DAVAO DOCTORS COLLEGE

MEDICAL LABORATORY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT

STUDENT NOTES: BIO101
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY (PREFINAL)
THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM

Overview • A one-way system in which lymph flows

toward the heart
• Lymph vessels include:
• Microscopic, permeable, blind-ended
capillaries
• Lymphatic collecting vessels
• Trunks and ducts

Lymphatic Capillaries

• Consists of two semi-independent parts • Similar to blood capillaries, with

modifications
• A meandering network of lymphatic vessels
• Remarkably permeable
• Lymphoid tissues and organs scattered
throughout the body • Loosely joined endothelial minivalves
• Returns interstitial fluid and leaked plasma • Withstand interstitial pressure and remain
proteins back to the blood open

• Lymph – interstitial fluid once it has entered • The minivalves function as one-way gates
lymphatic vessels that:
• Allow interstitial fluid to enter lymph
Lymphatic Vessels capillaries
• Do not allow lymph to escape from the
capillaries
• During inflammation, lymph capillaries can
absorb:
- Cell debris
- Pathogens
- Cancer cells
• Cells in the lymph nodes:
- Cleanse and “examine” this debris
- Lacteals – specialized lymph capillaries
present in intestinal mucosa
 - Absorb digested fat and deliver chyle to - Paired lumbar, bronchomediastinal,
the blood subclavian, and jugular trunks
- A single intestinal trunk
Lymphatic Collecting Vessels • Lymph is delivered into one of two large
trunks
• Right lymphatic duct – drains the right
upper arm and the right side of the head
and thorax
• Thoracic duct – arises from the cisterna
chyli and drains the rest of the body

Lymphatic Transport
• The lymphatic system lacks an organ that
acts as a pump
• Vessels are low pressure conduits
• Uses the same methods as veins to propel
lymph
• Pulsations of nearby arteries
• Contractions of smooth muscle in the walls
of the lymphatics

Lymphoid Cells
• Lymphocytes are the main cells involved in
the immune response
• Have the same three tunics as veins • The two main varieties are T cells B cells
• Have thinner walls, with more internal
valves Lymphocytes
• Anastomose more frequently • T cells and B cells protect the body against
antigens
• Collecting vessels in the skin travel with
superficial veins • Antigen – anything the body perceives as
foreign
• Deep vessels travel with arteries
• Bacteria and their toxins, and viruses
• Nutrients are supplied from branching vasa
vasorum • Mismatched RBCs or cancer cells
• T cells
Lymphatic Trunks - Manage the immune response
- Attack and destroy foreign cells
• B cells
- Produce plasma cells, which secrete
antibodies
- Antibodies immobilize antigens

Other Lymphoid Cells

• Macrophages – phagocytize foreign
substances and help activate T cells
• Dendritic cells – spiny-looking cells with
functions similar to macrophages
• Reticular cells – fibroblastlike cells that
produce a stroma, or network, that
supports other cell types in lymphoid
organs
• Lymphatic trunks are formed by the union
of the largest collecting ducts
• Major trunks include:
 Lymphoid Tissue Lymph Nodes
• Nodes are imbedded in connective tissue
and clustered along lymphatic vessels
• Aggregations of these nodes occur near the
body surface in inguinal, axillary, and
cervical regions of the body
• Their two basic functions are:
- Filtration – macrophages destroy
microorganisms and debris
- Immune system activation – monitor
for antigens and mount an attack
against them

Structure of a Lymph Node

• Diffuse lymphatic tissue – scattered

reticular tissue elements in every body
organ
• Larger collections appear in the lamina
propria of mucous membranes and
lymphoid organs
• Lymphatic follicles (nodules) – solid,
spherical bodies consisting of tightly packed
reticular elements and cells • Nodes are bean shaped and surrounded by
• Have a germinal center composed of a fibrous capsule
dendritic and B cells • Trabeculae extended inward from the
• Found in isolation and as part of larger capsule and divide the node into
lymphoid organs compartments

Lymphoid Organs
• Nodes have two histologically distinct
regions: a cortex and a medulla
• The cortex contains follicles with germinal
centers, heavy with dividing B cells
• Dendritic cells nearly encapsulate the
follicles
• The deep cortex houses T cells in transit
• T cells circulate continuously among the
blood, lymph nodes, and lymphatic stream
• Medullary cords extend from the cortex and
contain B cells, T cells, and plasma cells
• Throughout the node are lymph sinuses
crisscrossed by reticular fibers
• Macrophages reside on these fibers and
phagocytize foreign matter
• Lymphoid organs – discrete, encapsulated
collections of diffuse lymphoid tissue and Circulation in the Lymph Nodes
follicles
• Lymph enters via a number of afferent
• Examples include the lymph nodes, spleen, lymphatic vessels
and thymus
• It then enters a large subcapsular sinus and
travels into a number of smaller sinuses
• It meanders through these sinuses and exits - Stores breakdown products of RBCs
the node at the hilus via efferent vessels - Spleen macrophages salvage and store
iron for later use by bone marrow
• Because there are fewer efferent vessels, - Site of fetal erythrocyte production
lymph stagnates somewhat in the node (normally ceases after birth)
• This allows lymphocytes and macrophages - Stores blood platelets
time to carry out their protective functions
Structure of the Spleen
Homeostatic Imbalances of the Lymph
Nodes
• If lymph nodes are overwhelmed by large
numbers of antigen:
• They become inflamed and tender to the
touch
• Such nodes are called buboes (or
erroneously, swollen glands)
• Nodes can also become secondary cancer
sites
• Such nodes are swollen, but are not painful
• This distinguishes cancerous nodes from
infected ones

Other Lymphoid Organs • Surrounded by a fibrous capsule, it has

• The spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils
trabeculae that extend inward and contains
lymphocytes, macrophages, and huge
• Peyer’s patches and bits of lymphatic tissue numbers of erythrocytes
scattered in connective tissue
• Two distinct areas of the spleen are:
• All are composed of reticular connective - White pulp – area containing mostly
tissue and all help protect the body lymphocytes suspended on reticular
• Only lymph nodes filter lymph fibers and involved in immune
functions
Spleen - Red pulp – remaining splenic tissue
concerned with disposing of worn-out
RBCs and bloodborne pathogens

Thymus

• Largest lymphoid organ, located on the left

side of the abdominal cavity beneath the
diaphragm
• It extends to curl around the anterior aspect
of the stomach
• It is served by the splenic artery and vein,
which enter and exit at the hilus
• Functions
- Site of lymphocyte proliferation
-
-
Immune surveillance and response
Cleanses the blood
• A bilobed organ that secrets hormones
(thymosin and thymopoietin) that cause T
lymphocytes to become immunocompetent
• The size of the thymus varies with age • Tubal tonsils – surround the openings of the
• In infants, it is found in the inferior neck auditory tubes into the pharynx
and extends into the mediastinum where it • Lymphoid tissue of tonsils contains follicles
partially overlies the heart with germinal centers
• It increases in size and is most active during • Tonsil masses are not fully encapsulated
childhood • Epithelial tissue overlying tonsil masses
• It stops growing during adolescence and invaginates, forming blind-ended crypts
then gradually atrophies • Crypts trap and destroy bacteria and
particulate matter
Internal Anatomy of the Thymus
• Thymic lobes contain an outer cortex and Aggregates of Lymphoid Follicles
inner medulla • Peyer’s patches – isolated clusters of
• The cortex contains densely packed lymphoid tissue, similar to tonsils
lymphocytes and scattered macrophages • Found in the wall of the distal portion of the
• The medulla contains fewer lymphocytes small intestine
and thymic (Hassall’s) corpuscles • Similar structures are found in the appendix
• The thymus differs from other lymphoid • Peyer’s patches and the appendix:
organs in important ways - Destroy bacteria, preventing them from
• It functions strictly in T lymphocyte breaching the intestinal wall
maturation - Generate “memory” lymphocytes for
• It does not directly fight antigens long-term immunity
• The stroma of the thymus consists of star-
MALT
shaped epithelial cells (not reticular fibers)
• These star-shaped thymocytes secret
• MALT – mucosa-associated lymphatic
tissue, composed of:
thymosins and thymopoietins that
stimulate lymphocytes to become • Peyer’s patches, tonsils, and the appendix
immunocompetent (digestive tract)
• Lymphoid nodules in the wall of the bronchi
Tonsils (respiratory tract)
• MALT protects the digestive and respiratory
systems from foreign matter

Developmental Aspects
• Beginnings of the lymphatic vessels and
main clusters of lymph nodes are apparent
by the fifth week of embryonic
development
• These arise from the budding of lymph sacs
from developing veins
• Lymphatic organs (except the thymus) arise
from mesoderm

• Simplest lymphoid organs; form a ring of

• The thymus (endodermal origin) forms as
an outgrowth of the pharynx
lymphatic tissue around the pharynx
• Location of the tonsils
• Except for the spleen and tonsils, lymphoid
organs are poorly developed at birth
• Palatine tonsils – either side of the posterior
end of the oral cavity
• Lingual tonsil – lies at the base of the
tongue
• Pharyngeal tonsil – posterior wall of the
nasopharynx
Prepared by:

Doren Venus P. Otod, RMT

Reference: .
1. Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B.(2014).
Principles of anatomy & physiology
(14th ed.). U.S.A : Wiley (G12 / T638)

2. Marieb, E.N.(2014).Essential of human

anatomy & physiology (10th ed.).
Singapore : Pearson. (G12 / M338)