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Structural Analysis with the Finite Element Method
Linear Statics Volume 1 Basis and Solids Lecture Notes
on Numerical Methods in Engineering and Sciences v 1
1st Edition Eugenio Onate Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Eugenio Onate
ISBN(s): 9781402087325, 1402087322
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 25.23 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
Structural Analysis with
the Finite Element Method
Linear Statics
Volume 1. Basis and Solids
 Lecture Notes on Numerical Methods in
Engineering and Sciences

Aims and Scope of the Series

This series publishes text books on topics of general interest in the field of computational
engineering sciences.
The books will focus on subjects in which numerical methods play a fundamental role for
solving problems in engineering and applied sciences. Advances in finite element, finite
volume, finite differences, discrete and particle methods and their applications to classical
single discipline fields and new multidisciplinary domains are examples of the topics covered
by the series.
The main intended audience is the first year graduate student. Some books define the
current state of a field to a highly specialised readership; others are accessible to final year
undergraduates, but essentially the emphasis is on accessibility and clarity.
The books will be also useful for practising engineers and scientists interested in state of the
art information on the theory and application of numerical methods.

Series Editor
Eugenio Oñate
International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE)
School of Civil Engineering
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain

Editorial Board
Francisco Chinesta, Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'Arts et Métiers, Paris, France
Charbel Farhat, Stanford University, Stanford, USA
Carlos Felippa, University of Colorado at Boulder, Colorado, USA
Antonio Huerta, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
Thomas J.R. Hughes, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, USA
Sergio R. Idelsohn, CIMNE-ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
Pierre Ladeveze, ENS de Cachan-LMT-Cachan, France
Wing Kam Liu, Northwestern University, Evanston, USA
Xavier Oliver, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC), Barcelona, Spain
Manolis Papadrakakis, National Technical University of Athens, Greece
Jacques Périaux, CIMNE-UPC Barcelona, Spain & Univ. of Jyväskylä, Finland
Bernhard Schrefler, Università degli Studi di Padova, Padova, Italy
Genki Yagawa, Tokyo University, Tokyo, Japan
Mingwu Yuan, Peking University, China

Titles:

1. E. Oñate, Structural Analysis with the Finite Element Method.

Linear Statics. Volume 1. Basis and Solids, 2009
Structural Analysis with
the Finite Element Method
Linear Statics
Volume 1. Basis and Solids

Eugenio Oñate
International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE)
School of Civil Engineering
Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya (UPC)
Barcelona, Spain
ISBN: 978-1-4020-8732-5 (HB)
ISBN:978-1-4020-8733-2 (e-book)

Depósito legal: B-11715-09

A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

Typesetting: Mª Jesús Samper, CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain

Lecture Notes Series Manager: Adriana Hanganu, CIMNE, Barcelona, Spain

Cover page: Pallí Disseny i Comunicació, www.pallidisseny.com

Printed by: Artes Gráficas Torres S.L.

Morales 17, 08029 Barcelona, España
www.agraficastorres.es

Printed on elemental chlorine-free paper

Structural Analysis with the Finite Element Method. Linear Statics.

Volume 1. Basis and Solids
Eugenio Oñate

First edition, March 2009

¤ International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE)

Gran Capitán s/n, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
www.cimne.upc.es

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise,
without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied
specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive
use by the purchaser of the work.

Tomyfamily
Preface

This two-volume book presents an overview of the possibilities of the Finite

Element Method (FEM) for linear static analysis of structures. The text
is a revised extension of the Spanish version of the book published by
the International Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE)
in 1992 and 1995 (2nd edition). The content of the book is based on the
lectures of the course on Finite Element Structural Analysis taught by the
author since 1979 to final year students in the School of Civil Engineering
at the Technical University of Catalonia (UPC) in Barcelona, Spain.
Volume 1 of the book presents the basis of the FEM and its application to
structures that can be modelled as two-dimensional (2D), axisymmetric
and three-dimensional (3D) solids using the assumptions of general linear
elasticity theory.
Volume 2 covers the FEM analysis of beam, plate, folded plate, axisym-
metric shell and arbitrary shape shell structures. Emphasis is put in the
treatment of structures with composite materials.
Each chapter of the book presents the main theoretical concepts on the
particular structural model considered, such as the kinematic description,
the constitutive relationship between stresses and strains and the equili-
brium equations expressed by the Principle of Virtual Work. This is follo-
wed by a detailed derivation of the FEM equations and some applications
to academic and practical examples of structural analysis. Complementary
topics such as error estimation, adaptive mesh refinement, mesh generation
and visualization of FEM results and computer programming of the FEM
are also covered in the last chapters of Volume 1.
The book is particularly addressed to those interested in the analysis and
design of solids and structures, understood here in a broad sense. The FEM
concepts explained in the book are therefore applicable to the analysis
of structures in civil engineering constructions, buildings and historical
constructions, mechanical components and structural parts in automotive,
naval and aerospace engineering, among many other applications.
The background knowledge required for study of the book is the stan-
dard one on mathematics, numerical analysis, elasticity and strength of
materials, matrix structural analysis and computer programming covered
in the first courses of engineering and architecture schools at technical
universities. In any case, the key theoretical concepts of each chapter are
explained in some detail so as to facilitate its study.
Chapter 1 of Volume 1 presents first the concepts of structural and compu-
tational models. Then the basic steps of matrix analysis of bar structures
are summarized. This chapter is important as the FEM follows very closely
the methodology of matrix structural analysis. Understanding clearly the
concept of splitting a structure in different elements, the equilibrium of
the individual elements and the assembly of the global equilibrium equa-
tions of the structure from the contributions of the different elements is
essential in order to follow the rest of the book.
Chapters 2 and 3 introduce the FEM formulation for the analysis of sim-
ple axially loaded bars using one-dimensional (1D) bar elements. The
key ingredients of the FEM, such as discretization, interpolation, shape
functions, numerical integration of the stiffness matrix and the equivalent
nodal force vector for the element are explained in detail, as well as other
general concepts such as the patch test, the conditions for convergence of
the FE solution, the types of errors, etc.
Chapter 4 focuses on the study of structures under the assumption of
2D elasticity. These structures include dams, tunnels, pipes and retain-
ing walls, among many others. The key ideas of 2D elasticity theory are
explained, as well as the formulation of the 3-noded triangular element.
Details of the explicit form of the element stiffness matrix and the equiv-
alent nodal force vector are given.
Chapter 5 explains the derivation of the shape functions for 2D solid ele-
ments of rectangular and triangular shape and different orders of approxi-
mation. The resulting expressions for the shape functions are applicable to
axisymmetric solid elements, as well as for many plate and shell elements
studied in Volume 2.
Chapter 6 focuses on the formulation of 2D solid elements of arbitrary
shape (i.e. irregular quadrilateral and triangular elements with straight or
curved sides) using the isoparametric formulation and numerical integra-
tion. These concepts are essential for the organization of a general FEM
computer program applicable to elements of different shape and approx-
imation order. Examples of application to civil engineering constructions
are presented.
Chapter 7 describes the formulation of axisymmetric solid elements. Use is
made of the concepts explained in the previous two chapters, such as the
derivation of the element shape functions, the isoparametric formulation
and numerical integration. Applications to the analysis of axisymmetric
solids and structures are presented.
Chapter 8 studies 3D solid elements of tetrahedral and hexahedral shapes.
3D solid elements allow the FEM analysis of any structure. Details of the
derivation of the stiffness matrix and the equivalent nodal force vector
are given for the simple 4-noded tetrahedral element. The formulation of
higher order 3D solid elements is explained using the isoparametric formu-
lation and numerical integration. Applications of 3D solid elements to a
wide range of structures such as dams, buildings, historical constructions
and mechanical parts are presented.
Chapter 9 covers miscellaneous topics of general interest for FEM analysis.
These include the treatment of inclined supports, the blending of elements
of different types, the study of structures on elastic foundations, the use
of substructuring techniques, the procedures for applying constraints on
the nodal displacements, the computation of stresses at the nodes and the
key concepts of error estimation and adaptive mesh refinement strategies.
Chapter 10 introduces the basic ideas of mesh generation and visualization
of the FEM results. The advancing front method and the Delaunay method
for generation of unstructured meshes are explained in some detail.
Chapter 11 finally describes the organization of a simple computer pro-
gram for FEM analysis of 2D structures using the 3-noded triangle and
the 4-noded quadrilateral using MATLAB as a programming tool and the
GiD pre-postprocessing system.
The four annexes cover the basic concepts of matrix algebra (Annex A),
the solution of simultaneous linear algebraic equations (Annex B), the
computation of the parameters for adaptive mesh refinement analysis (An-
nex C) and details of the GiD pre-postprocessing system developed at
CIMNE (Annex D).
I want to express my gratitude to Dr. Francisco Zárate who was responsible
for writing the computer program Mat-fem explained in Chapter 11 and
also undertook the task of the writing this chapter.
Many thanks also to my colleagues in the Department of Continuum Me-
chanics and Structural Analysis at the Civil Engineering School of UPC for
their support and cooperation over many years. Special thanks to Profs.
Benjamı́n Suárez, Miguel Cervera and Juan Miquel and Drs. Francisco
Zárate and Daniel di Capua with whom I have shared the teaching of the
course on Finite Element Structural Analysis at UPC.
Many examples included in the book are the result of problems solved
by academics and research students at UPC and CIMNE in cooperation
with companies which are acknowledged in the text. I thank all of them
for their contributions. Special thanks to the GiD team at CIMNE for
providing the text for Annex D and many pictures shown in the book.
Many thanks also to my colleagues and staff at CIMNE for their coo-
peration and support during so many years that has made possible the
publication of this book.
I am particularly grateful to Prof. O.C. Zienkiewicz from University of
Swansea (UK) and Prof. R.L. Taylor from University of California at
Berkeley (USA). Their ideas and suggestions during many visits at CIMNE
and UPC in the period 1987-2007 have been a source of inspiration for
the writing of this book.
Prof. Zienkiewicz, one of the giants in the field of computational mecha-
nics, unfortunately passed away on January 2nd 2009 and has been unable
to see the publication of this book. I express my deep sorrow for such a
big loss and my recognition and gratitude for his support and friendship
throughout my career.
Thanks also to Mrs. Adriana Hanganu from CIMNE for supervising the
joint publication of the book by CIMNE and Springer.
Finally, my special thanks to Mrs. Marı́a Jesús Samper from CIMNE for
her excellent work in the typing and editing of the manuscript.

Eugenio Oñate
Barcelona, January 2009
Foreword

It is just over one-half century since papers on element based approximate

solutions to structural problems first appeared in print. The term Finite
Element Method was introduced in 1960 by Professor R.W. Clough to
define this class of solution methods. In 1967, Professor O.C. Zienkiewicz
published the first book describing applications of the method. Since these
early contributions the finite element method has become indispensable
to engineers and scientists involved in the analysis and design of a very
wide range of practical structural problems: These include concrete dams,
automobiles, aircraft, electronic parts, and medical devices, to name a few.
Professor Eugenio Oñate, the author of Structural Analysis with the Finite
Element Method, is a well recognized educator and research scholar in the
area of computational mechanics. He completed his doctoral studies under
the supervision of Professor O.C. Zienkiewicz at the University of Wales,
Swansea. Professor Oñate is the founder and director of the International
Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE) at the Universitat
Politècnica de Catalunya in Barcelona, Spain. He has more than thirty
years experience in development of finite element methods and related
software.
This two volume book presents the results of the author’s extensive expe-
rience in teaching and research on the finite element method. The content
of the book develops the theory and practical implementation of the fi-
nite element method for application to linear structural problems. In the
first volume, the finite element method is described to solve linear elastic
problems for solids. The second volume extends the method to solve beam,
plate and shell structures.
The style of presentation allows the reader to fully comprehend the fun-
damental steps in a finite element solution process. In the first volume,
the equations of elasticity are developed explicitly and are combined with
the principal of virtual work to describe the matrix problem to be solved.
The book starts with one dimensional problems and builds systemati-
cally through two and three dimensional applications for solids. The first
nine chapters present the theory of finite element analysis in detail – inclu-
ding the required steps to approximate element variables by isoparametric
shape functions, to carry out numerical integration, and to perform assem-
bly of final equations. Numerous examples are completely worked out and
are complemented by color plates of results from analyses of practical
problems. The first volume concludes with a chapter on mesh genera-
tion and visualization and a chapter on programming the finite element
method. Use of the GiD program permits the reader to rapidly generate
a mesh, while the chapter on programming describes how the reader can
combine the computational advantages of MATLAB with the graphical
capabilities of GiD to solve problems and visualize results. The reader can
attain a deeper understanding of the finite element method by studying
these chapters in parallel with the earlier theoretical chapters.
The second volume builds on the first to develop finite element formu-
lations for beam, plate and shell problems. The pattern of development
is identical with the first volume – namely starting with beam theories
and building systematically through the development of various plate and
shell finite element forms.
These two volumes enhance the reader’s ability to master the basic con-
cepts of the finite element method. Moreover, they provide the necessary
background for further study on inelastic material behavior, contact inte-
ractions, and large deformation of solids and shells. Thus, the book is an
extremely valuable contribution toward practical application of the finite
element method in analysis and design of structures.

Robert L. Taylor
University of California, Berkeley, USA
December 2008
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION TO THE FINITE ELEMENT

METHOD FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 WHAT IS THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD? . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL METHODS . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 WHAT IS A FINITE ELEMENT? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 STRUCTURAL MODELLING AND FEM ANALYSIS . . . 3
1.4.1 Classification of the problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Conceptual, structural and computational models . . . 3
1.4.3 Structural analysis by the FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.4 Verification and validation of FEM results . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5 DISCRETE SYSTEMS. BAR STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5.1 Basic concepts of matrix analysis of bar structures . . 14
1.5.2 Analogy with the matrix analysis of other discrete
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.3 Basic steps for matrix analysis of discrete systems . . 20
1.6 DIRECT ASSEMBLY OF THE GLOBAL STIFFNESS
MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 DERIVATION OF THE MATRIX EQUILIBRIUM
EQUATIONS FOR THE BAR USING THE PRINCIPLE
OF VIRTUAL WORK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.8 DERIVATION OF THE BAR EQUILIBRIUM
EQUATIONS VIA THE MINIMUM TOTAL
POTENTIAL ENERGY PRINCIPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.9 PLANE FRAMEWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9.1 Plane pin-jointed frameworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9.2 Plane rigid jointed frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
XIV Contents

1.10 TREATMENT OF PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS

AND COMPUTATION OF REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.11 INTRODUCTION TO THE FINITE ELEMENT
METHOD FOR STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.12 THE VALUE OF FINITE ELEMENT COMPUTATIONS
FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND VERIFICATION . . . 42
1.13 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

2 1D FINITE ELEMENTS FOR AXIALLY LOADED

RODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.2 AXIALLY LOADED ROD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.3 AXIALLY LOADED ROD OF CONSTANT CROSS
SECTION. DISCRETIZATION IN ONE LINEAR ROD
ELEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.1 Approximation of the displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.3.2 Derivation of equilibrium equations for the elements 48
2.3.3 Assembly of the global equilibrium equations . . . . . . . 51
2.3.4 Computation of the reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.3.5 Computation of the axial strain and the axial force . 52
2.4 DERIVATION OF THE DISCRETIZED EQUATIONS
FROM THE GLOBAL DISPLACEMENT
INTERPOLATION FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.5 AXIALLY LOADED ROD OF CONSTANT CROSS
SECTION. DISCRETIZATION IN TWO LINEAR ROD
ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.5.1 Solution using the element shape functions . . . . . . . . . 57
2.5.2 Solution using the global shape functions . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.6 GENERALIZATION OF THE SOLUTION WITH N
LINEAR ROD ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.7 EXTRAPOLATION OF THE SOLUTION FROM TWO
DIFFERENT MESHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.8 MATRIX FORMULATION OF THE ELEMENT
EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
2.8.1 Shape function matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.8.2 Strain matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2.8.3 Constitutive matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.4 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
2.8.5 Stiffness matrix and equivalent nodal force vector . . . 72
 Contents XV

2.9 SUMMARY OF THE STEPS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF

A STRUCTURE USING THE FEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

3 ADVANCED ROD ELEMENTS AND

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE NUMERICAL
SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
3.2 ONE DIMENSIONAL C 0 ELEMENTS. LAGRANGE
ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3 ISOPARAMETRIC FORMULATION AND
NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.2 The concept of parametric interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . 82
3.3.3 Isoparametric formulation of the two-noded rod
element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.3.4 Isoparametric formulation of the 3-noded quadratic
rod element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.4 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.5 STEPS FOR THE COMPUTATION OF MATRICES
AND VECTORS FOR AN ISOPARAMETRIC ROD
ELEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5.1 Interpolation of the axial displacement . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.5.2 Geometry interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.3 Interpolation of the axial strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.5.4 Computation of the axial force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.5 Element stiffness matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.5.6 Equivalent nodal force vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.6 BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A FINITE ELEMENT
PROGRAM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.7 SELECTION OF ELEMENT TYPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.8 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONVERGENCE OF THE
SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8.1 Continuity condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8.2 Derivativity condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8.3 Integrability condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.8.4 Rigid body condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.8.5 Constant strain condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.9 ASSESSMENT OF CONVERGENCE REQUIREMENTS.
THE PATCH TEST . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
XVI Contents

3.10 OTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR THE FINITE

ELEMENT APPROXIMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.10.1 Compatibility condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.10.2 Condition of complete polynomial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.10.3 Stability condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.10.4 Geometric –invariance condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.11 SOME REMARKS ON THE COMPATIBILITY AND
EQUILIBRIUM OF THE SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.12 CONVERGENCE REQUIREMENTS FOR
ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.13 ERROR TYPES IN THE FINITE ELEMENT SOLUTION 111
3.13.1 Discretization error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.13.2 Error in the geometry approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.13.3 Error in the computation of the element integrals . . . 113
3.13.4 Errors in the solution of the global equation system . 114
3.13.5 Errors associated with the constitutive equation . . . . 116

4 2D SOLIDS. LINEAR TRIANGULAR AND

RECTANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.2 TWO DIMENSIONAL ELASTICITY THEORY . . . . . . . . . 119
4.2.1 Displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.2.2 Strain field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.2.3 Stress field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.4 Stress-strain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.2.5 Principal stresses and failure criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.2.6 Virtual work expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION. THREE-NODED
TRIANGULAR ELEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.1 Discretization of the displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.3.2 Discretization of the strain field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.3.3 Discretization of the stress field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.4 Discretized equilibrium equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.3.5 Stiffness matrix and equivalent nodal force vectors
for the 3-noded triangular element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
4.4 THE FOUR NODED RECTANGULAR ELEMENT . . . . . . 146
4.4.1 Basic formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
4.4.2 Some remarks on the behaviour of the 4-noded
rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
 Contents XVII

4.4.2.1 Reduced integration of the shear stiffness

terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.4.2.2 Addition of internal modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.4.2.3 Addition of incompatible modes . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.4.2.4 Use of an assumed strain field . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.5 PERFORMANCE OF THE 3-NODED TRIANGLE AND
THE 4-NODED RECTANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

5 HIGHER ORDER 2D SOLID ELEMENTS. SHAPE

FUNCTIONS AND ANALYTICAL COMPUTATION
OF INTEGRALS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.2 DERIVATION OF THE SHAPE FUNCTIONS FOR Co
TWO DIMENSIONAL ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.2.1 Complete polynomials in two dimensions. Pascal
triangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
5.2.2 Shape functions of C o rectangular elements. Natural
coordinates in two dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
5.3 LAGRANGE RECTANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.3.1 Four-noded Lagrange rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
5.3.2 Nine-noded quadratic Lagrange rectangle . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.3.3 Sixteen-noded cubic Lagrange rectangle . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3.4 Other Lagrange rectangular elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
5.4 SERENDIPITY RECTANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . 167
5.4.1 Eigth-noded quadratic Serendipity rectangle . . . . . . . 169
5.4.2 Twelve-noded cubic Serendipity rectangle . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.3 Seventeen-noded quartic Serendipity rectangle . . . . . . 171
5.5 SHAPE FUNCTIONS FOR C 0 CONTINUOUS
TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5.1 Area coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5.2 Derivation of the shape functions for C 0 continuous
triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.5.3 Shape functions for the 3-noded linear triangle . . . . . 175
5.5.4 Shape functions for the six-noded quadratic triangle 176
5.5.5 Shape functions for the ten-noded cubic triangle . . . . 177
5.5.6 Natural coordinates for triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.6 ANALYTIC COMPUTATION OF INTEGRALS OVER
RECTANGLES AND STRAIGHT-SIDED TRIANGLES . . 178
XVIII Contents

5.7 GENERAL PERFORMANCE OF TRIANGULAR AND

RECTANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.8 ENHANCEMENT OF 2D ELASTICITY ELEMENTS
USING DRILLING ROTATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.9 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186

6 ISOPARAMETRIC 2D SOLID ELEMENTS.

NUMERICAL INTEGRATION AND APPLICATIONS 187
6.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.2 ISOPARAMETRIC QUADRILATERAL ELEMENTS . . . . 187
6.2.1 Stiffness matrix and load vector for the
isoparametric quadrilateral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.2.2 A comparison between the 8- and 9-noded
isoparametric quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
6.3 ISOPARAMETRIC TRIANGULAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . 194
6.4 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION IN TWO DIMENSIONS . . 197
6.4.1 Numerical integration in quadrilateral domains . . . . . 198
6.4.2 Numerical integration over triangles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
6.5 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF THE ELEMENT
MATRICES AND VECTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.5.1 Numerical integration of the stiffness matrix . . . . . . . 200
6.5.2 Numerical integration of the equivalent nodal force
vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
6.6 COMPUTER PROGRAMMING OF K(e) AND f (e) . . . . . . 203
6.7 OPTIMAL POINTS FOR COMPUTING STRAINS AND
STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
6.8 SELECTION OF THE QUADRATURE ORDER . . . . . . . . 209
6.9 PERFORMANCE OF 2D ISOPARAMETRIC SOLID
ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6.10 THE PATCH TEST FOR SOLID ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . 214
6.11 APPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.11.1 Analysis of concrete dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
6.11.2 Analysis of an earth dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
6.11.3 Analysis of an underground tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
6.12 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

7 AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225

7.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
7.2 BASIC FORMULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7.2.1 Displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
 Contents XIX

7.2.2 Strain field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

7.2.3 Stress field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.2.4 Constitutive equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.2.5 Principle of virtual work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
7.3 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION. THREE-NODED
AXISYMMETRIC TRIANGLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.3.1 Discretization of the displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7.3.2 Discretization of the strain and stress fields . . . . . . . . 232
7.3.3 Equilibrium equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
7.3.4 The stiffness matrix for the 3-noded triangle . . . . . . . 235
7.3.5 Equivalent nodal force vectors for the 3-noded triangle238
7.4 OTHER RECTANGULAR OR STRAIGHT-SIDED
TRIANGULAR AXISYMMETRIC SOLID ELEMENTS . . 240
7.5 ISOPARAMETRIC AXISYMMETRIC SOLID ELEMENTS243
7.6 ANALOGIES BETWEEN THE FINITE ELEMENT
FORMULATIONS FOR PLANE ELASTICITY AND
AXISYMMETRIC SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.7 EXAMPLES OF APPLICATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
7.7.1 Infinitely long cylinder under external pressure . . . . . 245
7.7.2 Cylindrical tank with spherical dome under internal
pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
7.7.3 Semi-infinite elastic space under point load . . . . . . . . 249
7.8 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

8 THREE DIMENSIONAL SOLIDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250

8.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
8.2 BASIC THEORY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2.1 Displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2.2 Strain field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
8.2.3 Stress field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8.2.4 Stress-strain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
8.2.5 Principal stresses, stress invariants and failure criteria 254
8.2.6 Virtual work principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8.3 FINITE ELEMENT FORMULATION. THE FOUR-
NODED TETRAHEDRON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.3.1 Discretization of the displacement field . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
8.3.2 Strain matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
8.3.3 Equilibrium equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
8.3.4 Stiffness matrix for the element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8.3.5 Equivalent nodal force vector for the element . . . . . . . 263
XX Contents

8.3.6 The performance of the 4-noded tetrahedron . . . . . . . 265

8.4 OTHER 3D SOLID ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
8.5 RIGHT PRISMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.5.1 Right prisms of the Lagrange family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
8.5.1.1 Linear right prism of the Lagrange family . . . 267
8.5.1.2 Quadratic right prism of the Lagrange family 270
8.5.1.3 Other hexahedral elements of the Lagrange
family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.5.2 Serendipity prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
8.5.2.1 20-noded quadratic Serendipity prism . . . . . . 271
8.5.2.2 32-noded cubic Serendipity prism . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.6 STRAIGHT-EDGED TETRAHEDRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.6.1 Shape functions for the 10-noded quadratic
tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
8.6.2 Shape functions for the 20-noded quadratic
tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
8.7 COMPUTATION OF ELEMENT INTEGRALS . . . . . . . . . 284
8.7.1 Analytical computation of element integrals . . . . . . . . 284
8.8 3D ISOPARAMETRIC ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.9 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.9.1 Hexahedral elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
8.9.2 Tetrahedral elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
8.10 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION OF ELEMENT MATRICES292
8.10.1 Isoparametric hexahedral elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
8.10.2 Isoparametric tetrahedral elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.10.3 Selection of the quadrature order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
8.11 PERFORMANCE OF 3D SOLID ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.12 EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
8.12.1 Analysis of a gravity dam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
8.12.2 Analysis of a double curvature arch dam . . . . . . . . . . . 298
8.12.3 Analysis of arch dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
8.12.4 Analysis of a flat in a building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.12.5 Analysis of prismatic cellular caissons for harbour
piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
8.12.6 Analysis of a nuclear containment building . . . . . . . . . 302
8.12.7 Analysis of historical constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
8.12.8 Analysis of mechanical parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
8.13 FINAL REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
 Contents XXI

9 MISCELLANEOUS: INCLINED SUPPORTS,

DISPLACEMENT CONSTRAINS, ERROR
ESTIMATION, MESH ADAPTIVITY ETC. . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.2 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS IN INCLINED SUPPORTS . 309
9.3 JOINING DISSIMILAR ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.4 DISPLACEMENT CONSTRAINTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
9.4.1 General procedure to eliminate constrained DOFs . . 314
9.4.2 Use of Lagrange multipliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
9.4.3 Penalty method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
9.5 NODAL CONDENSATION AND SUBSTRUCTURES . . . . 320
9.5.1 Nodal condensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
9.5.2 Substructuring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
9.6 STRUCTURAL SYMMETRY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.6.1 Symmetric solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
9.6.2 Cyclic symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
9.7 STRUCTURES ON ELASTIC FOUNDATION . . . . . . . . . . 327
9.8 COMPUTATION OF NODAL STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
9.8.1 Global smoothing of stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
9.8.2 Direct local extrapolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
9.8.3 Superconvergent patch recovery techniques . . . . . . . . . 334
9.8.4 Iterative enhancement of the solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
9.9 ERROR ESTIMATION AND MESH ADAPTIVITY . . . . . 338
9.9.1 Basic concepts of error estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
9.9.2 Error measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.9.3 Error estimation techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
9.9.4 Mesh adaptation strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
9.9.4.1 Mesh optimality criterion based on the
equal distribution of the global energy error . 343
9.9.4.2 Mesh optimality criterion based on the
global distribution of the density of the
energy error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.9.4.3 Mesh refinement strategy based on the
point-wise error in stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.9.5 Construction of an adapted mesh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.9.6 Examples of mesh adaptivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
9.9.6.1 Thick circular cylinder under internal pressure349
9.9.6.2 2D hollow dam under water pressure and
self-weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
XXII Contents

9.9.7 Conclusions from the examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354

10 GENERATION OF ANALYSIS DATA AND

VISUALIZATION OF NUMERICAL RESULTS . . . . . . . 355
10.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
10.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF A GOOD PRE AND POST
PROCESSING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
10.3 THE GEOMETRICAL REPRESENTATION OF
STRUCTURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
10.4 MESH GENERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
10.4.1 The advancing front method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
10.4.2 The paving method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
10.4.3 The Delaunay method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
10.4.4 3D mesh generation with the Delaunay method . . . . . 375
10.5 VISUALIZATION OF NUMERICAL RESULTS . . . . . . . . . 378
10.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

11 LEARNING TO PROGRAM THE FEM WITH

MATLAB AND GID . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
11.1 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
11.2 MAT-fem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
11.3 DATA FILES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
11.4 START . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
11.5 STIFFNESS MATRIX AND EQUIVALENT NODAL
FORCE VECTOR FOR SELF-WEIGHT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
11.5.1 Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
11.5.2 Computation and assembly of K(e) and f (e)
(self-weight) for 3-noded triangles and 4-noded
quadrilaterals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
11.6 EXTERNAL LOADS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
11.7 PRESCRIBED DISPLACEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
11.8 SOLUTION OF THE EQUATIONS SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . . . 396
11.9 NODAL REACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
11.10 STRESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
11.10.1Generalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
11.10.2Computation of the stresses at the nodes . . . . . . . . . . 398
11.11 POSTPROCESSING STEP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
11.12 GRAPHICAL USER INTERFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
11.12.1Preprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
11.12.2Program execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
 Contents XXIII

11.12.3Postprocessing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
11.13 EXAMPLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

A MATRIX ALGEBRA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414

A.1 DEFINITION OF MATRIX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
A.1.1 Transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
A.1.2 Square matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
A.1.3 Symmetric and antisymmetric matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
A.1.4 Null matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
A.1.5 Diagonal matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
A.1.6 Identity matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
A.1.7 Triangular matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
A.2 OPERATION WITH MATRICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
A.2.1 Multiplication of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
A.2.2 Associative rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
A.2.3 Distributive rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
A.2.4 Product of a matrix by a vector and a scalar . . . . . . . 418
A.2.5 Sum and subtraction of matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
A.2.6 Partition of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
A.2.7 Determinant of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
A.2.8 Inverse of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
A.3 EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS OF A MATRIX 422

B SOLUTION OF SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR

ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
B.1 DIRECT SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
B.2 ITERATIVE SOLUTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426

C COMPUTATION OF THE ELEMENT

REFINEMENT PARAMETER FOR AN
EQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE ERROR
AND ACCOUNTING FOR THE CHANGE IN THE
NUMBER OF ELEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428

D APPENDIX D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
D.1 THE GID PRE/POSTPROCESSING SYSTEM . . . . . . . . . 431
D.1.1 General features of GiD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
D.1.2 More features of GiD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
D.1.3 The handling of geometrical data with GiD . . . . . . . . 437
XXIV Contents

D.1.4 Generation of analysis data and interfacing with

computer simulation codes via GiD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
D.1.5 Visualization of numerical results with GiD . . . . . . . . 441
D.1.6 Who can benefit from using GiD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
D.1.7 Which are the advantages of using GiD? . . . . . . . . . . . 444
D.1.8 Why is it worth using GiD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
D.1.9 How can one learn to use GiD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
D.1.10How can one access GiD? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
D.1.11The GiD team . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447

Author index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Subject index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467

1
INTRODUCTION TO THE FINITE
ELEMENT METHOD FOR
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

1.1 WHAT IS THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD?

The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a procedure for the numerical solu-
tion of the equations that govern the problems found in nature. Usually the
behaviour of nature can be described by equations expressed in differential
or integral form. For this reason the FEM is understood in mathematical
circles as a numerical technique for solving partial differential or integral
equations. Generally, the FEM allows users to obtain the evolution in
space and/or time of one or more variables representing the behaviour of
a physical system.
When referred to the analysis of structures the FEM is a powerful
method for computing the displacements, stresses and strains in a struc-
ture under a set of loads. This is precisely what we aim to study in this
book.

1.2 ANALYTICAL AND NUMERICAL METHODS

The conceptual difference between analytical and numerical methods is
that the former search for the universal mathematical expressions repre-
senting the general and “exact” solution of a problem governed typically by
mathematical equations. Unfortunately exact solutions are only possible
for a few particular cases which frequently represent coarse simplifications
of reality.
On the other hand, numerical methods such as the FEM aim to pro-
viding a solution, in the form of a set of numbers, to the mathematical
equations governing a problem. The strategy followed by most numerical
2 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

methods is to transform the mathematical expressions into a set of alge-

braic equations which depend on a finite set of parameters. For practical
problems these equations involve many thousands (or even millions) of un-
knowns and therefore the final system of algebraic equations can only be
solved with the help of computers. This explains why even though many
numerical methods were known since the XVIII century, their develop-
ment and popularity has occurred in tandem to the progress of modern
computers in the XX century. The term numerical method is synonymous
of computational method in this text.
Numerical methods represent, in fact, the return of numbers as the true
protagonists in the solution of a problem. The loop initiated by Pythagoras
some 25 centuries ago has been closed in the last few decades with the
evidence that, with the help of numerical methods, we can find precise
answers to any problem in science and engineering.
We should keep in mind that numerical methods for structural engi-
neering are inseparable from mathematics, material modelling and com-
puter science. Nowadays it is unthinkable to attempt the development of
a numerical method for structural analysis without referring to those dis-
ciplines. As an example, any method for solving a large scale structural
problem has to take into account the hardware environment where it will
be implemented (most frequently using parallel computing facilities). Also
a modern computer program for structural analysis should be able to in-
corporate the continuous advances in the modelling of new materials.
The concept which perhaps best synthesizes the immediate future of
numerical methods is “multidisciplinary computations”. The solution of
problems will not be attempted from the perspective of a single discipline
and it will involve all the couplings which characterize the complexity of
reality. For instance, the design of a structural component for a vehicle (an
automobile, an aeroplane, etc.) will take into account the manufacturing
process and the function which the component will play throughout its
life time. Structures in civil engineering will be studied considering the
surrounding environment (soil, water, air). Similar examples are found in
mechanical, naval and aeronautical engineering and indeed in practically
all branches of engineering science. Accounting for the non-deterministic
character of data will be essential for estimating the probability that the
new products and processes conceived by men behave as planned. The
huge computational needs resulting from a stochastic multidisciplinary
viewpoint will demand better numerical methods, new material models
and, indeed, faster computers.
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 3

It is only through the integration of a deep knowledge of the physi-

cal and mathematical basis of a problem and of numerical methods and
informatics, that effective solutions will be found for the large-scale multi-
disciplinary problems in structural engineering of the twenty-first century.

1.3 WHAT IS A FINITE ELEMENT?

A finite element can be visualized as a small portion of a continuum (in this
book a solid or a structure). The word “finite” distinguishes such a portion
from the “infinitesimal” elements of differential calculus. The geometry of
the continuum is considered to be formed by the assembly of a collection
of non-overlapping domains with simple geometry termed finite elements.
Triangles and quadrilaterals in two dimensions (2D) or tetrahedra and
hexahedra in three dimensions (3D) are typically chosen to represent the
“elements”. It is usually said that a “mesh” of finite elements “discretizes”
the continuum (Figure 1.1). The space variation of the problem parameters
(i.e. the displacements in a structure) is expressed within each element by
means of a polynomial expansion. Since the “exact” analytical variation of
such parameters is more complex and generally unknown, the FEM only
provides an approximation to the exact solution.

1.4 STRUCTURAL MODELLING AND FEM ANALYSIS

1.4.1 Classification of the problem
The first step in the solution of a problem is the identification of the pro-
blem itself. Hence, before we can analyze a structure we must ask ourselves
the following questions: Which are the more relevant physical phenomena
influencing the structure? Is the problem of static or dynamic nature?
Are the kinematics or the material properties linear or non-linear? Which
are the key results requested? What is the level of accuracy sought? The
answers to these questions are essential for selecting a structural model
and the adequate computational method.

1.4.2 Conceptual, structural and computational models

Computational methods, such as the FEM, are applied to conceptual mo-
dels of a real problem, and not to the actual problem itself. Even experi-
mental methods in structural laboratories make use of scale reproductions
of the conceptual model chosen (also called physical models) unless the
4 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

Fig. 1.1 Discretization of different solids and structures with finite elements
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 5

actual structure is tested in real size, which rarely occurs. A conceptual

model can be developed once the physical nature of a problem is clearly
understood. In the derivation of a conceptual model we should aim to
exclude superfluous details and include all the relevant features of the
problem under consideration so that the model can describe reality with
enough accuracy.
A conceptual model for the study of a structure should include all the
data necessary for its representation and analysis. Clearly different persons
will have different perceptions of reality and, consequently, the conceptual
model for the same structure can take a variety of forms.
After selecting a conceptual model of a structure, the next step for the
numerical (and analytical) study is the definition of a structural model
(sometimes called mathematical model).
A structural model must include three fundamental aspects. The geo-
metric description of the structure by means of its geometrical compo-
nents (points, lines, surfaces, volumes), the mathematical expression of
the basic physical laws governing the behaviour of the structure (i.e. the
force-equilibrium equations and the boundary conditions) usually written
in terms of differential and/or integral equations and the specification of
the properties of the materials and of the loads acting on the structure.
Clearly the same conceptual model of a structure can be analyzed using
different structural models depending on the accuracy and/or simplicity
sought in the analysis. As an example, a beam can be modelled using the
general 3D elasticity theory, the 2D plane stress theory or the simpler
beam theory. Each structural model provides a different set out for the
analysis of the actual structure. We should bear in mind that a solution
found by starting from an incorrect conceptual or structural model will be
a wrong solution, far from correct physical values, even if obtained with
the most accurate numerical method.
The next step in the structural analysis sequence is the definition of
a numerical method, such as the FEM. The application of the FEM in-
variably requires its implementation in a computer code. The analysis of
a structure with the FEM implies feeding the code with quantitative in-
formation on the mechanical properties of the materials, the boundary
conditions and the applied loads (the physical parameters) as well as the
features of the discretization chosen (i.e. element type, mesh size, etc).
The outcome of this process is what we call a computational model for the
analysis of a structure (Figure 1.2).
6 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

Fig. 1.2 The path from the real structure to the computational model

In this book we will study the application of the FEM to a number

of structural models covering most structures found in the engineering
practice. The material properties will be considered to be linear elastic.
Furthermore the analysis will be restricted to linear kinematics and to
static loading. The structures are therefore analyzed under linear static
conditions
conditions. Despite their simplicity, these assumptions are applicable to
most of the situations found in the everyday practice of structural analysis
and design.
The structural models considered in this book are classified as solid
models (2D/3D solids and axisymmetric solids), beam and plate models
and shell models (faceted shells, axisymmetric shells and curved shells).
Figure 1.3 shows the general features of a typical member of each struc-
tural model family. The structures that can be analyzed with these models
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 7

Fig. 1.3 Structural models for some structures

include frames, buildings, slabs, foundations, retaining walls, dams, tun-

nels, bridges, cylindrical tanks, shell roofs, ship hulls, mechanical parts,
airplane fuselages, vehicle components, etc.
Volume 1 of this book studies structures that can be analyzed using
solid finite element models. The finite element analysis of beam, plate and
shell structures is covered in Volume 2 [On].
8 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

1.4.3 Structural analysis by the FEM

The geometry of a structure is discretized when it is split into a mesh of
finite elements of a certain accuracy. Clearly the discretization introduces
another approximation. With respect to reality we have therefore two error
sources from the outset: the modelling error and the discretization error.
The former can be reduced by improving the conceptual and structural
models which describe the actual behaviour of the structure, as previously
explained. The discretization error, on the other hand, can be reduced by
using a finer mesh (i.e. more elements), or else by increasing the accuracy
of the finite elements chosen using higher order polynomial expansions for
approximating the displacement field within each element.
Additionally, the use of computers introduces numerical errors asso-
ciated with their ability to represent data accurately with numbers of
finite precision. The numerical error is usually small, although it can be
large in some problems, such as when some parts of the structure have
very different physical properties. The sum of discretization and numerical
errors contribute to the error of the computational model. Note that even
if we could reduce the computational error to zero, we would not be able
to reproduce accurately the actual behaviour of the structure, unless the
conceptual and structural models were perfect.
Figure 1.4 shows schematically the discretization of some geometrical
models of structures using finite elements. Figure 1.5 shows the actual
image of a car panel, the geometrical definition of the panel surface by
means of NURBS (non-uniform rational B-splines) patches [PT] using
computer-aided design (CAD) tools (see Chapter 10), the discretization
of the surface by a mesh of 3-noded shell triangles and some numerical
results of the FEM analysis. The differences between the real structure
of the panel, the geometrical description and the analysis mesh can be
seen clearly. A similar example of the FEM analysis of an office building
is shown in Figure 1.6.

1.4.4 Verification and validation of FEM results

Developers of structural finite element computer codes, analysts who use
the codes and decision makers who rely on the results of the analysis face
a critical question: How should confidence in modelling and computation
be critically assessed? Validation and verification of FEM results are the
primary methods for building and quantifying this confidence. In essence,
validation is the assessment of the accuracy of the structural and compu-
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 9

Fig. 1.4 Discretization of structural models into finite elements

tational models by comparison of the numerical results with experimental

data. Experiments are usually performed in laboratory using scale models
10 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

Fig. 1.5 (a) Actual geometry of an automotive panel. (b) CAD geometrical des-
cription by NURBS patches. (c) Finite element mesh of 3-noded shell triangles
discretizing the panel geometry. (d) FEM numerical results of the structural ana-
lysis showing the equivalent strain distribution. Images by courtesy of Quantech
ATZ S.A., www.quantech.es

of a structure, and in special occasions on actual structures. The correct

definition of the experimental tests and the reliability of the experimental
results are crucial issues in the validation process.
Verification, on the other hand, is the process of determining that
a computational model accurately represents the underlying structural
model and its solution. In verification, therefore, the relationship between
the numerical results to the real world is not an issue. The verification of
FEM computations is made by comparing the numerical results for sim-
ple benchmark problems with “exact” solutions obtained analytically, or
using more accurate numerical methods. Figure 1.7 shows an scheme of
the verification and validation steps [ASME,Sch].
A careful examination of the verification process indicates that there
are two fundamental parts of verification: 1) code verification, in order
to establish confidence that the mathematical model and the solution al-
gorithms are working correctly, and 2) calculation verification aiming to
establish confidence that the discrete solution of the mathematical model
is accurate.
Among the code verification techniques, the most popular one is to
compare code outputs with analytical solutions. As the number of such
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 11

Fig. 1.6 FEM analysis of the Agbar tower (Barcelona). Actual structure and dis-
cretization into shell and 3D beam elements. Deformed mesh (amplified) under
wind load. Images are courtesy of Compass Ingenierı́a y Sistemas SA,
www.compassis.com and Robert Brufau i Associats, S.A. www.robertbrufau.com

solutions is very limited, a code verification procedure with the potential

to greatly expand is the use of manufactured solutions.
The basic concept of a manufactured solution is simple. Given a partial
differential equation (PDE) and a code that provides general solutions of
that PDE, an arbitrary solution to the PDE is manufactured, i.e. made
up, then substituted into the PDE along with associated boundary condi-
tions, also manufactured. The result is a forcing function (right-hand side)
that exactly reproduces the originally selected manufactured solution. The
code is then subjected to this forcing function and the numerical results
12 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

Fig. 1.7 Scheme of the verification and validation processes in the FEM. Flowchart
concept taken from [ASME,Sch] and reprinted by permission of the American
Society of Mechanical Engineering (ASME)

compared with the manufactured solution. If the code has no errors the
two solutions should agree [Sch].
As an illustration of a manufactured solution, let us consider the ordi-
nary differential equations for an Euler-Bernouilli beam of length L with
a constant cross section (Chapter 1 of Volume 2 [On] and [Ti])

d4 w
EI = f (x)
dx4
where w is the beam deflection, E and I are the Young modulus and the
inertia of the beam cross section, respectively and f (x) is a uniformly
 Structural modelling and FEM analysis 13

distributed loading. The following manufactured solution is assumed

αx
w(x) = A sin + Bex/L + C
L
where the four constants A, α, B and C are determined from the boun-
dary conditions. Substitution of the manufactured solution into the beam
equation results in the following expression for the loading term
· ³ ´ ¸
α 4 αx B x/L
f (x) = EI A sin + 4e
L L L
This loading function would be prescribed as input data to the discrete
beam finite element code and the code’s solution for w(x) is then compared
with the selected manufactured solution.
Code verification is only half of the verification effort. The other half
is the calculation verification, or, in other words, estimating the error in
the numerical solution due to discretization. These errors can be appraised
using error estimation techniques (Chapter 9). A more accurate numerical
solution can be found with a finer discretization or by using higher order
elements.
The subsequent validation step (Figure 1.7) has the goal of assessing
the predictive capability of the model. This assessment is made by com-
paring the numerical results with validation experiments performed on
physical models in laboratory or in real structures. If these comparisons
are satisfactory, the model is deemed validated for its intended use. In
summary, the validation exercise provides insight on the capacity of the
overall structural model to reproduce the behaviour of a real structure (or
the physical model chosen) with enough precision. Although both the ac-
curacy of the structural model and the computational method are assessed
in a validation process, a large validation error for an already verified code
typically means that the structural model chosen is not adequate and that
a better structural model should be used.
In conclusion, verification serves to check that we are solving structural
problems accurately, while validation tell us that we are solving the right
problem. Simply put, if the model passes the tests in the verification and
validation plan, then it can be used to make the desired predictions with
confidence. More details on the issue of verification and validation of the
FEM in solid mechanics can be found in [ASME,Ro,Sch].
In the following sections we will revisit the basic concepts of the matrix
analysis of bar structures, considered here as a particular class of the so-
called discrete systems. Then we will summarize the general steps in the
14 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

Fig. 1.8 Some discrete systems. Elements and joint points (nodes)

analysis of “continuous” structures by the FEM. The interest of classical

matrix structural analysis is that it provides a general solution framework
which reassembles very closely that followed in the FEM.

1.5 DISCRETE SYSTEMS. BAR STRUCTURES

The solution of many technical problems requires the analysis of a network
system formed by different “elements”connected by their extremities or
joints, and subjected to a set of “loads” which are usually external to the
system. Examples of such systems, which we will call discrete systems,
are common in structural engineering (pin-jointed bar structures, frames,
grillages, etc.) and in many other different engineering problems, e.g.:
hydraulic piping networks, electric networks, transport planning networks,
production organization systems (PERT, etc) amongst others. Figure 1.8
shows some of these discrete systems.
Discrete systems can be studied using matrix analysis procedures which
have a very close resemblance to the FEM. In Appendix A the basic con-
cepts of matrix algebra are summarized. An outline of matrix analysis
techniques for bar structures and other discrete systems such as electric
and hydraulic networks is presented in the next section.

1.5.1 Basic concepts of matrix analysis of bar structures

Matrix analysis is the most popular technique for the solution of bar struc-
tures [Li,Pr]. Matrix analysis also provides a general methodology for the
application of the FEM to other structural problems. A good knowledge
of matrix analysis is essential for the study of this book.
 Discrete systems. Bar structures 15

Fig. 1.9 Deformation of a bar subjected to axial end forces. Number in brackets
at joints denotes global joint number

The matrix equations for a bar structure are obtained from the equa-
tions expressing the equilibrium of forces for each bar and for the structure
as a whole. Let us consider an isolated bar, e, of length l(e) subjected to
(e) (e)
axial forces Fx1 and Fx2 acting at the beam joints (Figure 1.9). The x
axis has the direction of the bar. Strength of Materials defines the strain
at any point in the bar by the relative elongation [Ti], i.e.
(e) (e)
∆l(e) u −u
ε= (e)
= 2 (e) 1 (1.1)
l l
(e) (e)
where u1 and u2 are the displacements of the joint points 1 and 2 in
the x direction, respectively. In Eq.(1.1) and the following the superindex
e denotes values associated to an individual bar. Generally indexes 1 and
2 are local joint numbers for the bar and correspond to the actual global
(e) (e)
numbers i, j of the joints in the structure. Hence u1 = ui and u2 = uj
(Figure 1.9 and Example 1.1).
The axial stress σ is related to the strain ε by Hooke law [Ti] as
(e) (e)
u −u
σ = Eε = E 2 (e) 1 (1.2)
l
where E is the Young modulus of the material. The axial force N at each
section is obtained by integrating the stress over the cross sectional area.
The axial force N is transmitted to the adjacent bars through the joints.
For homogeneous material we have (Figure 1.9)
(e) (e)
(e) u2 − u1 (e)
N2 = A(e) σ = (EA)(e) = N1 (1.3)
l(e)
The force equilibrium equation for the bar of Figure 1.9 is simply
Fx(e)
1
+ Fx(e)
2
=0 (1.4a)
16 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

(ltx )(e) (e) (e)

Fx(e) + = k(e) (u1 − u2 )
1
2
µ ¶(e)
(ltx )(e) (e) (e) EA
Fx(e) + = k(e) (u2 − u1 ) , k (e) =
2
2 l
Fig. 1.10 Equilibrium equations for a bar subjected to axial joint forces and a
(e)
uniformly distributed axial load tx

with (e) (e)

(e) (e) u2 −u1 (e) (e)
Fx2 = N2 = (EA)(e) l(e)
= k (e) (u2 − u1 )
and (1.4b)
(e) (e) (e) (e) (e)
Fx1 = −Fx2 = k (e) (u1 − u2 ) = −N1
¡ ¢(e)
where k (e) = EA l . Eqs.(1.4b) can be written in matrix form as
( ) · ¸ ( (e) )
(e)
(e) Fx1 (e) 1 −1 u1
q = (e) =k (e) = K(e) a(e) (1.5a)
Fx2 −1 1 u2

where · ¸
(e) (e) 1 −1
K =k (1.5b)
−1 1
is the stiffness matrix of the bar, which depends on the geometry of the
(e) (e)
bar (l(e) , A(e) ) and its mechanical properties (E (e) ) only; a(e) = [u1 , u2 ]T
(e) (e)
and q(e) = [Fx1 , Fx2 ]T are the joint displacement vector and the joint
equilibrating force vector for the bar, respectively.
(e)
A uniformly distributed external axial load of intensity tx can easily
be taken into account by adding one half of the total external load to
each axial force at the bar joints. The equilibrium equations now read
(Figure 1.10)
( ) · ¸ ( (e) ) ½ ¾
(e)
(e) Fx1 (e) 1 −1 u1 (ltx )(e) 1
q = (e) =k (e) − = K(e) a(e) − f (e)
Fx2 −1 1 u2 2 1
(1.6a)
where  
fx(e)  (lt )(e) ½ ¾
(e) 1 x 1
f = = (1.6b)
f (e)  2 1
x2
 Discrete systems. Bar structures 17

(1) (2)
Px2 − Fx(1)
2
− Fx(2)
1
=0 , or Fx2 + Fx1 = Px2

(1) (2)
Fig. 1.11 Equilibrium of axial forces Fx2 and Fx1 and external force Px2 at joint 2
connecting bars 1 and 2. Number in brackets at joint denotes global joint number

is the vector of forces at the beam joints due to the distributed loading.
The equilibrium equations for the whole structure are obtained by im-
posing the equilibrium of axial and external forces at each of the N joints.
This condition can be written as [Li,Pr]
ne
X
Fx(e)
i
= Pxj , j = 1, N (1.7)
e=1

The sum on the left hand side (l.h.s.) of Eq.(1.7) extends over all bars
ne sharing the joint with global number j and Pxj represents the external
(e)
point load acting at that joint (Figure 1.11). The joint forces Fxi for each
bar are expressed in terms of the joint displacements using Eq.(1.6). This
process leads to the system of global equilibrium equations. In matrix form
    
K11 K12 · · · · · · K1N  u1   f1 
   f2 
 K21 K22 · · · · · · K2N  u2
 ..  .. = ..
.  . 
   .  
KN 1 KN 2 · · · · · · KN N uN fN
or
Ka = f (1.8a)
where K is the global stiffness matrix of the structure and a and f are
the global joint displacement vector and the global joint force vector,
respectively. The derivation of Eq.(1.8a) is termed the assembly process.
Solution of Eq.(1.8a) yields the displacements at all joint points from
which the value of the axial force in each bar can be computed as
(e) (e)
u2 − u1
N (e) = (EA)(e) (1.8b)
l(e)
The axial forces at the joints can be computed from Eqs.(1.4b) and
(1.6a) as ( )
(e)
−N1
q(e) = (e) = K(e) a(e) − f (e) (1.9)
N2
18 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

(e) (e)
Note that N2 = −N1 = N (e) .
The components of q(e) can therefore be interpreted as the joint equi-
librating forces for each bar necessary for imposing global equilibrium of
forces at the joints (Eq.(1.6a)), or as the axial forces at the bar joints
(Eq.(1.9)) which are useful for design purposes. This coincidence will be
exploited later in the book for computing the resultant stresses at each
node for bar and beam finite elements by expressions similar to Eq.(1.9).
The assembled expression for vector q(e) yields the reactions at the
nodes with constrained displacements. The vector of nodal reactions can
be computed from the global stiffness equations as

r = q = Ka − f ext (1.10a)

where r contains the reactions at the constrained nodes and f ext contains
global joint forces due to external loads only. Clearly the sum of the re-
actions and the external joint forces gives the global joint force vector f,
i.e.
f = f ext + r (1.10b)

1.5.2 Analogy with the matrix analysis of other discrete systems

The steps between Eqs.(1.1) and (1.8) are very similar for many discrete
systems. For instance, the study of a single resistance element 1-2 in an
electric network (Figure 1.12a) yields the following relationship between
the currents entering the resistance element and the voltages at the end
points of the resistance (Ohm law)

(e) (e) 1 (e) (e) (e) (e)

I1 = −I2 = (e)
(V1 − V2 ) = k (e) (V1 − V2 ) (1.11a)
R

This equation is identical to Eq.(1.4) for the bar element if the current
intensities and the voltages are replaced by the joint forces and the joint
¡ ¢(e)
displacements, respectively, and 1/R(e) by EA l . Indeed, if uniformly
(e)
distributed external currents tx are supplied along the length of the ele-
ment, the force term f (e) of Eq.(1.6a) is found. The “assembly rule” is the
well known Kirchhoff law stating that the sum of all the current intensities
arriving at a joint must be equal to zero, i.e.
ne
X (e)
Ii = Ij , j = 1, N (1.11b)
e=1
 Discrete systems. Bar structures 19

Fig. 1.12 a) Electrical resistance, b) Fluid carrying pipe. Equations of equilibrium

where Ii is the external current intensity entering joint i and N is the

total number of joints. Note the analogy between Eqs.(1.11b) and (1.7).
The same analogy can be found for fluid carrying pipe networks. The
equilibrium equation relating fluid flow q and hydraulic head h at the ends
of a single pipe element can be written as (Figure 1.12b)
(e) (e) (e) (e)
q1 = −q2 = k (e) (h1 − h2 ) (1.12a)

where k (e) is a parameter which is a function of the pipe roughness and

the hydraulic head. This implies that the terms of the stiffness matrix
(e)
K(e) for a pipe element are known functions of the joint heads hi . The
equilibrium equation for each pipe element is written as in Eq.(1.6) where
(e) (e) (e) (e) (e)
ui and Fxi are replaced by hi and qi , respectively and tx represents
the input of a uniformly distributed flow source along the pipe length.
The assembly rule simply states that at each of the N pipe joints the
sum of the flow contributed by the adjacent pipe elements should equal
the external flow source, i.e.
ne
X (e)
qi = qj , j = 1, N (1.12b)
e=1

The global equilibrium equations are assembled similarly as for the bar
element yielding the system of Eqs.(1.8a). In the general problem matrix K
will be a function of the nodal hydraulic head via the k (e) parameter. Ite-
rative techniques for solving the resulting non-linear system of equations
are needed in this case.
20 Introduction to the finite element method for structural analysis

1.5.3 Basic steps for matrix analysis of discrete systems

What we have seen this far leads us to conclude that the analysis of a
discrete system (i.e. a bar structure) involves the following steps:
a) Definition of a network of discrete elements (bars) connected among
themselves by joints adequately numbered. Each element e has known
geometrical and mechanical properties. All these characteristics con-
stitute the problem data and should be defined in the simplest possible
way (preprocessing step).
b) Computation of the stiffness matrix K(e) and the joint force vector
f (e) for each element of the system.
c) Assembly and solution of the resulting global matrix equilibrium equa-
tion (Ka = f ) to compute the unknown parameters at each joint, i.e.
the displacements for the bar system.
d) Computation of other relevant parameters for each element, i.e. the
axial strain and the axial force, in terms of the joint parameters.
The results of the analysis should be presented in graphical form to fa-
cilitate the assessment of the system’s performance (postprocessing step).

Example 1.1: Compute the displacements and axial forces in the three-bar
structure of Figure 1.13 subjected to an horizontal force P acting at its
right hand end.

Fig. 1.13 Analysis of a simple three-bar structure under an axial load

- Solution
The equilibrium equations for each joint are (see Eq.(1.5a))
(
(1)
) · ¸ ( (1) )
Fx1 (1) 1 −1 u1
Bar 1 =k
(1)
Fx2 −1 1 (1)
u2
 Discrete systems. Bar structures 21

( ) · ¸ ( (2) )
(2)
Fx1 (2) 1 −1 u1
Bar 2 =k
(2)
Fx2 −1 1 u
(2)
2
( ) · ¸ ( (3) )
(3)
Fx1 (3) 1 −1 u1
Bar 3 =k
(3)
Fx2 −1 1 (3)
u2

with k (1) = k (2) = EA

l and k
(3)
= 2EA
l .
The compatibility equations between local and global displacements are
(1) (1) (2)
u1 = u1 ; u 2 = u3 ; u 1 = u2
(2) (3) (3)
u2 = u3 ; u 1 = u3 ; u 2 = u4
Applying the assembly equation (1.7) to each of the four joints we have

3
X 3
X
joint 1: Fx(1)
i
= −R1 , joint 2: Fx(1)
i
= −R2
e=1 e=1
3
X 3
X
joint 3: Fx(1)
i
=0 , joint 4: Fx(1)
i
=P
e=1 e=1
(e)
Substituting the values of Fxi from the bar equilibrium equations gives
(1) (1) (2) (2)
joint 1 : k (1) (u1 − u2 ) = −R1 , joint 2 : k (2) (u1 − u2 ) = −R2
(1) (1) (2) (2) (3) (3)
joint 3 : k (1) (−u1 + u2 ) + k (2) (−u1 + u2 ) + k (3) (u1 + u2 ) = 0
(3) (1)
joint 4 : k (3) (−u1 + u2 ) = P

Above equations can be written in matrix form using the displacement com-
patibility conditions as

1 2 3 4
 (1)
 (1)    
1 k 0 −k 0  u −R1 
 1   
2 0 k (2) −k (2) 0   u2 −R2
=
3 −k −k (k + k (2) + k (3) ) −k (3) 
(1) (2) (1)
u3 
    0  
4 0 0 −k (3) k (3) u4 P

Note that an external point load acting at node j can be placed directly in
the jth position of the global joint force vector f .
Substituting the values of k (e) for each bar and imposing the boundary con-
ditions u1 = u2 = 0, the previous system can be solved to give

Pl Pl P
u3 = ; u4 = ; R 1 = R2 =
2EA EA 2
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Valentina impallidì, un doloroso sospiro le sfuggì dal petto, e lagrime
non meno pungenti per essere silenziose scorsero sulle sue guance;
la sua felicità le costava ben cara! Morrel guardò intorno a sè con
inquietudine: — Ma, diss’egli, in verità il conte esagera la sua
generosità; Valentina si contenterà della mia modesta fortuna. Dov’è
il conte, amico mio? conducetemi a lui.
Jacopo stese la mano verso l’orizzonte.
— Che! che volete dire? domandò Valentina; dov’è il conte? dov’è
Haydée?
— Guardate, disse Jacopo. — Gli occhi dei due giovani si fissarono
sulla linea indicata dal marinaro; e sulla linea di un blu cupo che
separava all’orizzonte il cielo dal Mediterraneo, si scoperse una
bianca vela, grande come l’ala di un gabbiano.
— Partito! gridò Morrel; partito! Addio, amico mio, addio padre mio.
— Partita! mormorò Valentina. Addio, amica mia! addio sorella mia!
— Chi sa se li rivedremo mai più? disse Morrel asciugandosi una
lagrima.
— Amico mio, disse Valentina, il conte non ci ha egli lasciato scritto
che l’umana saggezza tutta intera sta riposta in queste due parole:
Aspettare e sperare?

FINE.
 INDICE

Capitolo Pag.
I. Marsiglia — L’arrivo 1
II. Il padre ed il figlio 5
III. I Catalani 8
IV. Il complotto 13
V. Il pranzo degli sponsali 16
VI. Il sostituto del procuratore del Re 22
VII. L’interrogatorio 27
VIII. Il castello d’If 32
IX. La sera degli sponsali 38
X. Il piccolo gabinetto delle Tuglierie 41
XI. Il lupo di Corsica 43
XII. Il padre ed il figlio 46
XIII. I Cento Giorni 50
XIV. Il prigioniero furioso ed il prigioniero
pazzo 54
XV. Il numero 34 ed il numero 27 59
XVI. Lo scienziato 67
XVII. La camera dello scienziato 71
XVIII. Il tesoro 80
XIX. Il terzo accesso 85
XX. Il cimitero del castello d’If 89
XXI. L’isola di Tiboulen 92
XXII. I contrabbandieri 98
XXIII. L’isola di Monte-Cristo 101
 XXIV. L’abbagliamento 105
XXV. Lo sconosciuto 109
XXVI. L’albergo del ponte di Gard 112
XXVII. Il racconto 119
XXVIII. I registri delle prigioni 124
XXIX. La casa Morrel 127
XXX. Il 5 settembre 134
XXXI. Italia — Sindbad il marinaro 141
XXXII. Risvegliamento 152
XXXIII. I briganti 155
XXXIV. Le apparizioni 167
XXXV. Il patibolo 177
XXXVI. Il Carnevale di Roma 184
XXXVII. Le catacombe di San Sebastiano 193
XXXVIII. Il convegno 201
XXXIX. La colazione 204
XL. La presentazione 220
XLI. Bertuccio 226
XLII. La casa d’Auteuil 228
XLIII. La vendetta 232
XLIV. La pioggia di sangue 242
XLV. Il credito illimitato 248
XLVI. La pariglia grigio-pomellata 253
XLVII. Ideologia 259
XLVIII. Haydée 264
IL. La famiglia Morrel 265
L. Piramo e Tisbe 270
LI. Tossicologia 275
LII. Roberto il diavolo 282
LIII. Alto e basso dei fondi 289
LIV. Il maggiore Cavalcanti 294
LV. Andrea Cavalcanti 298
LVI. Il recinto a trifoglio 303
 LVII. Il signor Noirtier de Villefort 308
LVIII. Il testamento 312
LIX. Il telegrafo 315
LX. Mezzo di liberare un giardiniere dai
ghiri che gli mangiano le pesche 320
LXI. I fantasmi 324
LXII. Il pranzo 328
LXIII. Il mendico 333
LXIV. Scena coniugale 338
LXV. Disegni di matrimonio 342
LXVI. Il gabinetto del procurator del Re 347
LXVII. Un ballo in estate 352
LXVIII. Le informazioni 355
LXIX. La festa di ballo 359
LXX. Il pane ed il sale 363
LXXI. La signora di Saint-Méran 365
LXXII. La promessa 370
LXXIII. La tomba della famiglia Villefort 383
LXXIV. Processo verbale 388
LXXV. I progressi del sig. Cavalcanti figlio 394
LXXVI. Haydée 399
LXXVII. Ci scrivono da Giannina 408
LXXVIII. La limonata 416
LXXIX. L’accusa 421
LXXX. La camera del fornaio in ritiro 424
LXXXI. La rottura 432
LXXXII. La mano di Dio 438
LXXXIII. Beauchamp 441
LXXXIV. Il viaggio 444
LXXXV. Il giudizio 450
LXXXVI. La provocazione 456
LXXXVII. L’insulto 459
LXXXVIII. La notte 464
LXXXIX. L’incontro 468
XC. La madre ed il figlio 473
XCI. Il suicidio 476
XCII. Valentina 481
XCIII. La confessione 484
XCIV. Il padre e la figlia 490
XCV. Il contratto 494
XCVI. La strada del Belgio 500
XCVII. L’albergo della Campana e della
Bottiglia 504
XCVIII. La legge 508
IC. L’apparizione 513
C. Locusta 517
CI. Valentina 519
CII. Massimiliano 522
CIII. La firma di Danglars 527
CIV. Il cimitero del Padre Lachaise 532
CV. La divisione 538
CVI. La fossa dei leoni 546
CVII. Il giudice 549
CVIII. Le Assise 554
CIX. L’atto d’accusa 557
CX. L’espiazione 560
CXI. La partenza 564
CXII. La casa dei viali di Meillan 567
CXIII. Il passato 570
CXIV. Peppino 576
CXV. La carta di Luigi Vampa 582
CXVI. Il perdono 585
CXVII. Il cinque ottobre 587
 NOTE:

1. Monte-Cristo, piccola isola del mar Tirreno sulla costa occidentale del
Granducato di Toscana vicino a Gianuti a 14 leghe dalla provincia di
Siena da cui dipende, e a 10 leghe Sud dall’isola d’Elba. Lat. Nord 42°
20′ 26″ long. E. 7° 57′ 55″, anticamente detta Oglaia. (Nota del Trad.
Napol.)

2. Ognun sa che in Italia, forse più che altrove, le donne non solo del
mezzo ceto, ma anche del ceto infimo ricevono o per mezzo di istituti
particolari, o per mezzo degli Asili Infantili, quella decente educazione
scevra da ogni caricatura che può giungere a formare delle oneste mogli
ed eccellenti madri di famiglia. Questa è cosa ormai tanto conosciuta
che l’asserzione del sig. Dumas ha ben poca figura in confronto ai
continui elogi, che uomini di merito e coscienziosi, tanto Italiani che
esteri, elargiscono a quella non piccola classe di persone di ambo i sessi
che in Italia si occupa per l’incremento dell’educazione, in ispecie delle
donne. (T.)

3. Io credo ora ai banditi Italiani.

4. I francesi chiamano baignoire alcuni palchi del piano terreno, che sono
chiusi sul davanti da un graticcio; genere di palchi poco morale, ma tutto
proprio del teatro francese. (T.)
 Nota del Trascrittore

L'ortografia originale è stata mantenuta, correggendo

senza annotazione minimi errori tipografici (soprattutto
incoerenze nei nomi dei personaggi, le cui diverse
varianti sono state riportate alla stessa grafia). È stato
necessario apportare numerose correzioni alla
punteggiatura, in particolare nei dialoghi, per rendere più
comprensibile il testo.
Per comodità di lettura un indice è stato creato a fine
volume.
Copertina creata dal trascrittore e posta nel pubblico
dominio.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK IL CONTE DI
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