17 – 0.4
H/D 2–4
H/T (Axial) 0.34 – 1.6
H/T (Radial) 0.28 – 2
B/D 0.7 – 1.6

• D: Impeller diameter
• H: water depth
• B: water depth below impeller
• T: equivalent tank diameter = (4*A/π)0.5
• A: plan area 85
 Mixing Devices - Mechanical mixers

Turbines

86
Paddles

87
Paddle Flocculators

88
Flocculation Basins (slow mixing)

Paddle Flocculators
89
Paddle Flocculators

A cross flow horizontal shaft, paddle wheel tapered flocculation basin with 3
compartments.

Each horizontal shaft has 4 paddle wheels and each paddle has 6 blades.
90
Paddle Flocculators

91
Paddle Flocculators
Flocculation Basins (slow mixing)
• Horizontal and vertical shafts are used to mount the
paddle wheel
• Designed to provide tapered flocculation [decreasing G
values (high 50 to low 20 to lower 10/sec)]
• Flocculation basins are composed of minimum 3
compartments to
– Minimize short circuiting
– Facilitate tapered flocculation
• Tapered flocculation can be provided by:
– Varying the paddle size
– Varying the number of paddles
– Varying the diameter of the paddle wheels
93
– Varying the rotational speed of the various shafts
Flocculation Basins (slow mixing)
Vertical-Shaft Paddle-Wheel
Flocculator

Horizontal-Shaft Paddle-Wheel Flocculator

94
Paddle-Wheel Design
• The useful power imparted to the fluid by paddle wheels: P
• P = f (FD & relative velocity (!) )
FD : drag force

a)
• FD = (r CD A !2 ) / 2
Where;
A: paddle area, usually 15-20% of tank cross-sectional area
CD = 1.8
P = FD !
" 95
G=
#$
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
2) Hydraulic mixers

• Venturi sections
• Hydraulic jumps
• Baffled basins
• Parshall flume
• Weirs

ü Coagulation is applied at a point where turbulence is high

ü Turbulence is measured by head loss
ü Power dissipation in a hydraulic device = ρgQΔhL

96
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Venturi sections

• High velocity, low

pressure
• Turbulence generated
in the throat
• As the flow expands at
the exit mixing occurs

97
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Hydraulic jump
• Turbulence generated in the jump provides mixing
• A chute followed by a channel creates supercritical flow

98
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Hydraulic jump

99
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Baffled basins

• Mixing is achieved by reversing the flow through

channels formed
• Tapered flocculation can be achieved by varying the
spacing of the baffles 100
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Baffled basins

101
Mixing Devices - Hydraulic mixers
Baffled basins %∗!'" !""
hL = + (n-1)*
#$ #$
P= γQhL
(1 = velocity in the channel between
Q: flowrate of water baffles
(2 = velocity around the end of
γ: specific weight of water baffles

hL: head loss through unit

*∗+,
G=
OR -∗./

!"
hL = K * ) : density of water
#$
K : a loss coefficient (2.5-3) td : detention time
102
Mixing Devices - Pneumatic mixers
3) Pneumatic mixers

• Mixing is accomplished
by bubbles (achieved
via diffused aerators)

103