Department of Mechanical Engineering

Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing

Computer Aided Design

➢ FUNDAMENTALS OF CAD

INTRODUCTION

The computer has grown to become essential in the operations of business, government, the military,
engineering, and research.
It has also demonstrated itself, especially in recent years, to be a very powerful tool in design and
manufacturing. In this and the following two chapters, we consider the application of computer
technology to the design of a product. This section provides an overview of computer-aided design.
The CAD system defined
As defined in previous section, computer-aided design involves any type of design activity which makes
use of the computer to develop, analyze, or modify an engineering design. Modem CAD systems (also
often called CAD/CAM systems) are based on interactive computer graphics (ICG).Interactive computer
graphics denotes a user-oriented system in which the computer is employed to create, transform, and
display data in the form of pictures or symbols. The user in the computer graphics design system is the
designer, who communicates data and commands to the computer through any of several input devices.
The computer communicates with the user via a cathode ray tube (CRT). The designer creates an image
on the CRT screen by entering commands to call the desired software sub-routines stored in the
computer. In most systems, the image is 11 constructed out of basic geometric elements- points, lines,
circles, and so on. It can be modified according to the commands of the designer- enlarged, reduced in
size, moved to another location on the screen, rotated, and other transformations. Through these various
manipulations, the required details of the image are formulated.
The typical ICG system is a combination of hardware and software. The hardware includes a central
processing unit, one or more workstations (including the graphics display terminals), and peripheral
devices such as printers. Plotters, and drafting equipment. Some of this hardware is shown in Figure.
The software consists of the computer programs needed to implement graphics processing on the
system. The software would also typically include additional specialized application programs to
accomplish the particular engineering functions required by the user company.
It is important to note the fact that the ICG system is one component of a computer-aided design system.
As illustrated in Figure, the other major component is the human designer. Interactive computer graphics
is a tool used by the designer to solve a design problem. In effect, the ICG system magnifies the powers
of the designer. This bas been referred to as the synergistic effect. The designer performs the portion of
the design process that is most suitable to human intellectual skills (conceptualization, independent
thinking); the computer performs the task: best suited to its capabilities (speed of calculations, visual
display, storage of large 8IWWIts of data), and the resulting system exceeds the sum of its components.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

There are several fundamental reasons for implementing a computer-aided design system.
l. To increase the productivity of the designer. This is accomplished by helping the designer to the
product and its component subassemblies and parts; and by reducing the time required in synthesizing,
analyzing, and documenting the design. This productivity improvement translates not only into lower
design cost but also into shorter project completion times.
2. To improve the quality of design. A CAD system permits a more thorough engineering analysis and a
larger number of design alternatives can be investigated. Design errors are also reduced through the
greater accuracy provided by the system. These factors lead to a better design.
3. To improve communications. Use of a CAD system provides better engineering drawings, more
standardization in the drawings, better documentation of the design, fewer drawing errors and greater
legibility.
4. To create a database for manufacturing. In the process of creating the documentation for the product
design (geometries and dimensions of the product and its components, material specifications for
components, bill of materials, etc.), much of the required database to manufacture the product is also
created.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
Before examining the several facets of computer-aided design, let us first consider the general design
process. The process of designing something is characterized by Shigley as an iterative procedure, which
consists of six identifiable steps or phases:-
l. Recognition of need
2. Definition of problem
3. Synthesis
4. Analysis and optimization
5. Evaluation
6. Presentation

Recognition of need involves the realization by someone that a problem exists for which some corrective
action should be taken. This might be the identification of some defect in a current machine design by an
engineer or the perception of a new product marketing opportunity by a salesperson. Definition of the
problem involves a thorough specification of the item to be designed. This specification includes
physical and functional characteristics, cost, quality, and operating performance.
Synthesis and analysis are closely related and highly interactive in the design process. A certain
component or subsystem of the overall system is conceptualized by the designer, subjected to analysis,
improved through this analysis procedure, and redesigned. The process is repeated until the design has
been optimized within the constraints imposed on the designer. The components and subsystems are
synthesized into the final overall system in a similar interactive manner.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

The general design process as defined by Shigley.

Evaluation is concerned with measuring the design against the specifications established in the problem
definition phase. This evaluation often requires the fabrication and testing of a prototype model to assess
operating performance, quality, reliability, and other criteria. The final phase in the design process is the
presentation of the design. This includes documentation of the design by means of drawings, material
specifications, assembly lists, and so on. Essentially, the documentation requires that a design database
be created. Figure illustrates the basic steps in the design process, indicating its iterative nature.

1. CAD/CAM Technology:
The story of CAD/CAM was accelerated in early 1950s. Up to year 2012ithas
become one of the supreme technology available on Planet earth. It is being used in
almost all the fields of engineering but primarily in mechanical engineering branches.
The development in the field is still gaining speed.
• CAD Technology = Design Techniques + Computers.
• The CAD Process is the subset of the Design process.
• The CAM Process is a subset of Manufacturing Process.
• Integration of CAD and CAM leads to automation. ( as show below)
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

2. Computer Aided Design (CAD):

In general, a Computer Aided Design (CAD) package has three components: a) Design, b)
Analysis, and c) Visualization, as shown in the sketch. A brief description of these
components follows.
a) Design: Design refers to geometric modeling, i.e. 2-D and 3-D modeling, including, drafting, part
creation, creation of drawings with various views of the part, assemblies of the parts, etc.
b) Analysis: Analysis refers to finite element analysis, optimization, and other number crunching
engineering analyses. In general, a geometric model is first created and then the model is analyzed
for loads, stresses, moment of inertia, and volume, etc.
c) Visualization: Visualization refers to computer graphics, which includes: rendering a model,
creation of pie charts, contour plots, shading a model, sizing, animation, etc.

Each of these three areas has been extensively developed in the last 30 years.Several books are written
on each of these subjects and courses are available through the academic institutions and the industry.

Most commercial CAD packages (software) consist of only a single component: design or analysis or
visualization. However, a few of the vendors have developed an integrated package that includes not
only these three areas, but also includes the manufacturing software (CAM). Due to the large storage
requirement, integrated packages use either an UNIX workstation or a mainframe platform, and not
the popular PC platform. With the improvement in PC computing speed, it’s only a matter of time
before we see an integrated package run on a PC. CAD has revolutionized the modern engineering
practice; small and large companies use it alike, spending several billion dollars for the initial
purchase or lease alone. CAD related jobs are high in demand and the new graduates have advantage
over their senior colleagues, as they are more up to date and more productive.

3. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM):

CAM is the next stage of CAD. A part created in CAD can be downloaded and manufactured,
without a human hand touching the part. The process is called CAM, and involves CAD,
Networking, and NC programming, as shown below.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

4. Design Process:
The process of Design is segmented into Six Stages, details of which have been shown in
below figure .The design process is repetitive as well as creative. The repetitive tasks can be
performed by computers; however, the creative tasks (stages 1 and 2) are always done only on
the human being. Show in this figure.

Stage1: Recognizing the fact that there is a need for a new product for intended function. It
may also include the modification in the existing product.
Stage2: Problem is fully defined in terms of functionality and meeting other requirements
such as ergonomic, performance-data, statutory, etc.
Stage3: The design undergoes synthesis, joining its various elements.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

Stage4: Product analysis reveals the weaknesses and thus weaknesses can be considered for
improvement. This process is repeated until an acceptable Design achieved.
Stage5: The optimized Design is reviewed from the point of view of expected performance. It
can be done through proto-type modeling and testing against the set standard.

Stage6: Stages 4 and 5 are repeated until acceptable, optimized design is achieved. These
stages are basically iterative in-nature. Iteration depends on the creativeness, ingenuity (skill
for devising) and experience of designers and the software (tools) available. The process
(stage 1 and 2) are human dependent while the stages 3, 4, 5 and 6 (four stages) are computer
based (CAD).
i. Geometric modeling: - It implies the existence of a computer graphics screen and some
interaction with the computer to generate the geometry andtopology of the part.
ii. Engineering analysis: - Communicates with the data base to retrieve the part description
and with the user to obtain the design constraints,boundary conditions, and other details of
the analysis.
iii. Evaluation module: - Allows the user to check the correctness, manufacturability, and
processing details of the part.
iv. The drafting and documentation module: - Contains some of both theoldest and newest
technologies/Computer plotting of engineering drawings.
5. CAD Hardware:
There are basically two types of devices that constitute CAD hardware: a)Input devices, and b)
Output devices. A brief description follows.

CAD Platform:
In general, we can run CAD software on three different CADplatforms: Mainframe, Workstation,
and PC. When the CAD programs first became available, they could only be run on a mainframe
computer. However, as the PCs have become faster and cheaper, almost all the CAD vendors have
introduced a version of their CAD software that will effectively run on a Pentium or higher
computer. Currently, the most popular platforms are PCs and Workstations. Popularity of
Workstations stems from their ability to network easilywith other computers, and also, due to their
large memory storage capability. However, PC platform is still the most preferred medium for
most engineers. Increasing popularity of the PC platform can be attributed to several factors,
including, total user control, the speed, capability of storing large memory, ease of hardware
upgrading and maintenance, and the overall reasonable cost.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

Input Devices:
These are the devices that we use for communicating with computer, and providing our input
in the form of text and graphics. The text input is mainly provided through keyboard. For
graphic input, there are several devices available and used according to the work
environment.
A brief description of these devices is given here.
Mouse: This is a potentiometric device, which contains several variable resistors that send
signals to the computer. The functions of a mouse include locating a point on the screen,
sketching, dragging an object, entering values, accepting a software command, etc. Joystick
and trackballs are analogous to a mouse device, and operate on the same principle.
Digitizers: Digitizers are used to trace a sketch or other 2-D entities by moving a cursor over
a flat surface (which contains the sketch). The positionof the cursor provides a feedback to
the computer connected with the device.There are electrical wires embedded in orthogonal
directions that receiveand pass signals between the device and the computer. The device is
basically a free moving puck or pen shaped stylus, connected to a tablet.
Light Pens: Lockheed’s CADAM software utilized this device to carry out the graphic input.
A light pen looks like a pen and contains a photocell, which emits an electronic signal. When
the pen is pointed at the monitor screen, it senses light, which is converted to a signal. The
signal is sent to the computer, for determination of the exact location of the pen on the
monitor screen.
Touch Sensitive Screens: This device is embedded in the monitor screens, usually, in the
form of an overlay. The screen senses the physical contact of the user. The new generation of
the Laptop computers is a good example of this device.
Other Graphic Input Devices: In addition to the devices described above, some CAD
software will accept input via Image Scanners, which can copy adrawing or schematic with a
camera and light beam assembly and convert it into a pictorial database.
The devices just described are, in general, independent of the CADpackage being used.
All commercial CAD software packages contain the device drivers for the most commonly
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

used input devices. The device drivers facilitate a smooth interaction between our input,
the software, and the computer. An input device is evaluated on the basis of the
following factors:
• Resolution
• Repeatability
• Linearity
• Accuracy

Output Devices:
After creating a CAD model, we often need a hard copy, using an output device. Plotters and printers
are used for this purpose. A plotter is often used to produce large size drawings and assemblies,
whereas, a laser jet printer is adequate to provide a 3-D view of a model. Most CAD software
requires a plotter for producing a shaded or a rendered view.

6. CAD Software:
CAD software is written in FORTRAN and C languages. FORTRAN provides the
number crunching, whereas, C language provides the visual images. Early CAD packages
were turnkey systems, i.e., the CAD packages were sold as an integrated software and
hardware package, with no flexibility for using second vendor hardware (1970s and 80s).
These systems were based on 16-bit word, and were incapable of networking. The modern
CAD software utilizes the open architecture system, i.e., software vendors do not design and
manufacture their own hardware. Third party software can be used to augment the basic CAD
package. Most popular CAD package will facilitate integration of the Finite Element
Analysis and other CAD software from more than one vendor. For example, IDEAS
preprocessor can work with almost all the FEA packages for pre and post analyses.
Networking is an important consideration in applications of CAD software. A model
created by one engineer must be readily accessible to others in an organization, which is linked by a
LAN or other means. The designer, analyst, management, marketing, vendor, and others generally
share a model. This is the concurrent engineering in action, mentioned earlier.

7. CAD Evaluation Criteria:

In the current CAD market, ProE and AutoCAD are arguably the most dominating
CAD software. AutoCAD is basically a 2-D program, with some capability to create 3-D
models, whereas, ProE is a truly 3-D CAD package. Besides this software, there is several
other CAD software, listed in the previous section that has sales exceeding $100 millions. No
one CAD package is suitable for all the CAD users in the world. The product we are
designing dictates the type of CAD package we need. A good CAD package includes good
software, as well as, a compatible hardware.
 Unit-II Department of Mechanical Engineering
Computer Aided Design
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing

Following is a brief description of the general criteria for evaluating a CAD package.
i. Hardware: Most desirable features in a good hardware are:

• Open architecture
• High speed, large storage
• Compact size
• Inexpensive components
• Inexpensive upgrading

ii. Software: In general, the most comprehensive software are written to satisfy almost all the
modeling needs of a modeler, consequently, the software tend to be very complex and hard to
learn. To create a simple model, we go through several unnecessary steps, and lack the
intuitiveness of a simple, straightforward program. ProE is a good example, where we have to go
through several layers of menus to create a simple solid. On the other hand, if we were to use a
simpler CAD program, the same solid can be created by only a few simple commands. There are
several other factors that we should consider when evaluating software. Following is a brief
description of these factors.

a. Operating System: UNIX or Windows/NT. PCs in general use Microsoft Windows, whereas,
operating system for Workstations is Unix. For a large organization, Workstations are preferable.
b. User Interface: Most popular CAD software have menu driven commands, which is preferable to the
old system of non-menu driven, where user interface was completely by responding to software
commands. The most popular CAD programs work with menu driven interface, with some
input/action required through command prompts.
c. Documentation and Support: Learning software can be very difficult if the software lacks good
documentation. Documentation usually comes in the form of a user’s manual, a tutorial book, and
commands manual and on-line help. The recent trend is to provide access to the above-mentioned
documentation through the Internet, or provide the manuals on a CD ROM. Some CAD vendors
provide additional technical support help through phone – ProE is a very good example of this type of
support.
d. Maintenance: Cost of the hardware and software upgrades can significantly impact the small and
medium size companies’ decision to choose one software over the others. Most CAD vendors go
through an upgrade, on the average, every two years. Usually, hardware upgrade is not as frequent.
e. Modeling Capabilities: In, general, a CAD software can be classified as either a 2-D or a 3-D
program. If we were basically involved in 2-D drawings, any well established 2-D software, similar
to AutoCAD would suffice our needs. On the other hand, if we need to create 3-D models and
 Unit-II Department of Mechanical Engineering
Computer Aided Design
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing

assemblies, we will be better off with a 3-D molder – ProE, SOLIDWORKS, etc.
f. Ease of Modeling: As a rule-of-thumb, general, all-purpose type CAD software is much more
complex and difficult to learn than a special purpose CAD package.
g. Interface with other CAD Packages and Data Transferability: A CAD package is used to create
models that will be used for analysis, manufacturing, or some other applications. Therefore, CAD
software should be capable of transferring and accepting files from other CAD or CAM programs,
without this provision, the CAD program has only a very limited use.
h. Design Documentation: Besides creating a model, the software should be capable of creating
drawings, assemblies, dimensioning, various views (isometric, orthogonal, etc.), labels and attributes,
etc.

8. Mechanical Engineering Applications of CAD:

Following is a brief description of the applications of CAD in mechanical engineering.

• Two Dimensional Drafting: This is the most common use of a CAD package. 2-D drawings are used
for manufacturing a product.
• Report Generating: To generate reports and bill of materials. Spreadsheets and word-processors can
be linked to provide a report writing facility.
• 3-D Modeling: To create the wireframe, surface and solid models. The 3-D models are for concept
verification, manufacturing, FEA, etc.
• Finite Element Analysis: FEA package is used for pre-processing, analysis, and post-analysis of
structures. For this application, a CAD package contains both the modeling and analysis modules.
• Manufacturing: manufacturing software is usually called CAM, and contains CAD software as one
of the components. CAM software provides capabilities of carrying out 2 and 3-axes machining.

•
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg
Computer Aided Design Subject: Automation in Manufacturing

I. COMPUTER GRAPHICS
Computer graphics is the computer-to-user communication medium used in computer-aided
design and drafting systems. An object's definition is primarily geometric; it is convenient to be
able to display the geometry of the part on a computer screen or from any given viewing angle in
a variety of sizes. This section explains techniques for 2-D and3-D graphics and realistic image
generation
i. Interactive Graphics :- Interactive computer graphics is used in five differentareas: (1) to modify
the display, i.e., to change the view, type of projection, or object attributes and such as color, line
type line style, surface type, rotation angle (2) for data entry and data modification (3)In
command and monitoring
(4) for simulation and (5) for design.
ii. Graphics in CAD: - Every problem in computer graphics and, therefore, in has three major parts
an application, hardware and software.
a) An application: Is a; software program written by user writ specific purpose mind. One
application would computer-aided drafting. Another application maybe finite-element analysis or
circuit design. In any case, the application isspecific to the particular use intended for the graphics
system or for the computer-aided design system.

b) Hardware: Modern computer graphics displays are simple in construction.

They consist of basically three components.1-
Monitor
2- Digital Memory
3- Display Controller
Most of the computer graphics displays use CRT which is a matrix of discrete cells each of which
can be made bright. A graphic entity like line or circle is represented as a series of "points or dots" on
the screen.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Bhilai Institute of Technology, Durg
Computer Aided Design Subject: Automation in Manufacturing

c) Software: Includes the programs necessary to receive-graphical data and put the required
image on the screen. The image may be as simple as a 2-Dwireframe, or as complex as 3-D. The
graphics software in the program receives geometric primitives such as lines, points, and
surfaces and paints them on the screen or on the output device according to the object attributes.
The result of this three-step process (application, hardware, and software) is graphical output.

The layers of a CAD graphics program

iii. Two-Dimensional Graphics: - In order to draw 2-D images on the display, there must be at least
two functions or subroutines available in the basic graphics package. The first is a MOVE (X.Y)
subroutine, which moves the pen to an (x, y) location without drawing (with the pen up case of
the plotter, or the beam off in the case of a CRT). The second command is the LINE(X,Y)
subroutine, which moves the beam to an (x, y) location with the pen down, thus drawing a line.
Alternative specific instances of these commands appear in various graphics packages.

iv. Three-Dimensional Graphics: - In the case of three-dimensional graphics, a z coordinate is

added to all points. Rotations must deal with angles around thex, y, and z axes instead of just the
z axis. The following sections will discuss operations necessary to start with a three-
dimensionally fined object, place it in space in the correct location, and draw it on a two-
dimensional output device. The concepts involve three-dimensional transformations, perspective
and orthographic projections, viewing transforms, and window-to-viewport mapping, all in three
dimensions.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design

CREATING THE MANUFACTURING DATA BASE

Another important reason for using a CAD system is that it offers the opportunity to develop the
data base needed to manufacture the product. In the conventional manufacturing cycle practiced
for so many years in industry, engineering drawings were prepared by design draftsmen and then
used by manufacturing engineers to develop the process plan (i.e., the "route sheets"). The
activities involved in designing the product were separated from the activities associated with
process planning. Essentially, a two-step procedure was employed. This was both time consuming
and involved duplication of effort by design and manufacturing personnel. In an integrated
CAD/CAM system, a direct link is established between product design and manufacturing: It" is
the goal of CAD/CAM not only to automate certain phases of design and certain phases of
manufacturing,
but also to automate the transition from design to manufacturing. Computer-based systems have
been developed which create much of the data and documentation required to plan and manage the
manufacturing operations for the product.
The manufacturing data base is an integrated CAD/CAM data base. It includes all the data on
the product generated during design (geometry data, bill of materials and parts lists, material
specifications, etc.) as well as additional data required for manufacturing much of which is based
on the product design. The Figure shows how the CAD/CAM data base is related to design and
manufacturing in a typical production-oriented company.

FIGURE- Desirable relationship of CAD/CAM data base to CAD and CAM.

THE APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS FOR DESIGN

The various design-related tasks which are performed by a modem computer-aided design-system
can be grouped into four functional areas:
l. Geometric modeling

2. Engineering analysis

3. Design review and evaluation

4. Automated drafting

These four areas correspond to the final four phases in Shigley's general design process,
illustrated in Figure. Geometric modeling corresponds to the synthesis phase in which the
physical design project takes form on the ICG system. Engineering analysis corresponds to phase
4, dealing with analysis and optimization. Design review and evaluation is the fifth step in the
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
general design procedure. Automated drafting involves a procedure for converting the design
image data residing in computer memory into a hard-copy document. It represents an important
method for presentation (phase 6) of the design. The following four sections explore each of
these four CAD functions.
Geometric modeling
In computer-aided design, geometric modeling is concerned with the computer-
compatible mathematical description of the geometry of an object. The mathematical
description allows the image of the object to be displayed and manipulated on a graphics
terminal through signals from the CPU of the CAD system. The software that provides
geometric modeling capabilities must be designed for efficient use both by the computer and the
human designer.

To use geometric modeling, the designer constructs, the graphical image of the object on the CRT
screen of the ICG system by inputting three types of commands to the computer. The first type of
command generates basic geometric elements such as points, lines, and circles. The second
command type is used to accomplish scaling, rotating, or other transformations of these elements.
The third type of command causes the various elements to be joined into the desired shape of the
object being creased on the ICG system. During the geometric modeling process, the computer
converts the commands into a mathematical model, stores it in the computer data files, and displays
it as an image on the CRT screen. The model can subsequently be called from the data files for
review, analysis, or alteration.
There are several different methods of representing the object in geometric modeling. The basic
form uses wire frames to represent the object. In this form, the object is displayed by
interconnecting lines as shown in Figure. Wire frame geometric modeling is classified into three
types depending on the capabilities of the ICG system. The three types are:
i. 2D - Two-dimensional representation is used for a flat object.
ii. 2½D - This goes somewhat beyond the 2D capability by permitting a three-dimensional
object to be represented as long as it has no side-wall details.
iii. 3D -This allows for full three-dimensional modeling of a more complex geometry.

Even three-dimensional wire-frame representations of an object are sometimes inadequate for

complicated shapes. Wire-frame models can be enhanced by several different methods. Figure shows
the same object shown in the previous figure but with two possible improvements. lbe first uses dashed
lines to portray the rear edges of the object, those which would be invisible from the front.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design

Example of wire-frame drawing of a part.

Able second enhancement removes the hidden lines completely, thus providing a less cluttered
picture of the object for the viewer. Some CAD systems have an automatic "hidden- line removal
feature," while other systems require the user to identify the lines that are to be removed from
view. Another enhancement of the wire-frame model involves providing a surface representation
which makes the object appear solid to the viewer. However, the object is still stored in the
computer as a wire-frame model.

Same work part as shown in Figure 4.4 but with (a) dashed lines lO show rear edges of part, and (b)
hidden-line removal. (Courtesy of Computer vision Corp.)

Solid model of yoke part as displayed on a computer graphics system. (Courtesy of

Computervision Corp.)
The most advanced method of geometric modeling is solid modeling in three dimensions.
This method, illustrated in Figure, typically uses solid geometry shapes called primitives to
construct the object.
Another feature of some CAD systems is color graphics capability. By means of colour, it is
possible to display more information on the graphics screen. Colored images help to clarify
components in an assembly, or highlight dimensions, or a host of other purposes.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design

Engineering analysis
In the formulation of nearly any engineering design project, some type of analysis is required.
The analysis may involve stress-strain calculations, heat-transfer computations, or the use of
differential equations to describe the dynamic behavior of the system being designed. The
computer can be used to aid in this analysis work. It is often necessary that specific programs be
developed internally by the engineering analysis group to solve a particular design problem. In
other situations, commercially available general-purpose programs can be used to perform the
engineering analysis.
Turnkey CAD/CAM systems often include or can be interfaced to engineering analysis
software which can be called to operate on the current design model.
Two important examples of this type:
➢ Analysis of mass properties
➢ Finite-element analysis
The analysis of mass properties is the analysis feature of a CAD system that has probably the
widest application. It provides properties of a solid object being analyzed, such as the surface
area, weight, volume, center of gravity, and moment of inertia. For a plane surface (or a cross
section of a solid object) the corresponding computations include the perimeter, area, and inertia
properties.
Probably the most powerful analysis feature of a CAD system is the finite- element method.
With this technique, the object is divided into a large number of finite elements (usually
rectangular or triangular shapes) which form an interconnecting network of
concentrated nodes. By using a computer with significant computational capabilities, the entire
Object can be analyzed for stress-strain, heat transfer, and other characteristics by calculating
the behavior of each node. By determining the interrelating behaviors of all the nodes in the
system, the behavior of the entire object can be assessed.
Some CAD systems have the capability to define automatically the nodes and the network
structure for the given object. The user simply defines certain parameters for the finite-
element model, and the CAD system proceeds with the computations.
The output of the finite-element analysis is often best presented by the system in graphical
format on the CRT screen for easy visualization by the user, For example, in stress-strain
analysis of an object, the output may be shown in the form of a deflected shape superimposed
over the unstressed object. This is illustrated in Figure. Color graphics can also be used to
accentuate the comparison before and after deflection of the object. This is illustrated in Figure
for the same image as that shown in Figure . If the finite-element analysis indicates behavior
of the design which is undesirable, the designer can modify the shape and recompute the
finite- element analysis for the revised design.

Finite-element modeling for stress-strain analysis. Graphics display shows strained part
superimposed on unstrained part for comparison.

Design review and evaluation

 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
Checking the accuracy of the design can be accomplished conveniently on the graphics terminal.
Semiautomatic dimensioning and tolerance routines which assign size specifications to surfaces
indicated by the user help to reduce the possibility of dimensioning errors. The designer can zoom
in on part design details and magnify the image on the graphics screen for close scrutiny.
A procedure called layering is often helpful in design review. For example, a good application of
layering involves overlaying the geometric image of the final shape of the machined part on top of
the image of the rough casting. This ensures that sufficient material is available on the casting to
acccomplish the final machined dimensions. This procedure can be performed in stages to check
each successive step in the processing of the part.
Another related procedure for design review is interference checking. This involves the analysis
of an assembled structure in which there is a risk that the components of the assembly may
occupy the same space. This risk occurs in the design of large chemical plants, air- separation cold
boxes, and other complicated piping structures.
One of the most interesting evaluation features available on some computer- aided design systems
is kinematics. The available kinematics packages provide the capability to animate the motion of
simple designed mechanisms such as hinged components and linkages. This capability enhances
the designer‗s visualization of the operation of the mechanism and helps to ensure against
interference with other components. Without graphical kinematics on a CAD system, designers
must often resort to the use of pin-and-cardboard models to represent the mechanism.
commercial software packages are available to perform kinematic analysis. Among these are
programs such as ADAMS (Automatic Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical Systems), developed at
the University of Michigan. This type of program can be very useful to the designer in
constructing the required mechanism to accomplish a specified motion and/or force.
Automated drafting
Automated drafting involves the creation of hard-copy engineering drawings directly
from the CAD data base. In some early computer-aided design departments, automation of
the drafting process represented the principal justification for investing in the CAD system.
Indeed, CAD systems can increase productivity in the drafting function by roughly five times over
manual drafting.
Some of the graphics features of computer-aided design systems lend them- selves especially
well to the drafting process. These features include automatic dimensioning, generation of
crosshatched areas, scaling of the drawing, and the capability to develop sectional views and
enlarged views of particular path details. The ability to rotate the part or to perform other
transformations of the image (e.g., oblique, isometric, or perspective views), as illustrated
in Figure, can be of significant assistance in drafting. Most CAD systems are capable of generating
as many as six views of the part. Engineering drawings can be made to adhere to company
drafting standards by programming the standards into the CAD system. Figure shows an
engineering drawing with four views displayed. This drawing was produced automatically by a
CAD system. Note how much the isometric view promotes a higher level of understanding of the
object for the user than the three orthographic views.
Parts classification and coding
In addition to the four CAD functions described above, another feature of the CAD data base is
that it can be used to develop a parts classification and coding system. Parts classification and
coding involves the grouping of similar part designs into classes, and relating the similarities by
mean of a coding scheme. Designers can use the classification and coding system to retrieve
existing part designs rather than always redesigning new parts.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
HARDWARE IN COMPUTER-AIDED DESIGN
INTRODUCTION
Hardware components for computer-aided design are available in a variety of sizes,
configurations, and capabilities. Hence it is possible to select a CAD system that meets the
particular computational and graphics requirements of the user firm. Engineering firms that are
not involved in production would choose a system exclusively for drafting and design-related
functions. Manufacturing firms would choose a system to be part of a company-wide
CAD/CAM system. Of course, the CAD hardware is of little value without the supporting
software for the system, and we shall discuss the software for computer-aided design in the
following chapter.
A modem computer-aided design system is based on interactive computer graphics (ICG).
However, the scope of computer-aided design includes other computer systems as well.
For example, computerized design has also been accomplished in a batch mode, rather than
interactively. Batch design means that data are supplied to the system (a deck of computer cards
is traditionally used for this purpose) and then the system proceeds to develop the details of
the design. The disadvantage of the batch operation is that there is a time lag between when
the data are submitted and when the answer is received back as output. With interactive
graphics, the system provides an immediate response to inputs by the user. The user and the
system are in direct communication with each other, the user entering commands and
responding to questions generated by the system.
Computer-aided design also includes nongraphic applications of the computer in design
work. These consist of engineering results which are best displayed in other than graphical
form. Nongraphic hardware (e.g., line printers) can be employed to create rough images on a
piece of paper by appropriate combinations of characters and symbols. However, the resulting
pictures, while they may create interesting wall posters, are not suitable for design purposes.
The hardware we discuss in this chapter is restricted to CAD systems that utilize interactive
computer graphics. Typically, a stand-alone CAD system would include the following
hardware components
One or more design workstations. These would consist of:
A graphics terminalOperator input devices

One or more plotters and other output devices

Central processing unit (CPU) Secondary storage

These hardware components would be arranged in a configuration as illustratedinFigure.

The following sections discuss these various hardware Components and the alternatives and
options that can be obtained in each category

FIGURE Typical configuration of hardware components in a stand-alone CADsystem. There

would likely be more than one design workstation.
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design

THE DESIGN WORKSTATION

The CAD workstation is the system interface with the outside world. It represents a
significant factor in determining how convenient and efficient it is for a designer to use the CAD
system. The workstation must accomplish five functions:
l. It must interface with the central processing unit.
2. It must generate a steady graphic image for the user.

3. It must provide digital descriptions of the graphic image.

4. It must translate computer commands into operating functions.

5. It must facilitate communication between the user and the system]

The use of interactive graphics has been found to be the best approach to accomplish these
functions.
A typical interactive graphics workstation would consist of the following hardware
Components:
THE GRAPHICS TERMINAL
There are various technological approaches which have been applied to the development of
graphics terminals. The technology continues to evolve as CAD
system manufactures attempt to improve their products and reduce their costs. In this section we
present a discussion of the current technology in interactive computer graphics terminals.
Image generation in computer graphics
Nearly all computer graphics terminals available today use the cathode ray tube (CRT) as the
display device. Television sets use a form of the same device as the picture tube. 'The
operation of the CRT is illustrated in Figure. A heated cathode emits a high-speed electron beam
onto a phosphor-coated glass screen. 'The electrons energize the phosphor coating, causing it to
glow at the points where the beam makes contact. By focusing the electron beam, changing its
intensity, and controlling its point of contact against the phosphor coating through the use ofa
deflector system, the beam can be made to generate a picture on the CRT screen.
There are two basic techniques used in current computer graphics terminals for generating the
image on the CRT screen. They are:
l. Stroke writing
2. Raster scan

Other names for the stroke-writing technique include line drawing, random position, vector writing,

stroke writing, and directed beam. Other names for the raster scan technique include digital TV
and scan graphics.

FIGURE Diagram of cathode ray tube (CRT).

 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design

The stroke-writing system uses an electron beam which operates like a pencil to create a line
image on the CRT screen. The image is constructed out of a sequence of straight-line segments.
Each line segment is drawn on the screen by directing the beam to move from one point on the
screen to the next, where each point is defined by its x and y coordinates. The process is portrayed in
Figure . Although the procedure results in images composed of only straight lines, smooth curves can
be approximated by making the connecting line segments short enough.
In the raster scan approach, the viewing screen is divided into a large number of discrete
phosphor picture elements, called pixels. The matrix of pixels constitutes the raster. The
number of separate pixels in the raster display might typically range from 256 × 256 (a total
of over 65,(OO) to lO24 × lO24 (a total of over l,OOO,OOO points). Each pixel on the screen
can be made to glow with a different brightness. Color screens provide for the pixels to have
different colors as well as brightness. During operation, an electron beam creates the image
by sweeping along a horizontal line on the screen from left to right and energizing the pixels in that
line during the sweep. When the sweep of one line is completed, the electron beam moves to the
next line below and proceeds in a fixed pattern as indicated in Figure. After sweeping the
entire screen the process is repeated at a rate of 3O to 6O entire scans of the screen per second.
Graphics terminals for computer-aided design
The two approaches described above are used in the overwhelming majority of current-day CAD
graphics terminals. There are also a variety of other technical factors which result in different types
of graphics terminals. These factors include the type of phosphor coating on the screen, whether
color is required, the pixel density, and the amount of computer memory available to generate the
picture. We will discuss three types of graphics terminals, which seem to be the most important
today in commercially available CAD systems. The three types are:
i. Directed-beam refresh

ii. Direct-view storage tube (DVST)

iii. Raster scan (digital TV)

The following paragraphs describe the three basic types. We then discuss some of the possible
enhancements, such as color and animation.
DIRECTED-BEAM REFRESH.
The directed-beam refresh terminal utilizes the stroke-writing approach to generate the image on
the CRT screen. The term refresh in the name refers to the fact that the image must be regenerated
many times per second in order to avoid noticeable flicker of the image. The phosphor
elements on the screen surface are capable of maintaining their brightness for only a short time
(sometimes measured in microseconds). In order for the image to be continued, these picture tubes
must be refreshed by causing the directed beam to retrace the image repeatedly. On densely filled
screens (very detailed line images or many characters of text), it is difficult to avoid flickeringof
the image with this process. On the other hand, there are several advantages associated with the
directed- beam refresh systems. Because the image is being continually refreshed, selective
erasure and alteration of the image is readily accomplished. It is also possible to provide
animation of the image with a refresh tube.
The directed-beam refresh system is the oldest of the modem graphics display technologies.
Other names sometimes used to identify this system include vector refresh and stroke-writing
refresh. Early refresh tubes were very expensive. but the steadily decreasing cost of solid-state
circuitry has brought the price of these graphics systems down to a level which is competitive with
other types.

DIRECT-VIEW STORAGE TUBE (DVST).

DVST terminals also use the stroke-writing approach to generate the image on the CRT screen.
The term storage tube refers to the ability of the screen to retain the image which has been projected
against it, thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image which has been projected against it,
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
thus avoiding the need to rewrite the image constantly. What makes this possible is the use of an
electron flood gun directed at the phosphor coated screen which keeps the phosphor elements
illuminated once they have been energized by the stroke-writing electron beam. The resulting
image on the CRT screen is flicker- free. Lines may be readily added to the image without
concern over their effect on image density or refresh rates. However, the penalty associated with
the storage tube is that individual lines cannot be selectively removed from the image.
Storage tubes have historically been the lowest-cost terminals and are capable of displaying
large amounts of data, either graphical or textual. Because of these features, there are probably
more storage tube terminals in service in industry at the time of this writing than any other
graphics display terminal. The principal disadvantage of a storage CRT is that selective erasure is
not possible. Instead, if the user wants to change the picture, the change will not be manifested
on the screen until the entire picture is regenerated. Other disadvantages include its lack of color
capability, the inability to use a light pen as a data entry, and its lack of animation capability.
RASTER SCAN TERMINALS. Raster scan terminals operate by causing an electron beam to
trace a zigzag pattern across the viewing screen, as described earlier. The operation is similar to
that of a commercial television set. The difference is that a TV set uses analog signals
originally generated by a video camera to construct the image on the CRT screen, while the raster
scan ICG terminal uses digital signals generated by a computer. For this reason, the raster scan
terminals used in computer graphics are sometimes called digital TVs.
The introduction of the raster scan graphics terminal using a refresh tube had been limited by
the cost of computer memory. For example, the simplest and lowest-cost terminal in this
category uses only two beam intensity levels, on or off. This means that each pixel in the
viewing screen is either illuminated or dark. A picture tube with 256 lines of resolution and 256
addressable points per line to form the image would require 256 × 256 or over 65,OOO bits of
storage. Each bit of memory contains the on/off status of the corresponding pixel on the CRT screen.
This memory is called the frame buffer or refresh buffer. The picture quality can be improved in two
ways: by increasing the pixel density or adding a gray scale (or color). Increasing pixel density for
the same size screen means adding more lines of resolution and more addressable points per line. A
lO24 × lO24 raster screen would require more than l million bits of storage in the frame buffer.
A gray scale is accomplished by expanding the number of intensity levels which can be displayed on
each pixel. This requires additional bits for each pixel to store the intensity level. Two bits are
required for four levels, three bits for eight levels, and so forth. Five or six bits would be needed to
achieve an approximation of a continuous gray scale. Fora color display, three times as many bits
are required to get various intensity levels for each of the three primary colors: red, blue, and green.
(We discuss color in the following section.) A raster scan graphics terminal with high resolution
and gray scale can require a very large capacity refresh buffer. Until recent developments in memory
technology, the cost of this storage capacity was prohibitive for a terminal with good picture quality.
The capability to achieve color and animation was not possible except for very low resolution levels.
DATABASE STRUCTURE AND CONTENT

Data Structure
Formally a data structure is defined as a set of data items or elements that are related to each other by
a set of relations. Applying these relations to the elements of the set results in a meaningful object.
From a CAD/CAM point of view, a data structure is a scheme, logic, or a sequence of steps developed
to achieve a certain graphics, non-graphics and/or a programming goal.

As an example consider the object shown in Figure 2.22. Three different types of data structures have
been identified to construct the object. They are based on edges, vertices, or blocks. Within the
context of the above formal definition of a data structure, the set of edges, vertices, or blocks is the set
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
of data items for each type and edges, vertices, or blocks are the data items themselves. Furthermore,
the connectivity vertices for the first type, the edge information for the second and the set operators
for the third form the set of relations requiredby each type. As an example, 1, A & B in Figure 2.22
(b) indicates that vertex 1 is shared by edges A and B while in Figure 2.22(c) A, 1& 4 indicates that
edge A has the two vertices 1and 4.

Database
The term "database" is commonly used and may mean different things to different users. Casually, it
is synonymous with the terms "files" and "collection of files." Formally, adatabase is defined as an
organized collection of graphics and non-graphics data stored on secondary storage in the computer. It
could, therefore, be viewed as the art of storing or the implementation of data structure into the
computer. Hence, it is a repository for stored data. From a software development point of view, a
decision on the data structure has to be made first, followed by a choice of a database to implement
such a structure. There may exist more than one alternative of database to implement a given data
structure.
The objective of a database is to collect and maintain data in a central storage so that it will be
available for operations and decision-making. The advantages that accrue from having centralized
control of the data, or a centralized database, is manifold:

1 A 4
5 E 6
B B1 D B2 F
8 G 7
2 C 3
(a) Object

A B C D E F G
Set of edges

1,A&B 2,B&C 3,C&D 4,A&D 5,E 6,E&F 7,F&G 8,G

Connectivity vertices

(b) Data Structure based on edges

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
(c) Set of vertices

A,1&4 B,1&2 C,2&3 D,3&4 F,6&7 7,F&G G,7&8

Edge information
Data Structure based on vertices

B1 B2 UNION
Set of blocks Set operator
(d) Data Structure based on blocks

Figure 2.22 Various data structures of an object

1. Eliminate Redundancy. This is important for integrated CAD/CAM functions and CIM
applications. The database should be rich enough to support all various phases of product
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Unit-II
Computer Aided Design
design and manufacturing. If both design and manufacturing departments, for example, have
access to the same database, inconsistent and conflicting decisions are inherently eliminated
and data is shared by all applications. Thus, engineering assets and experiences of a company
can be captured in a database and modified for new product designs.
2. Enforce Standards. With central control of the database, both national and international
standards are followed. Dimensioning and tolerancing are examples. In addition, a company
can develop its own internal standards required by various departments. Standards are
desirable for data interchange or migration between systems.
3. Apply Security Restrictions. Access to sensitive data and projects can be checked and
controlled by assigning each user the proper access code (read, write, delete, copy and/or none)
to various parts of the database.
4. Maintain Integrity. The integrity of the database ensures its accuracy, Integrity precedes
consistency. Lack of database integrity can result in inputting inconsistent data.
5. Balance Conflicting Requirements. Compromises can easily be when designing a model of
the centralized database to provide its overall best performance. If, forexample, a software is
designed solely for design and modeling, one would expect inadequate performance in
manufacturing functions.

Database models
CAD/CAM databases must be able to store pictorial data in addition to and alphanumeric data
typically stored in conventional databases. A brief description of the popular database models is
provided below:

1. Relational Database. Data is stored in tables, called relations that related to eachother.
The relations are stored in files which can be accessed sequentially or in a random access
mode. Sequential access files are widely used. As an example, the relations needed to describe
the object in Figure 2.22 are shown in Figure 2.23. The object is represented by the three
relations POINT, LINE/CURVE and SURFACE. A particular data structure shown in Figure
2.22 determines which relations are to be entered by the user and which are be calculated
automatically. One of the disadvantages of the database is that it requires substantial sorting,
which might result in the system response to user commands.

Point x y Line Start End Surface Line/Curve Type

1 x1 y1 Point Point A Line
2 x2 y2 A 1 4 B Line
3 x3 y3 B 1 2 1
C Line
4 x4 y4 C 2 3 D Line
5 x5 y5 D 3 4 E Line
6 x6 y6 E 5 6 F Line
7 x7 y7 F 7 7 2
G Line
8 x8 y8 G 7 8 D Line
Relation Relation Relation SURFACE
POINT LINE/CURVE Figure 2.23
Relational
database of object shown in
figure 2.22
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

2. Hierarchical Database. In this model, data is represented by a structure. The top of

the tree is usually known as the "root" and the superior for hierarchy, of the tree levels
relative to each other descends from the down. Figure 2.24 shows a hierarchical
database of the object shown in Figure 2.22. Four levels are required to represent the
object completely. One of drawbacks of the hierarchical approach is the asymmetry of
the tree which forces database programmers to devote time and effort to problems,
introduced by the hierarchical approach, which are not to the object modeling itself.

Object (root)
Surface level S1 S2

Edge level A B C D E F G D

Vertex level 1 4 3 4 5 6 3 4

Coordinate
level x1 y1 x4 y4 x5 y5 x4 y4

Figure 2.24 Hierarchical database of object shown in figure

2.22

3. Network Database. The network approach permits modeling of many-to-many

correspondence more directly than the hierarchical approaches. Figure 2.25 shows a
network database of the object shown in Figure 2.22. The prime disadvantage of the
network approach is its undue complexity both in the database structure itself and
in the associated programming of it.

Surfaces S1 S2

A B C D E F G
Edges

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Vertices

Figure 2.25 Network database of object shown in figure 2.22

 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Unit-II Subject: Automation in Manufacturing
Computer Aided Design

4. Object oriented Database. Unlike conventional database processing, CAD/CAM

applications require object-oriented accessing and manipulation; that is, units of
retrieval and storage are design objects and not individual records in files.
These design objects also form the basis for ensuring database integrity upon the
insertion, deletion, or modification of component objects. The object-oriented
model should be able to capture all the relevant semantics of objects. This, in turn,
results in a "rich," well-integrated and complete database readily accessible for
applications. Object-oriented database models include the entity relationship model,
complex object representation, molecular object representation and abstract data model. The
abstract data model is close to solid modeling databases. It employs abstract objects as
primitives in the design of the database. Figure 2.26 shows an example of this database.
Primitives are constructed from input data and form the lowest field or record of
storage in the database.
Object

Sub-object B1 Sub-object B2
Figure 2.26 Object-oriented Database of object Shown in figure 2.22

Object-oriented databases seem to be ideal for CAD/CAM applications. Hybrid database models
may also be useful. The following are some of the functional requirements and specifications that
CAD/CAM databases must support:

1. Multiple engineering applications from conceptual design to manufacturing operations.

2. Dynamic modification and extension of the database and its associativity.
3. The iterative nature of design. This nature is not common in business data processing.
CAD/CAM database management systems must support the tentative, iterative and
evolutionary nature of the design process.
4. Design versions and levels of detail. CAD databases must provide a capability for storage
and management of multiple design solutions that may exist for a particular design. There is
seldom a unique solution to a design problem and there may exist several optimal solutions.
5. Concurrent and multiple users must be supported from the database. Large design projects
usually involve multiple designers working simultaneously on multiple aspects of a
project.
6. Temporary database support. Due to the iterative nature of design, earlier generated data
may not be committed to the database until the design process is completed.
7. Free design sequence. The database system should not impose constraints on the
designer to follow because different designs require different sequences.
8. Easy access. Application programs requiring data from a CAD/CAM database should not
require extensive knowledge of the database structure to extract the data needed. This is
important in customizing CAD/CAM systems for specific design and manufacturing
procedures.