Unit Operation

Chapter Two
FILTRATION
Introduction
Filtration is the separation process of removing solid particles, microorganisms or droplets
from a liquid or a gas by depositing them on a filter medium also called a septum.
The pores of the medium are smaller than the particles which are to be removed, and the
filter works efficiently only after an initial deposit has been trapped in the medium. A
thicker layer of solids has to form and, in order to achieve a high rate of passage of liquid
through the solids, higher pressures are needed, and a far greater area has to be provided.

A typical filtration operation is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows the filter

medium, in this case a cloth, its support and the layer of solids, or filter cake,
which has already formed. In most industrial applications it is the solids that are
required

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The main factors to be considered when selecting equipment and operating conditions are:

(1) The properties of the fluid, particularly its viscosity, density and corrosive properties.

(2) The nature of the solid its particle size and shape, size distribution, and packing
characteristics.

(3) The concentration of solids in suspension.

(4) The quantity of material to be handled, and its value.

(5) Whether the valuable product is the solid, the fluid, or both.

(6) Whether it is necessary to wash the filtered solids.

(7) Whether very slight contamination caused by contact of the suspension or filtrate with
the various components of the equipment is detrimental to the product.

(8) Whether the feed liquor may be heated.

(9) Whether any form of pretreatment might be helpful.

Filtration is essentially a mechanical operation and is less demanding in energy than

evaporation or drying where the high latent heat of the liquid, which is usually water, has to
be provided.

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During the initial period of flow, particles are deposited in the surface layers of the cloth to
form the true filtering medium. This initial deposit may be formed from a special initial
flow of precoat material. The most important factors on which the rate of filtration then
depends will be:
(a) The drop in pressure from the feed to the far side of the filter medium.
(b) The area of the filtering surface.
(c) The viscosity of the filtrate.
(d) The resistance of the filter cake.
(e) The resistance of the filter medium and initial layers of cake.
Theory OF Filtration
The initial stages in the formation of the cake are therefore of special importance for the
following reasons:
1) For any filtration pressure, the rate of flow is greatest at the beginning of the process
since the resistance is then a minimum.
2) High initial rates of filtration may result in plugging of the pores of the filter cloth and
cause a very high resistance to flow.
The fluid passes through the filter medium, which offers resistance to its passage, under the
influence of a force which is the pressure differential across the filter. Thus, we can write
the familiar equation:

Driving force
Rate of filtration =
Re sis tan ce

Driving force: pressure differential across the medium

Resistance: arises from the filter resistance and to this is added the resistance of the filter
cake as it accumulates.
The Filter Resistance = (Specific Resistance ×Thickness) of Filter Cake
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V is the volume of filtrate which has passed in time t ,

A is the total cross-sectional area of the filter cake,
Uc is the superficial velocity of the filtrate,
l is the cake thickness,
r is the specific resistance
μ is the viscosity of the filtrate,
ΔP is the applied pressure difference.
The ratio of cake volume deposited per unit volume of filtrate (v) is;

Substituting for l in equation:

dV A2 (P)

dt rvV
Last equation may be regarded as the basic relation between ΔP, V and t.
Types of operation are:

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Thus for a constant pressure filtration, there is a linear relation between t/V and V. If this
takes a time t1 during which a volume V1 of filtrate passes, then integration of equation
gives:

V 2  V12 A2 (P)
 (t  t1 )
2 rv

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Thus, there where is a linear relation between V2 and t and between (t−t1)/(V−V1) and (V −
V1), where (t − t1) represents the time of the constant pressure filtration and (V−V1) the
corresponding volume of filtrate obtained.

Flow of Filtrate through the Cloth and Cake Combined

If ΔP is the pressure drop across the cake and cloth combined, then:

1 dV  P

A dt r (l  L) , Where L is the thickness of filter cloth
dV A2 (P)

dt  LA 
rvV  
 v 

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t  t1 rv rvV1 rL

 (V  V1 )  2 
V  V1 2 A (P)
2
A (P) A(P)
At start operation t1=0 and V1=0
t rvV rL
 
V 2 A2 (P) A(P)
Thus there is a linear relation between (t − t1)/(V − V1) and V − V1, as
shown in Figure 4.2, and the slope is proportional to the specific resistance, as in
the case of the flow of the filtrate through the filter cake alone

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Filter-cake Compressibility
With some filter cakes, the specific resistance (r) varies with the pressure drop across it.
This is because the cake becomes denser under the higher pressure and so provides fewer
and smaller passages for flow. To allow for cake compressibility the empirical relationship
has been proposed:
r = r'(-ΔP)S'
Where r' is the specific resistance of the cake under a pressure drop of 1 atm
S' is a constant for the material, called its compressibility.
Example: A filtration test was carried out, with particular product slurry, on a laboratory
filter press under a constant pressure of 340 kPa and volumes of filtrate were collected as
follows:
Time (min) 8 26 54.5 93
Filtrate volume (m3) 20 40 60 80

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The area of the laboratory filter was 0.186 m2. In a plant scale filter, it is desired to
filter a slurry containing the same material, but at 50% greater concentration than that used
for the test, and under a pressure of 270 kPa. Estimate the quantity of filtrate that would
pass through the cake and cloth in 1 hour if the area of the filter is 9.3 m2.

Solution
V (m3) 20 40 60 80
t (s) 480 1560 3270 5580
t/V (s/m3) 24 39 54.5 69.75

These values of t/V are plotted against the corresponding values of V in below Figure

80
y = 0.7638x + 8.625
70
60
50

t/V
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
V

Fig. 4.5 Filtration Graph

From the graph, we find that the slope of the line is 0.7638, and the intercept 8.625.
Then substituting in eqn. (4.12) we have
t rvV rL
  y=aX+b
V 2 A2 (P) A(P)
In the laboratory filter (-ΔP)=340 kPa A=0.186 m2
rv
 0.7638 rv  0.7638 2  A2 (P)
2 A2 (P)
rL
 8.625 rL  8.625A(P)
A(P)

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In the plant scale filter (-ΔP)= 270 kPa A=9.3 m2 v=1.5 v

t rvV rL
 
V 2 A2 (P) A(P)
rv  1.5  V 2 V
t 
2 A2 (P) A(P)
3600=5.78 X10-4V2+0.215V
And solving this quadratic equation, we find that V = 2325 kg

FILTRATION EQUIPMENT
The basic requirements for filtration equipment are:
1. Mechanical support for the filter medium.
2. Flow accesses to and from the filter medium.
3. Provision for removing excess filter cake.
Filtration can be done under pressure or vacuum. The advantage of vacuum filtration is that
the pressure drop can be maintained whilst the cake is still under atmospheric pressure and
so can be removed easily. The disadvantages are the greater costs of maintaining a given
pressure drop by applying a vacuum and the limitation on the vacuum to about 80 kPa
maximum. In pressure filtration, the pressure driving force is limited only by the economics
of attaining the pressure and by the mechanical strength of the equipment.

1. PLATE AND FRAME FILTER PRESS (OPERATION)

In the plate and frame filter press, a cloth or mesh is spread out over plates which
support the cloth along ridges but at the same time leave a free area, as large as possible,
below the cloth for flow of the filtrate. This is illustrated in Fig. 4.6. The plates with their
filter cloths may be horizontal, but they are more usually hung vertically with a number of
plates operated in parallel to give sufficient area.
Filter cake builds up on the upstream side of the cloth, that is the side away from the
plate. In the early stages of the filtration cycle, the pressure drop across the cloth is small
and filtration proceeds at more or less a constant rate. As the cake increases, the process
becomes more and more a constant-pressure one and this is the case throughout most of the
cycle. When the available space between successive frames is filled with cake, the press has

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to be dismantled and the cake scraped off and cleaned, after which a further cycle can be
initiated.
The plate and frame filter press is cheap but it is difficult to mechanize to any great
extent. Variants of the plate and frame press have been developed which allow easier
discharging of the filter cake. For example, the plates, which may be rectangular or circular,
are supported on a central hollow shaft for the filtrate and the whole assembly enclosed in a
pressure tank containing the slurry.

Figure: Plate and

frame press. A-inlet
passage. B–feed ports.
C–filtrate outlet. D–
frames. F–plates
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Advantages of the filter press

a. Because of its basic simplicity the filter press is versatile and may be used for a
wide range of materials under varying operating conditions of cake thickness and
pressure.
b. Maintenance cost is low.
c. It provides a large filtering area on a small floor space and few additional
associated units are needed.
d. Most joints are external and leakage is easily detected.
e. High pressure operation is usually possible.
f. It is equally suitable whether the cake or the liquid is the main product.

Disadvantages of the filter press

a. It is intermittent in operation and continual dismantling is apt to cause high wear
on the cloths.

b. Despite the improvements mentioned previously, it is fairly heavy on labor.

2.LEAF FILTERS (PRESSURE AND VACUUM OPERATION)

Various types of leaf filter are used, with the leaves arranged in horizontal or vertical rows.
The leaves consist of metal frames over which filter cloths are draped. The cake is removed
either mechanically or by sluicing it off with jets of water. Leaf filters are used for similar
applications as plate and frame presses, but generally have lower operating costs.

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3.ROTARY DRUM FILTERS (VACUUM OPERATION)

In rotary filters, the flow passes through a rotating cylindrical cloth from which the filter
cake can be continuously scraped. Either pressure or vacuum can provide the driving force,
but a particularly useful form is the rotary vacuum filter. In this, the cloth is supported on the
periphery of a horizontal cylindrical drum that dips into a bath of the slurry. Vacuum is
drawn in those segments of the drum surface on which the cake is building up. A suitable
bearing applies the vacuum at the stage where the actual filtration commences and breaks the
vacuum at the stage where the cake is being scraped off after filtration. Filtrate is removed
through trunnion bearings. Rotary vacuum filters are expensive.

EXAMPLE
A slurry is filtered in a plate and frame press containing 12 frames, each 0.3 m square
and 25 mm thick. During the first 180 s the pressure difference for filtration is slowly raised
to the final value of 400 kN/m2 and, during this period, the rate of filtration is maintained
constant. After the initial period, filtration is carried out at constant pressure and the cakes
are completely formed in a further 900 s(t-t1). The cakes are then washed with a pressure

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difference of 275 kN/m2 for 600 s using thorough washing. What is the volume of filtrate
collected per cycle and how much wash water is used?
A sample of the slurry had previously been tested with a leaf filter of 0.05 m2 filtering
surface using a vacuum giving a pressure difference of 71.3 kN/m2. The volume of filtrate
collected in the first 300 s, was 250 cm3 and, after a further 300 s, an additional 150 cm3 was
collected. It may be assumed that the cake is incompressible and that the cloth resistance is
the same in the leaf as in the filter press.

Solution
In the leaf filter, filtration is at constant pressure from the start.
Thus:
t  t1 rv rvV1 rL
 (V  V )  
V  V1 2 A2 (P) A2 (P) A(P)
1

T1=0 V1=0

In the filter press, a volume V1 of filtrate is obtained under constant rate conditions in
time t1, and filtration is then carried out at constant pressure.

and

For the leaf filter

When t = 300 s, V = 250cm3 = 2.5×10−4 m3
when t = 600 s, V = 400 cm3 = 4×10−4 m3, A = 0.05 m2 and ΔP = 71.3 kN/m2 or
7.13×104 N/m2.
Thus:
(2.5×10−4)2 + 2(0.05L/υ)2.5×10−4 = 2(7.13×104 × 0.052/rμυ)300
and:
(4×10−4)2 + 2(0.05L/υ)4 × 10−4 = 2(7.13×104 × 0.052/rμυ)600
Hence: L/υ = 3.5 × 10−3 and rμυ = 7.13 × 1011

For the filter press

A = (12 × 2 × 0.32) = 2.16 m2, ΔP = 400 kN/m2 = 4×105 N/m2, t = 180 s. The volume of
filtrate V1 collected during the constant rate period on the filter press is given by:

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For the constant pressure period:

(t − t1) = 900 s
The total volume of filtrate collected is therefore given by:

V= 6.15 × 10−2 m3
The final rate of filtration is given by:

If the viscosity of the filtrate is the same as that of the wash-water, then:

Thus the amount of wash-water passing in 600 s = (600 × 6.5 × 10−6)

= 3.9 × 10−3m3

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Example: A plate and frame press gave a total of 8 m3 of filtrate in 1800 s and 11.3 m3 in
3600 s when filtration was stopped. Estimate the washing time if 3 m3 of wash water is
used. The resistance of the cloth may be neglected and a constant pressure is used
throughout.
SOLUTION:

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EXAMPLE
A slurry containing 100 kg of whiting per meter cube of water, and, is filtered in a plate
and frame press, which takes 900 s to dismantle, clean, and re-assemble. If the cake is
incompressible and has a voidage of 0.4, what is the optimum thickness of cake for a
filtration pressure (−ΔP) of 1000 kN/m2? The density of the whiting is 3000 kg/m3. If the
cake is washed at 500 kN/m2 and the total volume of wash water employed is 25 per cent of
that of the filtrate, how is the optimum thickness of the cake affected? The resistance of the
filter medium may be neglected and the viscosity of water is 1 mNs/m2. In an experiment
A pressure difference of 165 kN/m2 produced a flow of water of 0.02 cm3/s through a
centimeter cube of filter cake.

Solution
The basic filtration equation may be written as:

Inserting these values in equation 7.2 gives:

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From equation 3.2:

If the resistance of the filter medium is neglected, the optimum cake thickness occurs
when the filtration time is equal to the downtime,

For the washing process, if the filtration pressure is halved, the rate of washing is
halved. The wash water has twice the thickness to penetrate and half the area for flow that is
available to the filtrate, so that, considering these factors, the washing rate is one-eighth of
the final filtration rate.

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Example:

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Solution:

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