A

Project Report

on

MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A DRONE FOR A

HIGH LIFE CYCLE TO IDENTIFY THE LIFE AND
DAMAGE
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement
For the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted by
P. Krishna 21A35A0322
P.V.V.S Mani Konda Babu 20A31A0388
D. V. Surya Narayana 20A31A0371
CH. Nikith 20A31A0366
Under the esteemed guidance of
Dr. G. Satish, MTech., Ph.D.
Associate Professor of ME

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, KAKINADA, Accredited by NBA)
ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram-533437

2020-2024
 PRAGATI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
(AUTONOMOUS)
(Approved by AICTE, Permanently Affiliated to JNTUK, Kakinada , Accredited by NBA)

ADB Road, Surampalem, Near Peddapuram-533437

CERTIFICATE
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the project report entitled “MODELLING &

ANALYSIS OF A DRONE FOR A HIGH LIFE CYCLE TO IDENTIFY THE
LIFE & DAMAGE” is being submitted by P. Krishna (21A35A0322), P.V.V.S.
Mani Konda babu (20A31A0388), D. Venkata Surya Narayana (20A31A0371),
C. Nikith (20A31A0366) in partial fulfilment for the award of the Degree of
Bachelor of Technology, during the year 2020-2024 in Mechanical Engineering of
Pragati Engineering College, for the record of a bonafide work carried out by them.

Project Supervisor: Head of the Department:

Dr. G. Satish, MTech., Ph.D. Dr. G. AVINASH, MTech., Ph.D.
Associate Professor Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Pragati Engineering College (A) Pragati Engineering College (A)
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We express our thanks to project supervisor Dr. G. Satish, Associate

Professor of Mechanical Engineering, who deserves a special note of thanks and
gratitude, for having extended their fullest co-operation and guidance, without
this, project would never have materialized.

We express our deep sense of gratitude to Dr. G. AVINASH, Associate

Professor and Head of the Department of Mechanical Engineering, for having
shown keen interest at every stage of development of our project and for guiding
us in every aspect.

We wish to express our special thanks to our beloved Dr. K.

SATYANARAYANA, Professor & Principal for giving guidelines and
encouragement.

We wish to express our special thanks to our beloved Dr. G. NARESH,

Professor & Vice Principal for giving guidelines and encouragement.

We wish to express sincere gratitude to our beloved and respected Dr. P.

KRISHNA RAO, Chairman and Sri. M. V. HARANATHA BABU, Director
(Management) and Sri. M. SATISH, Vice-President for their encouragement
and blessings.

We are thankful to all our faculty members of the Department for their
valuable suggestions. Our sincere thanks are also extended to all the teaching and
non-teaching staff of Pragati Engineering College.

P. Krishna 21A35A0322
P.V.V.S Mani Konda Babu 20A31A0388
D.V. Surya Narayana 20A31A0371
CH. Nikith 20A31A0366
 ABSTRACT
In 2020, the global commercial drone industry was expected to reach a total
value of $13.44 billion. The projected growth rate between 2021 and 2028 is 57.5%
on a compound yearly basis. This expansion is anticipated to occur continuously for
the whole term. Drones have been widely used in several important areas to improve
efficiency in recent years. These businesses include agriculture, security, emergency
needs, and several other sectors. The landing gear and structural components of a
drone might wear down over time due to repeated take-offs and landings. This
tiredness might result in harm to the goods being carried. Although much research has
focused on enhancing the physical durability of drones, only a few studies have
investigated the fatigue experienced by the landing gear. The project aimed to conduct
a comprehensive analysis of a drone intended for agricultural applications. The Finite
Element Methods were used for this purpose. The analysis included estimating the
working life of the landing gear.

MSC Apex was used to examine and mesh the drone model provided by the firm. The
landing gear and contacts were made of aluminium 6061 T6, while the hub and rotor
tubes were made of carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) - T300 3k/EA9396 8-
harness satin weave fabric. This was done in line with the available information. This
was conducted as a unidirectional component. A linear static analysis was conducted
by putting a load of 83.8755 Newtons at four specific spots on the base of the landing
gear and imposing a single point restriction at the centre of gravity. This was
conducted to analyse the performance of the landing gear. A comparison was
conducted between the total load resultant and the reaction force resultant to enhance
knowledge of the mechanism of static equilibrium. The Lanczos Method was used for
Model Analysis in the free-free situation. The action was taken to verify the model's
continuity and examine the mode forms. The S-N Method was used to do a fatigue
study on the drone's landing gear. By transferring the static load to the cyclic
approach, the work was successfully completed. The highest cyclic load spectrum
value was considered for various descent speeds, such as 0.3 m/s, 0.5 m/s, 0.8 m/s,
and 1 m/s, in both 4-point and 2-point landing situations. This was completed for both
situations.
The drone attained a static equilibrium, with the highest measured stress being 67.210
megapascals (MPa). The model's continuity was effectively confirmed by model
analysis. The damage output was 7.49 x 10-4, and it was determined that the model
will fail after 1267 cycles. The model had a failure. The fatigue study was the
research approach that produced this information. Considering peak loads and linear
superposition of loading, this was deemed the worst-case situation. The drone can
land and take off 1267 times before the landing gear malfunctions, which is the worst-
case scenario for the drone. Furthermore, doing cross-correlation analysis across
different load circumstances might significantly impact the overall conclusion.
Enhancing the durability of the drone and landing gear might potentially be achieved
via optimizing their shape and components in the future. This might potentially be
accomplished at a later date.

Recent years have seen a huge increase in the development and use of small
unmanned aircraft, otherwise known as drones or Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV).
A lot of published research work focusses on new applications, control optimization
and flight range maximization. However, there is very little published work that deals
with a thorough structural vibration analysis of a typical UAV chassis.

This paper discusses the experimental and numerical vibration analysis of a multirotor
chassis. The paper provides an analysis of the main vibration sources affecting this
UAV and an experimental modal analysis of the main structural components of the
multirotor chassis. The resulting data is applied to a numerical modal analysis of the
UAV chassis and allows, for instance, locating low-vibration regions where sensitive
electronics should best be mounted.
 CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE NO

1. Introduction 1-4

1.1 Market Survey 1

1.2 Literature review 2-3

1.2.1 Material selection 2

1.2.2 Design of landing gear 2

1.2.3 Structural analysis 3

1.3 Research gap 4

1.4 Main objectives of the project 4

2. Literature Review 5-15

2.1 Review on the propeller 7-11

2.1.1 Basic nomenclature of propeller in terms of

performance 10

2.1.2 Materials on propeller 11

2.2 Propeller performance 12

2.3 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) 13

2.4 Numerical software 14-15

2.4.1 ANSYS 14

2.4.2 Workbench 15

2.4.3 Fluent 15

2.4.4 Static structural analysis 15

3. Theory of finite element analysis 16-27

3.1 Need for FEM for the drone 16

3.2 Static analysis 16

 3.3 Normal mode analysis 18

3.4 Fatigue 21

3.5 Classical lamination theory 24

3.6 Failure theories for composites 25

4. Project methodology 28-34

4.1 Problem definition 28

4.2 Project methodology 28

4.3 Propeller model 29

4.4 Computational fluid dynamics 31-34

4.4.1 Computational domain 31

4.4.2 Messing 32

4.4.3 Boundary condition 33

4.4.4 Post processing setup 33

4.4.5 Static structural analysis 34

4.4.6 Engineering data 34

5. Design and analysis of a Hexacopter drone 35-41

5.1 Pollution monitoring 35

5.2 3D Geometric Modelling 36

5.3 Material for making Hexacopter drone 36

5.4 Analytical calculation of the Hexacopter stress state 37-38

5.4.1 Analysis of the Hexacopter Take-off subsequently 37

5.4.2 Hexacopter landing subassembly analysis 38

5.5 Stress analysis of Hexacopter structure 39

6. Numerical studies of drone model 42-54

6.1 Sub-systems of drone 42

 6.2 Complexity involved in the FE analysis of drone 43

6.3 Materials 43

6.4 Static analysis 45

6.5 Calculation of load for four points 47

6.6 Static analysis results 47

6.7 Normal mode analysis 49

6.8 Cyclic load variation 53

7. Vibration analysis of UAV Hexacopter frame 55-62

7.1 Motor propeller induced vibration 55

7.2 Experimental determination 55

7.3 Implementation in the structural FE model 56

7.4 Experimental model analysis on the Hexacopter frame 58

7.4.1 Estimation of important elastic material properties 58

7.5 Hammer excitation tests in complete frame 60

7.6 Numerical model analysis 60-61

7.6.1 Structural resonances 60

7.6.2 Dynamic response at critical locations 61

7.7 Research prospects 62

8. Results and discussion 63-65

8.1 Damage tolerance 63

8.2 Estimated life 64

8.3 Interpretation of results 64

8.4 FEM Handle model 65

9. Conclusion and Future scope 66

REFERENCE 68
LIST OF FIGURES:

1. Introduction 1

2. Literature review
FIG 2.1 Voltage VS capacity for different temperature 5

FIG 2.2 Capacity vs life cycle 6

FIG 2.3 Case type of propeller 9

3. Theory of finite element analysis

FIG 3.1 Static analysis 18

FIG 3.2 Fatigue five tick box 21

FIG 3.3 Life estimation process 23

FIG 3.4 Depiction of super position of loads to give stress distribution 24

FIG 3.5 Failure theories 26

4. Project methodology
FIG 4.1 Methodology 29

FIG 4.2 Slide Profile of propeller on CMM machine 29

FIG 4.3 Top profile of propeller on CMM machine 30

FIG 4.4 Slide profile of curve of propeller on CMM machine 30

FIG 4.5 Top view of propeller on ANSYS 30

FIG 4.6 Isometric view of propeller 31

FIG 4.7 ANSYS software workbench 31

FIG 4.8 Isometric and side view of rotating and stationary domain 32

FIG 4.9 Stationary region views mesh 32

5. Design and analysis of a hexacopter drone

FIG 5.1 Hexacopter tarot 680 PRO 35
 FIG 5.2 Hexacopter landing and take-off subsequently 36

FIG 5.3 Take-off mechanism land 37

FIG 5.4 Landing mechanism load 38

FIG 5.5 Hanle model 39

FIG 5.6 Von mises stresses and deformation of the tale-off mechanism lever 40

FIG 5.7 Von mises and principle stresses the sub assembly for landing 40

6. Numerical studies of drone model

FIG 6.1 Drone FE model 42

FIG 6.2 Highlighting element types on different parts of the drone 43

FIG 6.3 S-N Curve for aluminum 6061 T6 44

FIG 6.4 Points of application of load for four-point condition 45

FIG 6.5 Points of application of forces for two-point loading 46

FIG 6.6 Stress plot for two-point landing 48

FIG 6.7 Stress plot for four-point landing 48

FIG 6.8 Enlarged image of stress hotspot for four-point landing 49

FIG 6.9 Model seven 49

FIG 6.10 Model eight 50

FIG 6.11 Model nine 50

FIG 6.12 Model ten 51

FIG 6.13 Previous configuration of landing gear 52

FIG 6.14 New configuration of landing gear 52

FIG 6.15 Points of load application 54

7. Vibration analysis of UAV Hexacopter drone

FIG 7.1 Experimental setup for radial vibration force measurements 55

FIG 7.2 Experimentally determined dynamic radial force 56

 FIG 7.3 Spectrum of experimentally determined dynamic radial force 57

FIG 7.4 Axial force spectrum applied in FE structural model 58

FIG 7.5 Indication of drive unit mass and force in FE model 58

FIG 7.6 Main structural parts in the hexacopter frame 59

FIG 7.7 Registered frequency response for arm assembly 59

8. Results and discussion

FIG 8.1 CAE Fatigue performing the fatigue 63

FIG 8.2 Damage plot 63

FIG 8.3 Estimated life 64

LIST OF TABLES:
3.1 Failure theories 26

4.1 Material properties 34

5.1 Results of analytical and Numerical calculations if the take-off mechanism 41

5.2 Results of analytical and Numerical calculations of Landing mechanism 41

6.1 Loading of four-point of the landing gear 46

6.2 Overall load resultant table 47

6.3 reaction forces resultant table 47

6.4 Load variation table 53

7.1 Frequencies and damping ratios 60

LIST OF NOMENCLATURE:

NOMENCLATURE DESCRIPTION

System Stiffness Matrix

Grid Point Displacements

Applied Load Vector

Mass Matrix

Damping Matrix

Residue Matrix

Vector representing Modal Shape

Plane Stress in x (or 1) direction

Plane Stress in y (or 2) direction

CHAPTER-1
 CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 Market Survey:
The global commercial drone market size was valued at USD 13.44 billion in
2020. It is expected to expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 57.5%
from 2021 to 2028. In terms of volume, the demand was recorded at 689.4 thousand
units in 2020. Drones are used for multiple applications ranging from filmmaking to
emergency response. Additionally, these devices are witnessing a high demand in the
real estate and construction sector owing to their ability to survey lands, provide
continuous and precise project notifications, improve safety, and prevent dangerous
incidents on construction sites. Business use cases for drones have witnessed
considerable growth over the past few years. Market participants such as drone
manufacturers and software solution providers are constantly engaged in designing,
testing and improving solutions for various markets.

The term “drone” usually refers to any unpiloted aircraft. Sometimes referred to as
“Unmanned Aerial Vehicles" (UAVs), these crafts can carry out an impressive range
of tasks, ranging from military operations to package delivery. Drones can be as large
as an aircraft or as small as the palm of the hand. Originally developed for the military
and aerospace industries, drones have found their way into the mainstream because of
the enhanced levels of safety and efficiency they bring. These robotic UAVs operate
without a pilot on board and with different levels of autonomy. A drone’s autonomy
level can range from remotely piloted (a human controls its movements) to advanced
autonomy, which means that it relies on a system of sensors to control its movement.

In the wake of the COVID-19 outbreak across the globe, there has been a
considerable increase in the utilization of drone technology across various scenarios,
with drones proving to be of immense assistance in such situations. Drones are being
widely adopted in the healthcare sector for lab sample pickup and delivery as well as
transportation of medical supplies for reducing transportation turnaround time and
curtailing the exposure to infection. As per the UNICEF, so far, more than eighteen
countries have deployed drones for delivery and transportation purposes during the
pandemic.

1
The precision agriculture segment is anticipated to register the highest CAGR of over
60.0% from 2021 to 2028, as drones have become one of the critical aspects for
managing vital operations of farms. Farmers across the globe are trying to reduce
agricultural costs and expand yields. With the help of drones, farmers and agriculture
workers can gather farm data, automate redundant processes and thus maximize
efficiency. Additionally, drones assist farmers in numerous tasks, including field
monitoring and analysis and planning of crop plantations to identify the growth and
health of crops. Companies such as Raptor Maps, a U.S.-based agriculture analytics
provider, use drones to help farmers better understand their possible harvest [1].

1.2 Literature Review:

1.2.1 Material Selection:

Proper selection of materials for the drone is a vital part of the design. The main
factors influencing the selection of materials are- ease of manufacturing, ease of
welding, resistance to fatigue and creep and cost. The material used should be able to
withstand extremely high vibrations, impact forces and should be lightweight. An
important requirement of the drone is that it should have a high precision and
accuracy during flight. For this it is necessary to have high strength to weight ratio,
the key requirement.

Materials such as Balsa Wood, Carbon Fiber and Thermocol are used for base level
drone models. Materials like Rubber can be used to design flexible Landing Gears for
these drones, but it is not preferred. Aluminium, Steel and Titanium are the most
commonly used materials for drones due to their high strength and resistance to
damage. Aluminium 7075 is a popular alloy used for aerospace applications [2].
Newer materials like Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics have also started making a
presence in the drone market due to high strength to weight ratio. [3]

1.2.2 Design of Landing Gear:

Configuration of the Landing Gear is an extremely important consideration
while analyzing a drone since it is the component that needs to protect the main hub
of the drone as well as resist maximum impact in case of a hard landing.

2
Rotary winged aircraft main use two types of systems of landing gears. The oleo-strut
landing gear with wheels gives an advantage of initial taxi and take-off run capability
but has a high cost of design and is complex. Skid landing gear offers a simple design
and reduction in empty weight. Reduction in gross weight and empty weight of the
drone are primary design concerns. Hence making the landing gear have a high
strength to weight ratio is in the hands of the material selected. skid landing gears
have been manufactured from elasto-plastic metal alloys, which dissipate energy
during plastic bending. Corrosion resistance concerns in metals and fatigue
performance can also be adequately addressed.

1.2.3 Structural Analysis:

Drones need to be analyzed in order to find the maximum stresses, stress
hotspots, fatigue life. These parameters insinuate how safe and well made the drone
can be. Using MSC NASTRAN, most of these analyses can be carried out. For
performing FE analysis, it is important to define all the forces acting on the frame.
The weight of the frame and all components (including payload) is normal to the
ground [5]. Static loading involves a static study for calculating the response of bodies
on which loads are applied statically or slowly [6].

Each structure tends to vibrate with frequencies. A natural frequency study calculates
the natural frequencies, also adding the body’s mode shapes. [7] Dynamic Response
Analyses give us the variation of stresses with respect to more realistic cyclic load
spectrum.

Fatigue Life Estimation is of utmost importance since it gives us the number of life
cycles of cyclic loading the drone can withstand [8]. A cycle of loading for a drone
includes take-off, landing, cruising, and maneuvering. Different forms of cyclic
loading can be superposed to produce a consolidated linear load function and applied
to the given model. Multiple Loading event strung together can be termed as a duty
cycle [9]. Time histories of loading are processed using the algorithm of Rain Flow
counting i.e., slowly increasing stress value until damage increase and leads to failure.
This counting utilizes Miner’s Rule to give the Damage tolerance. Damage from all
cycles is summed to give Fatigue Life [10].

3
1.3 Research Gap:
From literature survey, most studies were done on studying the materials of
drone and structural integrity of the drone itself, but very few studies focus mainly on
the landing gear of the drone itself. Studying the fatigue life of a drone landing gear
and trying to increase it can yield tremendous increase in the usability of drones in
fields of lower income such as agriculture. Development of the correct configure for
landing gear also has not been dived into a lot. Hence the present study was carried
out to study the fatigue of the landing gear and decide a suitable configuration.

1.4 Main Objectives of the Project:

I. To study the static stresses on the drone to ensure static equilibrium.
II. To investigate the continuity of the drone model by performing a Modal
Analysis
III. Performing a fatigue analysis to estimate the life of drone landing gear.

Methodology followed to complete the project included using MSC Apex to mesh the
drone model, MSC Nastran and MSC Apex to compute the linear static analysis.

4
CHAPTER-2
 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Shuai, et al. [1]- we studied Temperature, as a critical factor, significantly
impacts on the performance of lithium-ion batteries and also limits the application of
lithium-ion batteries. Accurate measurement of temperature inside lithium-ion
batteries and understanding the temperature effects are important for the proper
battery management. They found the effects of temperature to lithium-ion batteries at
both low and high temperature ranges. This review overviews recent development in
both the understanding of the temperature effects and the temperature monitoring, and
discusses the challenges and possible future directions in achieving optimum battery
performance.

Arnaud Girin [2]- we studied and design battery cooling systems and the importance
of thermal management were understood. This also gives idea of how voltage value
varies with temperatures of a Li-ion battery. Figure.2.1 & 2.2

Figure 2. 1 Voltage vs Capacity for different temperature

5
 Figure 2. 2 Capacity vs Lifecycles

Shayok, et al. [3]- we have learned that there have been attempts to use hydrogen fuel
cell onboard drones. Fuel cell stacks and fuel tank assemblies can have high strength
to weight. Therefore, they can enable long-distance drone aircraft, but fuel cell stacks
and associated systems, are generally more expensive. Therefore, this work proposes
the use of the novel stack of electric hydride fuel containing metal hydride as a power
source located on the drone. The main advantage of this is that the fuel sticks can be
used to cool the batteries, and the negative effect is that this slightly reduces the load
on the internal Li-ion battery and provides a slight increase during flight. This work
presents the results of experimental studies showing the main effect (i.e., lower
battery temperature) and the second side effect (i.e., a slight increase in flight time)
obtained using a fuel cell stack. In this work, the metal hydride fuel stick power
hydrogen fuel cell is used in conjunction with the Li-ion onboard a drone battery.

Xin, et al. [4]- we have learned that the effects of Li-ion battery pack packets
confirmed the efficiency of the MHPA-based cooling system [Micro-Heat Pipe Array]
by lowering the battery pack temperature by 1C and reducing the temperature
difference within the battery packs. and cells during operation. Test and calculation
results revealed improved stability and battery safety during the charge-discharge
cycle. This MHPA novel based on cooling system has features of energy efficiency,

6
simplification and coherence. Based on test data, heat production and dissipation of
the Li-ion battery pack are analyzed.

Yanjun, et al. [5]- we studied that they found out that the cooling relies on internal
heat pipe and convective cooling of UAV [Unmanned Aerial Vehicle] body, so that
the heat generated by the battery can reach exterior cooling through a dedicated
thermal path., and they tried designing it. • Feng, et al. [6]- we studied that they
studied LiB and found out that the increasing degradation rate of the maximum charge
storage of LiB during cycling at elevated temperature is found to relate mainly to the
degradations at the electrodes and that the degradation of LCO cathode is larger than
graphite anode at elevated temperature. • K. Domke, et al. [7]- we have learned that
the emerging hot barrier limits the continuous operation and development of parts in
their modern form. Cooling systems (natural or forced forms, including water cooling
systems) sometimes fail to reach the required level. The paper discusses the concept
where the performance of standard cooling systems is supported by the installation of
Peltier materials. Heat flow analysis is introduced into systems consisting of: an
electronic element - a Peltier element - radiator, complemented by a study of cooling
efficiency and components that assist the process of designing such integrated
systems.

Mohit Thakkar, el al. [8]- we studied that there are three types of thermoelectric
effect: The See beck effect, the Peltier effect, the Thomson effect. From these three
effects, Peltier cooler works on the Peltier effect; which states that when voltage is
applied across two junctions of dissimilar electrical conductors, heat is absorbed from
one junction and heat is rejected at another junction.

2.1 Review on the propeller:

A comprehensive investigation into the traditional design of propeller blades

focusing on fundamental properties of diameter, pitch, blade form and even chord
length was conducted. As a consequence, sophisticated designs including serrated,
slotted, tubercle, and adjustable structure may be employed to improve propeller
blade design. Design analysis of these propeller blade can be seen in the work of B.
Rutkay and J. Laliberte et al. [8] and Adkins et al. [9]. Material testing, manufacturing
trials, and wind tunnel testing of the propellers under simulated flight circumstances

7
were used to examine the potential of additive manufacturing (3D printing) in the
fabrication of flightworthy propellers. The propeller performance produced nearly the
predicted design thrust, but the efficiency and power consumptions could not be
measured accurately with the current test setup.

The figurative findings are compared with experimental records for advanced precise
composite (APC) slow flyer propeller blades to evaluate the difference in thrust
coefficients, strength coefficients, and effectiveness, as reported by H.A. Kutty and P.
Rajendran et al. [10]. During the study, they used unstructured tetrahedron meshing
and a popular k- turbulence version. A. Seni et al. [11] also investigated the k-ω
turbulence model using various reference frames to integrate the propeller's rotational
speed. The findings of the k-ω turbulence model are improved.

F. Md Ahmed, M. N. Zafar, and J. C. Mohanta et al. [12] focuses on the modelling

and structural analysis of the frame of a quadcopter where AutoCAD 2016 software
was used for modelling, and ANSYS 17.0 software was used for analysis of various
parts. The collected results were compared to the ability of the quadcopter to sustain
the loads created. They found that the proposed design is safe, as only minor
deformations of the plates occurred.

Meanwhile, alternative approaches, such as M. N. K. Othman et al. [13]'s relation of

mouth-ring application, can be utilized to assess the propeller's thrust generation.
According to the results of their investigation, a bigger diameter propeller is used to
enhance the thrust. The bigger the area of the propeller, the greater the velocity, and
hence the greater the thrust. A larger diameter propeller also provided improved air
flow across the blade's surface.

There are two approaches for determining the performance of a propeller blade:
experimental and numerical. Based on the applicability of the analysis, both
approaches have been widely used by numerous researchers. A. R. Nuranto, A. J.
Fitroh, and H. Syamsudin et al. [14] performed aerodynamic load calculation using
both Blade Element Theory (BET) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
simulation. Different thrust forces were obtained with only 1.2 percent and 4.1
percent for two types of mesh.

8
Other approaches such as FEA is used in a variety of engineering domains, including
structural analysis, fluid flow, heat transfer, and mass transfer. FEA can now
frequently provide numerical solutions to even the most complex stress situations
[15]. As a result, FEA is utilized to solve mathematical problems by discretizing the
whole physical domain into a small number of finite elements. The use of FEA
software (Ansys) helps reduce the number of prototypes required throughout the
design and optimization phases.

Ahmad et al. [16] used Finite Element Analysis to analyze and compare the modal
frequencies and maximum deformation of three distinct design propellers. Based on
the results of the FEA simulation, it can be deduced that the Case-C type of propeller
has a higher failure (resonance) frequency and a lower maximum deformation value
than the other two designs, Case-A and Case-B; consequently, Case C is
recommended for propeller design

Figure 2.3 Case type of propeller

Most significantly, several studies debated the strength of propeller blades. Not only
must the blades be sufficiently resistant to endure extended periods of rigorous
operation without failure or irreversible deformation, but elastic deflection under load
must not modify the geometrical shape to the point where it alters the planned
distribution of loads.

Kishore et al. [27] use ANSYS to compare the structural performance of two
alternative materials for propeller blades. The von-mises gathered maximum stress,
stress, and total deformation data. The results of the studies have been compared to
the material's mechanical qualities. Using FEA, Yeo et al [28] evaluate a marine
propeller blade’s stress distribution. In the study, the pressure distribution along the
blade is used to determine the maximum stress and deflection.

9
2.1.1 Basic Nomenclatures of Propeller in Terms of Performance:

Propellers are a type of fan that converts mechanical energy into kinetic energy
of the fluid. The thrust is generated by the fluid's momentum increase. The parameters
of a propeller are listed below.

a. Blades:

The twisted fins or foils that emerge from the propeller hub are known as blades.
The torque a propeller can provide is determined by the form of the blades and the
speed at which they are pushed. The blade root is where the blade connects to the hub,
while the blade tip is the blade's outermost edge at the furthest point from the
propeller shaft.

b. Number of blades:

This parameter has a negligible impact on efficiency. A propeller with more

blades will typically perform slightly better due to more evenly distributed power and
thrust in its wake.

c. Diameter:

The diameter of the propeller has a significant impact on performance. Diameter

is one of the most important geometric characteristics in determining how much
power a propeller can absorb and deliver, and therefore how much thrust is available
for propulsion. Usually, the diameter is proportional to the efficiency of propeller, but
in high-speed larger propellers typically have higher efficiency because they catch
more incoming fluid and thus distribute their power and thrust over a larger fluid
volume.

d. Pitch:

A variable pitch propeller can raise the aircraft's maximum take-off weight and
enhance hover power efficiency, especially if the load fluctuates between flights [20].
A propeller's blade pitch is an important component to consider. The pitch, which is
analogous to the gears on a manual vehicle gearbox, determines how much air is cut
by the blade. The pitch is set for initial acceleration (which is necessary for take-off),
but it is fixed, which limits the speed in fixed blade pitch. However, you may change

10
the blade pitch for maximum flying speed. To gradually build up enough speed to
produce enough lift for take-off, this would need a very long runway. They are
usually set at a compromise position where take-off is not maximized, and maximum
speed is less than what is possible. As researchers studied the mechanics behind
propeller power, fixed pitch designs slowed initial aero plane speeds.

2.1.2 Materials on propeller:

Propellers were initially constructed of wood, but since the 1920s, they have
been manufactured of steel and aluminum, and since the 1970s, sophisticated
composite materials. Wood and metal propellers are still widely designed and
manufactured, despite the fact that newer composite materials offer excellent
mechanical properties. Like manned aircraft, RC aircraft propellers are usually built
of wood and composites, but they are also made of reinforced plastics because to their
low cost, weight, and strength. This project's propeller is composed of Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP) and Aluminum Alloy.

2.1.2(a) Wood

If the diameter, pitch, and form are the same, wood propellers are the lightest and
offer the least load to an engine. They have a higher RPM capacity than a heavier
propeller. Wood has a high strength-to-weight ratio and is unaffected by tiredness.
The 10 high internal friction, or hysteresis, of the wood contributes to its fatigue
resistance. Hysteresis is so efficient at damping vibrations that fixed-pitch wood
propellers don't need to pass many of the certification tests. Wooden propellers, on the
other hand, are the most brittle.

2.1.2(b) Metal

Metal propellers are generally made of extruded and welded steel tubes or
forged and machined aluminum slabs. On the other hand, metal propellers are not
utilized for RC aircraft or for little unused aircraft (UAVs). This is due to the very
high blade weight, which increases the aircraft empty weight and slows the motor
response to changes in control speeds, compared to wood and composite propellers.
They are also seldom utilized since RC aircraft have a far larger chance of disaster
than bunker planes and are normally much closer both to the controller and the

11
observers. If the propeller malfunctions during a flight, a metal blade's enhanced
cinematic speed and knife-like shape may kill and injure if a person is hurt.

2.1.2(c) Composites and Plastic

Polymeric composite materials, such as carbon fiber, nylon, fiber glass, and
stainless titanium, are used to make various UAV components, mainly propellers, due
to their outstanding characteristics, such as high strength and light weight. Drone
propellers are also made from such composites, which have polymer-based origins.
When a conventional UAV is in flight, debris might collide with the fast-moving
propeller blades, causing the UAV to malfunction. It is common knowledge that
polymer-based composite materials offer benefits over other materials in terms of
strength [21]. In UAVs, composites offer a variety of advantages over metals like low
weight, excellent corrosion resistance, reduced machining to a high fatigue strength,
ability to 11 manufacture tapered sections and elaborate contoured parts, the ability to
orient reinforcement fibers towards maximum rigidity and strength with conure or
consolidation processes.

2.2 Propeller Performance:

Due to slipstream and propeller wake effects, rotating propellers have a major
impact on an aircraft's aerodynamics, stability, and control. The performance of the
fitted propeller is also affected by wing upwash.[23]. As a result, the installed
arrangement should maximize propeller efficiency while avoiding unfavorable effects
on aircraft aerodynamics.[23]. The propeller changes the flow direction behind it by
increasing air speed. The wing lift and drag will increase as dynamic pressure rises.
The aero plane stall is also delayed by the propeller slipstream. While this is
appositive benefit, propeller stall can be unacceptably dangerous [24]. For example,
sophisticated propellers employed in early C-130J designs prevented the inner wing
from stalling [24], leading the stall to originate at the wing tips, resulting in the loss of
roll control.

In addition, heavily charged propellers generate a propeller wake because of the

strong tip vortices at the tips of the propeller blades. The propeller wake produces
substantial shift in the elevator and drag distribution across the whole wingspan when

12
these propellers are positioned before the wing [24]. This might potentially lead to a
disproportionate aircraft weight distribution.

Many of these UAVs have feature propellers that operate at 75 percent propeller pitch
at the low Reynolds of 50,000 to 100,000 on the propeller chord. The propeller
efficiency was measured under these conditions at the University of Illinoisan
Urbana-Champaign (UIUC). A total of 79 propellers were examined, the bulk
of12which were between 9 and 11 inches in diameter. During the testing, the
propeller speed (RPM) was kept constant while the wind tunnel speed was changed to
sweep through a variety of advance ratios until the windmill condition was reached
(zero thrust). The efficiency of propellers ranged from a high of 0.65 (for an efficient
propeller) to a low of 0.28 (for a less efficient propeller) (for an exceptionally poor
propeller). As a result, the research findings suggest that choosing the right propeller
for a UAV can make a big difference in how well it performs [25].

The majority of drones may work less than 10 meters per second at windspeeds.
Therefore, current drones cannot be deployed successfully in windy situations. Drones
cannot be used in very warm or cold locations since their operating temperatures
usually range from -10°C to 45°C. Finally, a remote controller usually has a
considerably lesser maximum transmission distance than the maximum flying range.
The use of UAVs with more costly sensors and communication equipment can,
however, solve this constraint.

Furthermore, flying times are often restricted by battery restrictions. Thevolume is

dependent upon a variety of characteristics, including efficiency of the battery, battery
size, amount of cargo, weather and topography and the autonomy or remote control of
the drone in line of sight (LOS). The drone with a maximum claimed range of 35
kilometer’s is provided to customers within a 14km (8,7-mile) radius (assuming that
is uses 80 percent of the theoretical range). Heavier weights decrease the range further
[26].

2.3 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) Solver:

Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is a useful tool for investigating

aerodynamics in a variety of applications, including modelling small-scale spinning

13
13 propellers. Various research exists in the literature, including CFD analysis and
validation of quad-rotor UAV propeller aerodynamic properties.

T. Oktay and Y. Eraslan et al. [27] conducted computational fluid dynamics (CFD)
analysis of a quad-rotor UAV propeller to investigate the link between airspeed and
propeller thrust coefficient. With incompressible and turbulent flow assumptions, the
overset mesh approach was applied. Their methods are analyzed using a Navier
Stokes solver (Ansys Fluent v17.2) utilizing the turbulence model k-Omega SST, with
correction of curvature. The results shown that thrust coefficient decreased at higher
airspeeds. Thus, the numerical analyses found were closer to experimental results at
lower airspeeds.

Furthermore, P. P. Hector Guillermo, A. M. Victor Daniel, and G. G. Elvis Eduardo et

al. [28] used Computation Fluid Dynamics to undertake a transient investigation of
physical factors related with aerodynamic behavior in an unmanned aerial vehicle
(UAV) (CFD). The simulation is used for post-processing to investigate vortex,
pressure, and turbulence kinetic energy (TKE). The Hexacopter's aerodynamic
behavior changes with time, and there is an effect when four and two blades are
employed in its rotors.

Wen et al. [29] investigated the effects of flying speed, altitude, and nozzle spacing on
droplet drifts and spray distributions on agricultural quad-rotor drones. Some
computational and experimental evaluations were carried out on a plant protection
quadcopter for this aim. The computational fluid dynamics (CFD) calculations, which
were based on the lattice Boltzmann technique, included an examination of spray
droplet motion in wake vortices, flow patterns in near and far wakes at various flight
speeds, and hovering flight. The CFD findings were found to be in good agreement
with the experimental wind tunnel experiments that they 14 conducted. The major
factors influencing spray dispersion are flying speed and altitude.

2.4 Numerical Software:

2.4.1 ANSYS:

ANSYS is the latest package for simulation in single and Multiphysics and offers
extended tools and capabilities to enable engineers to work efficiently with their jobs.

14
ANSYS offers extensive ability, capacity expansion and interface to almost all design
tools, including pro-engineers, AutoCAD and SolidWorks. In addition, ANSYS offers
the best solver technology, specialized meshing technologies for physics and
computation fluid dynamics, combined physics to produce sophisticated simulations.
Structural, thermal, fluid, sound and multi-physical problems may be addressed using
ANSYS [30].

2.4.2 Workbench:

ANSYS workbench is an easy-to-use platform that integrates ANSYS, Inc's

range of sophisticated engineering simulation technology. It connects to major CAD
systems in both directions. The Workbench environment is designed to boost
engineering teams' productivity and simplicity of use. [31]

2.4.3 Fluent:

ANSYS Fluent provides complete modelling capabilities for incompressible and

compressible fluid flow, laminar and turbulent problems. Stable or transitory analyses
can be performed. The ability to simulate complex geometries in ANSYS Fluent pairs
a wide variety of mathematical models in transportation operations (such as heat
transfer and chemical reactions). Several important characteristics are offered 15 that
make it easier for industrial machinery and processes to represent fluid flow and
related transport phenomena. They include porous mediums, lumped parameters (fan
and heat exchanger) and stream-specific flow and heat transfer [32].

2.4.4 Static Structural Analysis:

Software of structural analysis ANSYS simulates each of the structural aspects

of a product, including linear static analysis that only offers stresses or deformations,
modal analysis that evaluates the characteristics of vibrations and advanced transient
nonlinear phenomena that includes dynamic effects and complex conducts. It is used
by engineers of all skill levels across many sectors to optimize designs, minimize the
costs of physical testing, and reduce the need for recurrent prototyping. Thus, ANSYS
structural analysis software performs finite element analysis (FEA) on structural
mechanics problems to examine numerous design scenarios.

15
CHAPTER-3
 CHAPTER-3

THEORY OF FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS

3.1 Need for FEM for the Drone:

Nearly any sort of design model in the industry can be tested for various factors
including static-stresses, deformation, fatigue, etc. by sacrificing test modules over
and over again. This is expensive and here comes the need for computer simulation to
arrive at the aforementioned results. It is a common practice now to use a test module
to confirm the results of the computer simulation.

In the case of the drone, it is impossible to keep building new test drones and crashing
them for the sake of testing until a reasonable model is arrived at. Hence static,
dynamic and fatigue analysis is very necessary to get results such as maximum stress,
stress hotspots, natural frequencies, fatigue life, etc. This helps to optimize the design
even before the first prototype is built.

3.2 Static Analysis:

Static Analysis is executed when one or multiple point time-invariant loads are
applied at given positions on the model. It is done to:

Check for static equilibrium i.e., to ensure that there are no unbalanced forces in the
model.

1. To find the points of high and low stresses in the model.

2. To ensure proper stiffness distribution by examining the displacements.

When performing static analysis, using the finite element method, the structure is
represented as a collection of discrete elements. These elements can be thought of as
building blocks from which one can construct a model of the actual structure. Each
element is connected to the neighboring element at a node. The stiffness of the
element is represented internally in the form of a matrix called the Element Stiffness
Matrix. The size of this matrix depends on the type of element and the degrees of
freedom associated with that element. All of the element stiffness matrices are
assembled into a single matrix called the global stiffness matrix. This global stiffness

16
matrix represents the total structural stiffness before the boundary conditions are
considered; therefore, the global stiffness matrix is, in general, a singular matrix. The
physical meaning of a singular stiffness matrix is that the whole structure or part of
the structure can displace as a free body without producing any internal forces in the
members.

In static analysis, adequate boundary conditions must be applied to the model in order
to prevent any rigid body motion of the structure. Once the boundary conditions are
applied to the model appropriately, the global stiffness matrix is reduced to a
nonsingular stiffness matrix representing the constrained structure. If no boundary
condition is applied, the global stiffness matrix remains as a singular matrix and the
solution becomes trivial. All the loads that are applied to the model are combined to
form the load vector. After the constrained stiffness matrix and the load vector are
generated, the static equilibrium matrix equation given below is solved as follows:

[K][u] = [p]

Where,

[K] = system stiffness

[u] = grid point displacements

[p] = applied load vector

The unknowns in the above equation are the displacements [u] at the grid points in the
model. Determining the displacements involves the inversion of the stiffness matrix
[K] and multiplying it by the force vector [p]. In reality, the process of inverting a
matrix is too time consuming; therefore, a process based on the Gauss elimination
method is used. The resulting displacements are the same--the solution process is just
faster. Once the displacements at the grid points are known, any desired outputs, such
as element forces, strains and stresses can be computed.

17
 Figure3.1: Static analysis

3.3 Normal Mode Analysis:

A Normal Mode is a pattern of oscillatory motion in which all the parts of the
system move sinusoidally with a common frequency and a fixed phase relation. The
eigenvalues are the natural frequencies of vibration. The generalized wave equation
that governs this is -

…………………… (Eq. 3.1)

where 𝑀, 𝐶and 𝐾 are respectively 𝑛 × 𝑛 mass, damping, and stiffness matrices. 𝑛 is

the number of degrees of freedom of the system.

Eq No 1 above can be solved for two conditions.

1. When , the solution of the resulting homogenous equation results in

the Normal Modes of vibration, also called Eigen Vectors, of the structure and
the corresponding Natural Frequencies or Eigen Values. In this process,
damping C = 0. These Normal Modes are called Undamped Normal Modes.

18
 2. When , the solution is called the response of the system to the

specified dynamic force.

These conditions are further elaborated below. [11]

Transforming the above equation to the Laplace Domain –

…………………… (Eq. 3.2)

With the dynamic stiffness matrix

…………………… (Eq. 3.3)

The transfer function matrix (𝑠) between displacement and force vectors, (𝑠) = (𝑠)(𝑠),
equals the inverse of the dynamic stiffness matrix

…………………… (Eq. 3.4)

With the numerator polynomial matrix (𝑠) given by:

…………………… (Eq. 3.5)

And the common-denominator polynomial (𝑠), also known as the characteristic

polynomial:

…………………… (Eq. 3.6)

When the damping is small, the roots of the characteristic polynomial (𝑠) are complex
conjugate pole pairs, 𝜆m and 𝜆m*, 𝑚 = 1, . . ., 𝑁m, with the number of modes system.
The transfer function can be rewritten in a pole-residue form:

…………………… (Eq. 3.7)

The residue matrices 𝑅m*, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . ., 𝑁m are defined by:

…………………… (Eq. 3.8)

19
It can be shown that the rank of the matrix 𝑅m is 𝑚 that 𝑅m can be decomposed as:

…………………… (Eq. 3.9)

with 𝜓m a vector representing the “modal shape” of mode 𝑚. From the above H(s)
equation, it is obvious that the full transfer function matrix is completely
characterized by the modal parameters, the poles 𝜆𝑚 = −𝜎𝑚 + 𝑖𝜔𝑑, and the mode shape
vectors 𝜓𝑚, 𝑚 = 1,2, . . ., 𝑁𝑚.

There are many methods to find the eigenvalues like Givens Method, Householder’s
Method, Lanczos’ Method, Inverse Power Method, etc. The algorithm used in this
project was the Lanczos’ Method as it overcomes the limitations and combines the
best features of the other methods which are iterative in nature thus consuming more
time. It requires that the mass matrix be positive semidefinite, and the stiffness be
symmetric. Like the transformation methods, it does not miss roots, but has the
efficiency of the tracking methods, because it only makes the calculations necessary
to find the roots requested by the user. This method computes accurate eigenvalues
and eigenvectors. Unlike the other methods, its performance has been continually
enhanced since its introduction giving it an advantage. The Lanczos’ method is the
preferred method for most medium- to large-sized problems, since it has a
performance advantage over other methods.

A real structure has infinite degrees of freedom. However, the analytical model has a
finite number of degrees of freedom and the question is how many degrees of freedom
need to be considered. To address this issue. to the concept of modal effective mass is
introduced. Each Normal Mode depicts a certain percentage of the total mass, called
the modal effective mass. Theoretically speaking when a normal mode is reached
where the modal effective mass is 85% of the total mass, the range of frequencies
considered in the modal analysis should take care of the total mass of the structure.
However, it is difficult to capture the exact total mass within the finite element model.
Hence, 85% of the total mass is acceptable and can be calculated as modal effective
mass in MSC NASTRAN Normal Modes analysis.

20
There are a few reasons why Normal Mode / Modal Analysis is necessary –

1. To assess the dynamic interaction between a component and its supporting

structure
2. Decisions regarding subsequent dynamic analyses (i.e., transient response,
frequency response, etc.) can be based on the results of modal analysis.
3. Design changes can also be evaluated by using natural frequencies and normal
modes.

3.4 Fatigue:
Fatigue is a failure under a repeated or otherwise varying load which never
reaches a level sufficient to cause failure in a single application. It can also be thought
of as the initiation and growth of a crack, or growth from a pre-existing defect, until it
reaches a critical size, such as separation into two or more parts.

Figure 3.2: Fatigue Five Tick Box

Any Fatigue Analysis model follows the concept of Fatigue “Five Tick Box” shown
in figure 2.2. The first three boxes show the inputs necessary for life estimation. The
fourth box is for analysis and the last one is results. [6]

1. Cyclic Material Information: Materials behave differently when subjected to

cyclic loading as opposed to when they are subjected to monotonic loading.
Cyclic Properties are determined from material tests where loading is cycled
and reversed until failure at different load levels.

21
 2. Service Loading Information: Proper specification of the load variation is
extremely important for accurate life estimation. The loading can be defined in
various manners. It can be time dependent, frequency dependent or can be in
the form of a spectrum depending on the type of fatigue analysis to be done.
3. Geometry Information: Geometry has a different meaning depending on
whether the point of discussion is a finite element model or a test specimen. In
the case of a test specimen, the geometry input would be the stress
concentration factor, Kt since the point of failure is away from the actual point
of measurement. The corresponding role in a FE Model is to produce fields of
Kt over the entire model with the added point that the local stress
concentration factors are in the form of stress tensors.
4. Analysis: It is important for the above three inputs to be accurate since the
analysis procedure for fatigue is logarithmic i.e., 10% error in any field could
result in 100% error in the fatigue result. In a conventional finite element-
based fatigue analysis, the 4th box often contains both the stress prediction
and fatigue life calculation.
5. Results: The last box pertains to postprocessing and result evaluation. This can
take on the form of color contours on a finite element model or a tabular
listing but also quite often leads back into the three inputs to see what effect
variations of these inputs will have on the life prediction. This is referred to as
a sensitivity study.

Life Estimation depends on two major relationships as shown in Figure 3.3:

1. Relation between loading environment to the stresses and strains in the

component.
2. Relation of stresses and strains to the life of the component.

22
 Figure 3.3: Life Estimation Process

There are 3 main methods used to predict fatigue life. It is important to understand
when to use which method.

1. Stress Life (S-N or Total Life) - Long life or High Cycle Fatigue (HCF)
problems, where there is little Plasticity since the S-N method is based on
nominal stress. Components where crack initiation or crack growth modeling
is not appropriate, e.g., composites, welds, plastics, and other non-ferrous
materials. Also used in situations when situations where large amounts of pre-
existing S-N data exist.
2. Strain Life (S-N or Crack Initiation) - Mostly defect free, metallic structures or
components. Components where crack initiation is the important Failure
Criterion. Locating the point(s) where cracks may initiate, and hence the
growth of a crack should be considered.
3. Crack Growth (Damage Tolerant Design) - Pre-cracked structures or
structures which must be presumed to be already cracked when manufactured
such as welds. Prediction of test programs to avoid testing components where
cracks will not grow.

The procedure used in this project is the Stress Life or Total Life Approach.

As mentioned earlier, fatigue analysis requires three main inputs: geometry, materials,
and the cyclic load variations. Special material properties are used in the form of
stress-life (S-N). The plasticity that occurs due to the cyclic loading is built into these
curves and methods used as look up tables and corrections to equate linear stress

23
(range and mean) to life. The cyclic variations of the loading are defined in typical
table format and are used to scale the stress distribution. Multiple, simultaneously
applied loads are combined using the principle of linear superposition to produce the
stress time variations. These time histories are then processed through a "rain flow”
cycle count algorithm to determine the range and mean of each stress cycle. Damage
is determined using the tried-and-true methods of the total life (S-N) to determine
fatigue life. Damage from all cycles is summed and reported as life values. Multiple
loading events can be strung together to form a sequence of events, commonly known
as a duty cycle, shown in Figure 2.4. Damage from each event is summed to give life
due to the entire duty cycle.

Figure 3.4: Depiction of Superposition of Loads to give Stress distribution.

3.5 Classical Lamination Theory:

In the structural application of a composite, multiple laminae of unidirectional
composites are stacked at various angles to form a laminate. The sequence of stacking
and orientations of the layers give the laminate designer added freedom to optimize
the design with respect to strength, stiffness, buckling load, vibration response, panel
flutter or other performance objectives.

The importance of the classical lamination theory is to predict the laminate behavior
from a knowledge of the material properties of the individual layers and the geometry
of the laminate.

Classical lamination theory is based upon the following simplifying engineering

assumptions.

1. Each layer is thin and constructed of macroscopically homogeneous,

orthotropic, linear-elastic material.

24
 2. The entire laminate and all of the individual layers are assumed to be in a state
of plane stress.
3. The layers are perfectly bonded together.
4. The Kirchhoff hypothesis is invoked, i.e., plane, normal cross sections of the
entire laminate before deformation remain plane, normal to the deflected
middle surface, and do not change in thickness.

3.6 Failure Theories for Composites:

While analyzing isotropic materials, strength is not dependent on the orientation
of the body and the maximum principal stress can be compared to the allowable to
understand the integrity of the structure. However, Orthotropic materials may exhibit
different properties for tension and compression separately. Thus, the strength of
these orthotropic laminae is a function of body orientation relative to the imposed
stresses.

The set of established allowable stresses in the principal material directions are given
as follows:

Xt = Allowable tensile stress in the principal x (or 1) direction of the material.

Xc = Allowable compressive stress in the principal x (or 1) direction of the material.

Yt = Allowable tensile stress in the principal y (or 2) direction of the material.

Yc = Allowable compressive stress in the principal y (or 2) direction of the material.

S = Allowable shear stress in the principal material system.

Expressions for the different failure indices are shown in Table 3.5:

25
 Table 3.5: Failure Theories

Failure Theory used was Tsai Wu.

The theory of strength for anisotropic materials proposed by Tsai and Wu specialized
to the case of an orthotropic lamina in a general state of plane stress is

……………… (Eq. 3.10)

Where,

= …………………… (Eq. 3. 11)

= …………………… (Eq. 3. 12)

= …………………… (Eq. 3.13)

= …………………… (Eq. 3.14)

=+ …………………… (Eq. 3.15)

26
 in the given Tsai Wu Failure Criteria is to be determined experimentally.

The magnitude of is constrained by the following inequality called Stability

Criterion:

…………………… (Eq. 3.16)

The failure index of the bonding material will be calculated as the maximum
allowable inter laminar shear stress divided by the allowable of the banding material.

27
CHAPTER-4
 CHAPTER-4
PROJECT METHODOLOGY

4.1 Problem Definition:

It is a widely known fact that many disciplines such as security, agriculture,
etc. are using drones in order to improve accessibility, provide more automated
outcomes and also speed up many processes. In fact, the full form of the word
‘Drone’ is Dynamic Remotely Operated Navigation Equipment. These drones carry a
certain amount of payload and are subjected to constant cyclic loading on landing,
taking off, cruising and maneuvering. This cyclic loading induces fatigue in critical
parts of the drone and if not kept in check, would lead to failure. Hence, it is
important to study the fatigue of the given model and estimate the fatigue life of the
drone in order to avoid any situation that leads to failure of any component of the
drone. This is also important from the commercial angle.

4.2 Project Methodology:

An initial drone model, provided by a Design Agency, was divided into the
main hub and rotor tubes group and the landing gear group. The existing landing gear,
as originally proposed, was replaced by a new landing gear designed and connectivity
was re-established. Normal Mode analysis was performed to ensure the connectivity
of the model. Four Point and Two Point loads were applied subsequently as transient
load in order to perform a transient response. This was expected to simulate the
Landing Impact. The load was then converted into a cyclic load for fatigue analysis.
Fatigue material properties were applied to the parts of the landing gear and fatigue
analysis, using the CAE Fatigue module, was performed.

28
 Figure 4.1: Methodology

4.3 Propeller Model:

In this research project, the model used is a two-bladed propeller with 13
inches diameter and 4 inches pitch. This propeller was initially measured using a
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) to observe the length, diameter and pitch of
the propeller shows in Figure 3.1 to Figure 3.3. Thus, all the measured value are
stated in Appendix.

Figure 4.2: Slide profile of propeller on CMM machine

29
 Figure 4.3: Top profile of propeller on CMM machine

Figure 4.4: Slide profile curve of propeller on CMM machine

The basic design was initially assessed numerically by utilizing the dynamic computer
fluid software ANSYS Fluent. In order to evaluate the number setup for forecasting
the propellant performance, the numerical analytical results are compared to
experimental data [34]. The propeller was then developed using the 2020 version.

Figure 4.5: Top view of propeller on ansys

30
 Figure 4.6: Isometric view of propeller

4.4 Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD):

Figure 4.7 depicts a typical ANSYS Workbench configuration. First, an

analysis in Fluent is performed to determine the pressure distribution of the propeller.
After that, the meshing in Static Structural is completed to the structural analysis.
Finally, for rotational speeds of 3000 RPM and 6000 RPM, the total deformation,
maximum stress, and strain acting on the propeller will be determined.

Figure 4.7: ANSYS Software Workbench

4.4.1 Computational domain:

The computer domain is separated into two areas: rotating and stationary
areas. The rotating area, which consists of a smaller cylinder with a full blade of the

31
propeller, has a diameter of 0.4D and 1,5D. Meanwhile, the stationary domain has a
2.7D upstream and 4.7D downstream imitation zone, in order to avoid recirculation of
flow in the rotating region that would affect the analysis result. Figure 4.7 and Figure
4.8 define and display the domain. The dimension used were taken for the exists
experimental analyses done by researchers [35]

Figure 4.8 Isometric and side view of Rotating and stationary domain

4.4.2 Meshing:

In both the moving and stationary regions, the grid is completely tetrahedral
unstructured meshing. The use of completely tetrahedral mesh is justified by the fact
that the grids can discretize complicated geometry with minimal user interaction. 20
Furthermore, it takes less computing time and captures the boundary layer condition
to enable a successful analysis. The meshing is improved on the blade and
progressively enlarged to stationary area to better capture the boundary layer. This is
done to ensure that the blade area concentrates more on the validity of the analysis,
the convergence rate and the time required for calculating.

32
 Figure 4.9: Stationary region views mesh

4.4.3 Boundary condition:

The domain built around the propeller model was subjected to a symmetrical
boundary constraint. The domain's inlet and outlet are located, with the inlet velocity
and pressure visualized at the inlet geometry and outflow velocities, respectively. It is
set as outflow at the outlet boundary condition. Outflow is chosen when no
information about the exit flow, such as velocity or pressure, is available prior to the
analysis. Table 4.2 Boundary Condition parameters Boundary condition Inputs 23
Solver Pressure based Velocity Formulation Absolute Time Transient Model Viscous
(k-omega SST with curvature correction) Material Fluid(air), Solid (Aluminum) Table
4.2 describes the boundary conditions applied to the propeller model and the
rectangular domain of the propeller. In the domain of the model, the inlet and outlet
sections are established before introducing boundary conditions. The velocity of air is
increased as it travels from the domain's intake to its outlet. The propeller part is
designed with a rotatory axis to provide rotation when hitting a target. This domain's
rotation was accomplished using Multiple Reference Frames.

4.4.4 Post Processing Setup:

The transient-based solver was chosen because it works well in incompressible

and moderately compressible flows. Thus, there are fewer terms in the steady-state
simulation, it is easier to convergence. These analyses were conducted fully using
omega SST turbulence model with curvature correction at fixed rotational speed of
3000 RPM and then followed by 6000 RPM. On the inlet flow domain, the inlet
velocity is set as 10 m/s meanwhile turbulence intensity is set to be 1%. In addition, a
Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure-Linked Equations is used to create pressure–

33
velocity coupling (SIMPLE). Momentum and pressure were calculated using the
Second Order Upwind method. The gradients were calculated using the First Order
Upwind for both Turbulent Kinetic Energy and Turbulent Dissipation Rate, as well as
the Least Square Cell-based Algorithm. For this investigation, first order algorithms
produced accurate findings. Throughout the experiment, 30 iterations per time step
were employed. And, for each angular velocity, 24 the solution stabilization of the
flow near to the rotor took roughly 500-time steps. When the variance in thrust was
less than 5%, this stability was accomplished.

4.4.5 Static Structural Analysis:

ANSYS Static Structural Workbench was used in this computational

simulation to study the structural analysis of the propeller blade. The sections that
follow describe the procedure for determining von-Mises maximum stress, von-Mises
maximum strain, and total deformation.

4.4.6 Engineering Data:

For this investigation, carbon fiber-reinforced plastics (CFRP) and aluminum

alloy are the materials utilized. The mechanical characteristics are taken from [38].
Table 3.3 gives information about the material.

Table 4.1 Material properties

CFRP is categorized as composite material which also a lightweight material,

corrosion resistance, requires low maintenance and it is easy to make compact design.
These characteristics should be taken into consideration so that the propeller will not
easily break. There has been the contraption in the aeronautical industry. CFRP
material can be used for scenic photography from the raised position.

34
CHAPTER-5
 CHAPTER-5
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF A HEXACOPTER DRONE
5.1 Pollution monitoring:

The development of unmanned aerial vehicles or drones was initially

mysterious for the reason that it was mostly used for military purposes. Today it is
used in all segments of life from military, civilian to recreational. Their landing and
take-off can be done with and on various surfaces from grassy, sandy to asphalted.
The use of unmanned aerial vehicle’s drones, used for civilian purposes, has
increased, both in terms of their number, size and weight, and in terms of their
application. P The subject of this paper is the design and stress-strain analysis of the
composite frame of a drone - hexacopter Tarot 680 PRO. First, a 3D geometric model
of the hexacopter in the SolidWorks software package was created, and the existing
model was analysed, using the finite element method, in the same software package.
The Tarot 680 PRO hexacopter, the design and analysis of which will be discussed in
more detail below, is a multirotor aircraft that can be used for various purposes, but
has so far been used for the following purposes:

• Determination of air parameters, such as pressure, temperature, humidity,

concentrations of various substances in the air and pollution monitoring
• Pollution monitoring is especially useful in cities located in valleys (such as
Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia and Herzegovina)

Figure 5.1: Hexacopter Tarot 680 PRO

35
5.2 3D Geometric Modelling:
In this paper, the landing mechanism and the hexacopter lifting mechanism will
be considered. For this purpose, the subassembly of the landing gear (Fig 6.2) and the
subassembly of the take-off mechanism (Fig. b) were modelled in the Solid Works
software package

Figure 5.2: Hexacopter landing and take-off subassembly

Saric et lathe subassembly of the hexacopter landing mechanism consists of 16 parts

which are separately modeled in the Part design module and assembled into one
whole in the Assembly design module The second subassembly, i.e. the take-off
mechanism, consists of 17 parts.

5.3 Material for Making Hexacopter:

Before studying the behavior of an unmanned aerial vehicle (hexacopter), it is
necessary to know the materials used. The study of materials is performed in several
steps, where the first, basic step is the research of the materials used, in order to make
the most accurate model of finite elements and their analysis to get an overview of the
behavior of materials. Unmanned aerial vehicles are mostly made of composite
materials [7,8]. The material used for the analysis of the considered hexacopter is
carbon T300/PR319.The material is reinforced with epoxy resin, cured at a
temperature of 175 °C, with a fiber volume fraction of 55%. The composite has the
mechanical properties

36
5.4 Analytical Calculation of the Hexacopter Stress State:

To simplify the test, the observed 3D geometric model of the hexacopter was
decomposed into two subassemblies as already mentioned.

5.4.1 Analysis of the Hexacopter Takeoff Subsequently:

The analysis of the first subassembly or mechanism for take-off of the aircraft is
per-formed by simulating the conditions during take-off. Figure 3shows the load
mode of the take-off mechanism.

FIGURE 5.3: Take-off mechanism load

The stress occurring in the support 1 represents the maximum bending stress
σS1.From the equilibrium conditions, it is possible to determine the forces acting on
the lever of the take-off mechanism. Stresses and displacements on the inner diameter
pipe14 mm and outer diameter 16 mm are observed.

M2=0 …………………… (Eq. 5.1)

Fϕd1−F1(d2−d1) =0 …………………… (Eq. 5.2)

FY=0 …………………… (Eq. 5.3)

F2=F1−Fϕ …………………… (Eq. 5.4)

Where is:

Fϕ=25 N- maximum thrust force on the levers.

The maximum can be determined from the expression:

37
 σSmax =M1·y/I=M1·y/(D41−D42) ·π64 (5) …………………… (Eq 5.5)

The maximum deflection of the lever can be determined from the expression:

f=F·l33·E·Ix …………………… (Eq 5.6)

By including known values in the expressions, the following values were obtained,
Smax =39,1MPa; f=4,31 mm

5.4.2 Hexacopter Landing Subassembly Analysis:

The stresses exerted on the drone’s legs during its landing are tested as separate
cases, and in each test, it is assumed that the drone will land on one leg at full weight.
Loads acting on the landing gear are bending, torsional and bending stresses. Figure
shows the load mode of the landing gear.

Figure 5.4 Landing mechanism load

The compressive stress can be determined by the following expression:

σp=FN·sin72,68◦π4[d2−d1] …………………… (Eq. 5.7)

The bending stress is obtained from the expression:

σS = MS·yI = MS·y [d1−d2] ·π64 (8) …………………… (Eq 5.8)

The torsional stress is obtained from the expression:

τ=MUW=MU · yIo …………………… (Eq 5.4)

The principal stresses of the vertical pipe are calculated from the expression:

σ12=σx+σy2±12[σx − σy]2+4·τ2xy (10) …………………… (Eq 5.5)

38
By including known values in the expressions, the following values were obtained,

σp=1,13 MPa; σS=18,32 MPa; τ=7,58 MPa; σ1=−1,09 MPa, σ2=−25,7MP

5.5 Stress Analysis of Hexacopter Structure:

With the help of calculation and simulation tools, integrated in SolidWorks, the
con-strictions can be tested in conditions very close to those in which it will be in
operation. Structural analysis at SolidWorks covers a wide range of issues. The first
step in Reanalysis is to assign the material, after which we move on to generating a
mesh of finite elements [9–11]. Then, the restrictions of movement and loads that act
on the observed subassembly are defined. Figure 5a shows the FEM model of the
take-off mechanism lever with a defined finite element mesh consisting of 375680
finite elements.

Figure 5.5: Handle model

Figure 5.1 shows the FEM model of a landing gear with a defined finite element mesh
consisting of 112907 finite elements, 191387 nodes where the element size is 2 mm.
After the calculation, the results of the numerical analysis will be presented. Figure
6ashows the Von Mises stresses and displacements in Fig. 6b of the hexacopter take-
off mechanism.

39
 Figure 5.6: Von Mises stresses and deformation of the take-off mechanism lever

Figure 7a shows the Von Mises stresses of the hexacopter landing mechanism. Also,
in this part a vertical pipe was observed. Figure 7b shows the principal stresses
σ1andσ2on the vertical pipe. A comparison of the results of the analytical calculation
and numerical analysis for the take-off lever is shown in Table 2. As this is pure
bending, for this reason only Von Misses stress was taken into consideration in the
numerical analysis. Nodes where the element size is 2 mm. After the calculation, the
results of the numerical analysis will be presented. Figure 6ashows the Von Mises
stresses and displacements in Fig. 5.7b of the hexacopter take-off mechanism

Figure 5.7: Von Mises and principal stresses the subassembly for landing

40
 Table 5.1: Results of analytical and numerical calculations if the take – off
mechanism

Comparison of the results of the analytical calculation and the numerical analysis of
the landing mechanism are shown in Table-2

Table 5.2: results of analytical and numerical calculations of the landing mechanism

41
CHAPTER-6
 CHAPTER-6
NUMERICAL STUDIES OF DRONE MODEL

6.1 Subsystems of Drone:

Drone FEM depicted in Figure 6.1

1. Hub: The central portion of the drone having a cavity in its middle to carry the
payload assigned to the drone. It comprises of two plates horizontally placed
parallel to each other and connected by six vertical plates.
2. Rotor Tube: Main tubes connecting the hub to the rotor hub and blades. In the
drone, which is being analyzed in this report, there are six such tubes.
3. Landing Gear: Cantilever type landing gear structure, connected to the hub of
the drone through attachments and bolts. It is vital part of the drone body as it
has to bear the impact during landing and also support its static weight. Hence
correct design and analysis of a drone’s landing gear is vital to avoid
significant damage to the end product.

Figure 6.1: Drone FE Model

42
6.2 Complexity involved in the FE Analysis of the Drone:
The Hexacopter Agri-Drone, being considered in the present study, has a
complex and dense finite element model. All the load bearing components such as the
landing gear tubes, the rotor tubes and also structural elements like the hub plates
have all been meshed using 2D quadrilateral elements, for the sake of simplifying the
analysis, shown in Figure 6.2. The element size 2mm which leads to an extremely fine
mesh. All connector elements were meshed using 3D tetrahedral elements. All
connections were made using Rigid Body Elements and Bushings in order to simulate
bolts.

Figure 6.2: Highlighting element types on different parts of the drone

6.3 Materials:

1. Aluminium 6061 T6 – This alloy of Aluminium has Zinc as its primary alloying
element. Exhibits good ductility, high strength, toughness, and good resistance
to fatigue. Mainly utilized in aerospace applications. The mechanical properties
of this alloy depend on the tempering (Heat Treatment) of the material. T6
temper is achieved by homogenizing the cast 6061 at 450°C for several hours,
quenching, and then ageing at 120°C for 24 hours.

43
 E = 71.7GPa

Yield Stress = 265MPa

Ultimate Tensile Strength = 305MPa

Figure 6.3: S-N Curve for Aluminum 6061 T6

2. Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic - T300 3k/EA9396 8-harness satin weave

fabric.

Fiber - T300 3k fibers are continuous carbon filaments made from PAN precursor,
surface treated to improve handling characteristics and structural properties. Filament
count is 3,000 filaments per tow.

Matrix - EA9396 is a 200°F curing toughened epoxy resin with improved hot/wet
properties. 75-minute pot life for 1 lb. batch. This resin is a two-part, unfilled version
of EA 9394.

Properties have been taken from the composite materials handbook

Ex = 51760MPa

Ey = 51760MPa

Gxy = 3516MPa

Rho = 1.8e-6 kg/mm3

Xt = 406.43 MPa

44
Yt = 406.43 MPa

Xc = 365.78 MPa

Yc = 365.78 MPa

IPS = 33MPa

Allowable shear stress of the bonding material = 25.172MPa

As mentioned above, the hub and the rotor tubes of the drone are made of T300
CFRP. It was modelled in the software using Classical Lamination Theory (CLT).

6.4 Static Analysis:

The weight of the drone is calculated to be 37.8kg.

Static Analysis was done for two conditions on the model.

1. Four Point Landing: This is the type of landing where the whole base of the
landing gear is parallel to the ground below. This is a case of normal lading
and is the most common in any regular situation.
2. The forces for this condition need to be applied at four points at the base of the
landing gear.

Figure 6.4: Points of application of load for 4 Point condition

45
3. Two Point Landing: A couple of times, the drone might accidentally land
slanted such that in its initial touchdown, only one of the sides of the landing
gear touches the ground and experiences the entire landing load.

4. For both conditions, the vertical landing speed (Sink Rate) considered was
0.3m/s. For Four Point landing the load at each point was calculated as 5.7kg
and for 2-point landing it was calculated as 16.2 kg.

5. The performance of any structural FE model strongly depends on the accuracy

of the relevant material properties. For the type of analysis discussed here,
stiffness and mass properties are important.

Figure 6.5: Points of Application of Forces for 2-Point Loading

46
 Table 6.1: Loading on Four points of the Landing Gear

6.5 Calculation of Load for Four Point:

Given Load acting at each of these point = 5.7kg * 9.81m/s^2 = 55.917N

Considering Factor of Safety of 1.5 (RPAS Certification Criteria) = 55.917 * 1.5 =

83.8755N

Total Force including all the points = 83.8755 * 4 = 335.502N

6.6 Static Analysis Results:

Table 6.2: Overall Load Resultant Table

Table 6.2 & Table 6.3 shows the Applied Load Resultant and the Constraint Forces.
It is observed that the values are equal and opposite in sign confirming static
equilibrium.

47
Table 6.3: Reaction Forces Resultant Table

Figure 6.6: Stress Plot for 2 Point Landing

Figure 6.7: Stress Plot for 4 Point Landing

48
Figure 6.6 and Figure 6.7 show the stress plots for Two Point landing and Four Point
landing, respectively. This gives the value for maximum stress and its location. An
enlarged image of the stress hotspot is shown in Figure 6.8.

For 2-Point Landing, Maximum Stress = 179.171MPa

For 4-Point Landing, Maximum Stress = 67.210MPa

Figure 6.8: Enlarged Image of Stress Hotspot for 4 Point Landing

6.7 Normal Modes Analysis:

Since the model is in free-free condition, the first six natural frequencies
extracted from the analysis are rigid body modes. From the seventh mode, flexible
modes are observed. Figures 6.9 through 4.12 depict modes seven through ten.

Figure 6.9: Mode 7

49
Figure 6.10: Mode 8

Figure 6.11: Mode 9

50
 Figure 6.12: Mode 10

After performing the above to analyses, it is evident that the stress concentration is
maximum at the Landing Gear since to has to withstand the most amount of loading.
Hence, subsequent dynamic and fatigue analysis was done on the model of the
landing gear alone as:

1. To simplify the analysis process

2. If any component was to fail first, it would be the landing gear.

The landing gear was converted from a cantilever structure to a simply supported
structure to improve stress distribution.

51
 Figure 6.13: Previous Configuration of Landing Gear – Cantilever Type

Figure 6.14: New configuration of Landing Gear – Simply Supported Type

52
6.8 Cyclic Load Variation:

Table 6.4: Load Variation Tabulation

Descent Speed Load (N)

Load (m/s)
Case
F1 F2 R1 R2

1
127.86 127.86 127.86 127.86
0.30
2
255.71 0.00 255.71 0.00

3
204.57 204.57 204.57 204.57

4
0.00 409.14 0.00 409.14
0.50
5
409.14 409.14 0.00 0.00

6
0.00 0.00 409.14 409.14

7
294.07 294.07 294.07 294.07
0.75
8
588.14 0.00 588.14 0.00

9
389.96 389.96 389.96 389.96
1.00
10
0.00 779.93 0.00 779.93

53
 Figure 6.15: Points of Load Application (Refer Table 4.4)

Table 6.4 shows the different loads at different points on the base of the landing gear
as shown in the figure 6.15, at different descent speeds. All the load cases shown in
the table are considered to be cyclic loading, depicting different types of landing i.e.,
four-point or two-point landing.

Load cases 1, 3, 7 and 9 depict four-point landing and Load Cases 2, 4, 5, 6, 8 and 10
depict two-point landing of different combinations.

The loads depicted are the maximum possible load of the entire cycle of load for each
decent speed. These maximum loads are considered as the worst-case scenario to get
the lowest number of cycles to failure.

54
CHAPTER-7
 CHAPTER-7
VIBRATION ANALYSIS OF UAV HEXACOPTER FRAME

7.1 Motor-propeller induced vibrations:

In the process of numerical modal analysis on the proposed Hexacopter frame,

the accurate analysis of the main vibration sources is crucial. The outlined approach
mainly consists of two phases: (i) experimental determination of the vibration sources
and (ii) its implementation in the structural FE model.

7.2 Experimental determination:

The first phase accurately quantifies the main sources that induce structural
vibrations. The main vibration sources during normal operation of the Hexacopter are
the different motor – propeller units. In order to perform an accurate FE vibration
analysis, the vibrations induced by these virtually identical drive units are
experimentally determined. Two similar test setups are considered for this, one for the
measurement of axial oscillating forces and a second one to measure the radial
vibration forces. Figure 2 illustrates the test setup in which two force transducers are
mounted between the electric motor housing and the environment. Two transducers
are considered in order to minimize the erroneous effect of the force cells also
capturing bending moments instead of pure uniaxial forces.

Figure 7.1: Experimental setup for radial vibration force measurements

55
Both the axial and radial vibrations are determined at different rotational speeds,
ranging from 200 to 14500 rpm. Three cases are considered: motor without propeller,
motor with wooden propeller and motor with plastic propeller. Figure 3 shows a
typical recorded radial force signal for motor induced vibration in the case where no
propeller is mounted.

Figure 7.2: Experimentally determined dynamic radial force

The overall low recorded force levels in case no propeller is mounted, indicate that
the latter is the main source for both axial and radial vibrations. Figure 4 shows the
radial force spectrum in case a plastic 10” propeller is mounted. The rotation
frequency during this test is 86 Hz, corresponding to 5160 rpm. When a standard
plastic propeller is installed, the registered radial vibration force amplitude ranges
from 0.1 N at 500 rpm to 5.9 N at 4000 rpm (8” plastic propeller). The stated (nearly)
quadratic relation between the force amplitude and rotation frequency clearly
indicates propeller unbalance.

7.3 Implementation in the structural FE model

In a second phase, the experimentally determined axial and radial vibration

patterns, discussed above, are processed so that they can be implemented in a
structural numerical FE model. During normal usage of the considered hexacopter
platform and dictated by flight conditions, the six nominally identical motor propeller
units act as different vibration sources because their rotation speed can be controlled
individually. This causes the vibration force amplitudes to be different for each drive
unit. Moreover, the phase difference between all units is random at any time. For
reasons of computational efficiency, the vibration force spectra, taco probe propeller
force transducer motor housing and support MODAL TESTING: METHODS AND
CASE STUDIES 2331 captured for each drive unit at different rotation speeds, are

56
combined to single excitation force spectra for both axial and radial cases. This is
done in a bandwidth of 600 Hz. The spectrum in figure 5 shows the obtained axial
force excitation that is used for the structural FE vibration analysis.

Figure 7.3 Spectrum of experimentally determined dynamic radial force

This approach enables to provide a structural FE model of the hexacopter chassis with
radial and axial excitation force spectra. These force spectra are applied at the motor
fixation points, as indicated by figure 7.3. The mass of each drive unit is added to the
model as a discrete mass, located at the centering collar. captured for each drive unit
at different rotation speeds, are combined to single excitation force spectra for both
axial and radial cases. This is done in a bandwidth of 600 Hz. The spectrum in figure
7.4 shows the obtained axial force excitation that is used for the structural FE
vibration analysis.

57
 Figure 7.4 Axial force spectrum applied in FE structural model

7.4 Experimental model analysis on the Hexacopter frame:

This section describes the process of the experimental vibration analysis of the
hexacopter frame and its individual components. Specific attention is given to the
estimation of relevant elastic material properties by means of reverse engineering.

Figure 7.5: Indication of drive unit mass & force excitation in FE model

7.4.1 Estimation of important elastic material properties:

The performance of any structural FE model strongly depends on the accuracy of

the relevant material properties. For the type of analysis discussed here, stiffness and
mass properties are important. This study applies a mixed experimental-numerical
approach to estimate these characteristics for the materials of the main structural

58
components of the hexacopter frame which are the six tubular arms (1), the centre
plates (2) and the clamping blocks (3), as illustrated by figure 7.6.

Figure 7.6: Main structural parts in the hexacopter frame

For each of the components mentioned above the geometry and mass are measured
accurately. To estimate the stiffness characteristics of the tubes, for instance, one of
these is rigidly clamped using the corresponding and subjected to hammer excitation
tests. The frequency response function in figure 8 clearly shows two resonance
frequencies in the frequency range considered. The bending mode occurs at 130 Hz
while the second one has a frequency of 984 Hz.

Figure 7.7: Registered frequency response function for arm assembly

Modelling this experiment by providing the same boundary conditions to the

clamping blocks and applying a FE model updating [6] routine yields a modulus of
elasticity of 28.5 GPa and a mass density of 1647 kg/m³ for the tube material. The
same reverse engineering yields the stiffness of the centre plates. Standard bolts joints
(Metric thread M4) are used to join the clamping blocks to the tubular arms on the
side of the centre plate and to fix the drive units to the arms on the other side. In the
FE model they are considered as cylindrical steel rods, with their correct mass
incorporated in the model.

59
7.5 Hammer Excitation tests in complete frame:

The complete hexacopter frame is assembled and subjected to vibration tests. In

order to eliminate boundary effects, the frame is elastically suspended, The impulse
hammer excitation method is used for the experimental modal analysis. Three
lightweight accelerometers of 0.5 grams each capture the dynamic response of the
structure. A set of 75 excitation points is considered along the complete structure. In a
frequency range of 800 Hz, 7 resonance mode shapes can clearly be defined. Table
7.1 gives an overview. The next section describes how these experimental results are
implemented to validate the FE dynamic model of the structure.

Table 7.1: Frequencies & damping ratios

7.6 Numerical model analysis :

This section outlines the approach that is used to analyse the hexacopter’s
frame dynamics by means of structural FE modelling. The applied approach is
twofold. Firstly, the resonance behaviour of the frame is calculated under free
boundary conditions. Secondly, vibration levels at the centre plate are determined.
This is relevant because all electronic devices (control, applications) are mounted on
this plate.

7.6.1 Structural resonances:

A FE model of the whole hexacopter frame is constructed. For this purpose,

the center plates and the tubular arms are meshed using shell elements while the
clamping blocks are meshed using volume elements. All bolt connections are
modelled as rod elements to include their stiffness in the model. The additional
masses of the bold heads, nuts and washers are added to the model as discrete masses.
For each of the six drive units (motor and propeller), only the total mass is discretized
at the four fixation slots and the circular collar. Table 7.2 visualizes a set of seven
obtained resonances (frequencies and mode shapes) and compares the simulation with
the experiments from section 3. Mode shapes are compared using the MAC [7]. Table
2 clearly indicates a good match between the experimental and numerical results. The
60
following paragraph incorporates the vibration excitations of the six drive units into
the FE model and uses the model to calculate the vibration levels at different locations
on the center plate.

7.6.2 Dynamic response at critical locations:

Once the resonance behavior of the hexacopter structure is determined and a

good FE model is established, this can be used to perform an application related
vibration analysis. In this case, the model is used to calculate vibration levels of the
Centre plate, more specific at the locations which are used to mount electronic devices
and circuit boards. On the one hand, this analysis is necessary for durability
estimation of electronic components used. On the other hand, it is relevant to estimate
the stability of on-board optical sensors and cameras. The radial and axial drive unit
vibrations, characterized in section 2, are incorporated into the structural FE model.

As mentioned in section 2 the six drive units act independently from each other to
some extent. In the application context this is necessary for reasons of controllability
of the aircraft. Therefore, the corresponding six radial excitation force spectra are
applied with a random mutual phase angle shift. At this stage of the research, the six
axial excitation force spectra are modelled identically.

This relates to the application situation where all drive units rotate with the same
speed. Figure 10 shows a calculated FRF that illustrates the vibration deformation at
one of the fixation points at the upper Centre. This section outlines the approach that
is used to analyse the hexacopter’s frame dynamics by means of structural FE
modelling. The applied approach is twofold. Firstly, the resonance behaviour of the
frame is calculated under free boundary conditions. Secondly, vibration levels at the
centre plate are determined. This is relevant because all electronic devices (control,
applications) are mounted on this plate.

The mass of each drive unit is added to the model as a discrete mass, located at the
centering collar. captured for each drive unit at different rotation speeds, are
combined to single excitation force spectra for both axial and radial cases. This is
done in a bandwidth of 600 Hz. The spectrum in figure 7.7 shows the obtained axial
force excitation that is used for the structural FE vibration analysis.

61
 Figure 7.7: Indication of A1 location on centre plate; Lower; example of calculated
FRF’s at different directions X, Y, and Z at location A1

The calculated vibration levels, in figure 10 for example, give a clear indication of the
expected operational vibrations that occur during normal usage of the device. This
should be taken into account when selecting and mounting electronic components on
the frame.

7.7 Research prospects:

This article discusses the application of the modal analysis technique on a

Hexacopter chassis. In the context of RPAS, a thorough dynamic structural analysis is
novel up till now. However, it is most relevant and crucial to uptake this type of
analysis in any new RPAS design. This paper discussed the applied methods in
general. It shows that a sound balance between experimental and numerical work
yields very accurate and reliable results.

62
CHAPTER-8
 CHAPTER 8

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

All the load cases shown in Table 4.4 were superposed with each other and the
superposed function was applied as one duty cycle onto the model as shown in Figure
8.1 in the time load scheduler.

Figure 8.1: CAE Fatigue performing the Fatigue.

8.1 Damage Tolerance:

When the time history is processed, CAE Fatigue uses Rain Flow counting to
give the Damage on the structure based in the duty cycle of loading applied. Figure
8.1 shows the damage to the structure.

Figure 8.2: Damage Plot

63
As seen on the fringes on the right, the maximum damage value is 7.49e-04, which is
a lot lesser than 1. Since damage value is less than one, in one duty cycle, there is no
failure seen.

8.2 Estimated Life:

In a similar way as shown in the previous sub chapter, life of different parts of
the Landing Gear is shown for the given time history in Figure 8.3.

Figure 8.3: Estimated Life

At the base of the landing gear the, the number of cycles crosses 1018 cycles of
loading whereas at the top, it can withstand 1267 cycles of loading. This is a worst-
case scenario since the maximum load for all cyclic loading has been considered and
all load cases have been linearly superposed.

8.3 Interpretation of Results:

In Static Analysis, the Overall Load Resultant and Single Point Constraint
Reaction Forces are balancing each other, meaning that the structure has static
equilibrium.

In Modal Analysis, all flexible modes show continuity in the model. Both static and
normal modes show the landing gear has the maximum stress and least deflection.
Hence only the Landing Gear was considered for Fatigue.

64
In Fatigue analysis, it is to be noted that both maximum damage and least number of
cycles to failure is tending towards the top part of the landing gear although the load
history is at the base of the landing gear. This is due to buckling in the vertical tubes
of the landing gear. Buckling can cause a decrease in life of almost 1014 cycles in
total.

8.4 FEM Handle Model:

Within the work, on the basis of previously obtained real components, the
design, dimensioning and analysis of hexacopters were performed. The 3D virtual
model was developed using the SolidWorks software package, and then the necessary
stress analysis by the finite element method was performed. After 3D modeling, an
analytical load calculation was performed on the hexacopter landing and take-off
mechanism. During the calculation, real loads were used during the landing and take-
off of the hexacopter. After the analytical calculation, a numerical analysis was
performed using the finite element method, where the mechanisms for landing and
taking off hexacopters were observed separately. In FEM analysis, the principal
stresses at characteristic places were observed, as well as displacements or
deformations on the take - off mechanism. After that, a comparison of analytical
calculation and numerical (FEM) analysis of the hexacopter structure was performed.
On that occasion, a good match between the results of these two methods was
established, which verified the numerical method used.

65
CHAPTER-9
 CHAPTER 9

CONCLUSIONS
Drone technology has been a particularly important field in the recent year and
will continue to grow in popularity owing. Analyzing drones for stresses and fatigue
will always be important given the amount of money spent to building them. Most
companies that purchase drones of higher caliber will not want to constantly get it
repaired or replaced. Hence, getting these analyses correct is highly necessary.

I. Static Analysis shows that the drone model satisfies static equilibrium and is
structurally intact.
II. Modal Analysis confirmed the continuity of the model.
III. Landing Gear of any drone model is the prime focus of fatigue analysis due to
the high loads and stresses to faces.
IV. Simply supported landing gear is preferred over a cantilever type landing gear
due to more even load distribution.
V. Fatigue Analysis of the landing gear shows that the landing gear can withstand
1267 load cycles in the worst-case scenario.

66
 FUTURE SCOPE
Mentioned below are the future possibilities of this project:

I. Optimize drone design to increase fatigue life.

II. Usage of newer materials and draw a comparison with current model.
III. Usage of Composites in the entire model and to see how it compares.
IV. Cross corelating the load cases in order to get a more realistic life estimation.
V. Validating the simulation results with real life testing of drone model

67
 References:

[1] Commercial Drone Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Product
(Fixed-wing, Rotary Blade, Hybrid), By Application, By End-use, By Region, And
Segment Forecasts, 2021 – 2028 (Page 1)

[2] Jin-feng LI; Zhuo-wei PENG; Chao-xing LI; Zhi-qiang JIA; Wen-Jing CHEN; Zi-
qiao ZHENG (2008). Mechanical properties, corrosion behaviors and microstructures
of 7075 aluminum alloy with various aging treatments. , 18(4), 0–762. (Page 1-3)

[3] Balachandran, A., Divyesh Karelia, Jayaram ulu Challa and Conceicao Rodrigues.
“MATERIAL SELECTION FOR UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE.” , International
Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology (2014), (Page no. 35 – 38)

[4] Shrotri, Kshitij; Schrage, Daniel (2009). Composite Skid Landing Gear Design
Feasibility. Journal of the American Helicopter Society, 54(4), 042004–. (Page No.
042004-1 to 042004-3)

[5] M Urdea, Stress and Vibration Analysis of a Drone, 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater.
Sci. Eng. 1009 012059 (Page No. 1 – 3)

[6] MSC Nastran 2021.1 Linear Static User Guide (Page No. 18-30)

[7] MSC Nastran 2021.1 Dynamic Analysis User Guide (Page No.42-49)

[8] MSC Nastran 2021.1 Embedded Fatigue User Guide (Page No. 2-8)

[9] Reddy, S. and Yadav, V., "Duty Cycle Fatigue Simulation for Differential
Casing," SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-0813, 2012 (Page No. 1 – 5)

[10] Singh, KL & Ranganath, VR. (2007). Cycle counting using Rain flow algorithm
for fatigue analysis. Structural Integrity Division, NAL (Page No. 301 – 302)

[11] Chen, Jintao & Nie, Hong & Zhang, Zemen & Li, Lichun. (2014). Finite element
linear static structural analysis and modal analysis for Lunar Lander. Journal of
Vibroengineering. 16. (Page No. 399-406.)

68
[12] Pendleton, Richard L.; Tuttle, Mark E. (1989). Manual on Experimental Methods
for Mechanical Testing of Composites || Classical Lamination Theory. , 10.1007/978-
94-009-1129-1(Chapter 3), (Page No. 11–16).

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 Industrial Engineering Journal
ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024

MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF A DRONE FOR A HIGH LIFE CYCLE TO

IDENTIFY THE LIFE AND DAMAGE
Dr. G. Satish1, Mr.P.Chinna2, P. Krishna3, C. Nikith4, P. V. V. S. Mani Konda babu5, D. Venkata Surya Narayana6
1,2
Associate Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Pragati Engineering College, Surampalem, Andhra Pradesh,
India. Email: [email protected]
3,4,5,6
UG Students Department of Mechanical Engineering in Pragati Engineering College, Surampalem, Andhra Pradesh,
India.
Abstract: The worldwide commercial drone sector was anticipated to reach $13.44 billion in 2020.
57.5% compound annual growth is expected between 2021 and 2028. This growth should continue
throughout the period. Recent years have seen drones deployed in many vital sectors to boost efficiency.
These include agriculture, security, emergency requirements, and other industries. Repeated takeoffs and
landings may wear out drone landing gear and structural components. This fatigue might damage the
merchandise. Most drone research has concentrated on improving physical durability, but few have
examined landing gear fatigue. The research analyzed an agricultural drone. We employed Finite
Element Methods. The research estimated landing gear life and identified load and stress points.

The firm's drone model was examined and meshed using MSC Apex. Aluminum 6061 T6 was used for
the landing gear and contacts, and T300 3k/EA9396 8-harness satin weave fabric for the hub and rotor
tubes. This followed available information. The component was unidirectional. A linear static analysis
was performed by loading four places on the landing gear base with 83.8755 Newtons and restricting the
centre of gravity to one point. This assessed landing gear performance. To further understand static
equilibrium, the total load and response force results were compared. The Lanczos Method was utilized
for free-free Model Analysis. The model's continuity and mode forms were checked. The S-N Method
was used to analyze drone landing gear fatigue. Transferring the static load to cyclic technique finished
the task. In all 4-point and 2-point landing circumstances, the greatest cyclic load spectrum value was
evaluated for descent speeds of 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, and 1 m/s. This was done for both cases.

Maximum stress was 67.210 MPa, and the drone reached static equilibrium. Model analysis proved
model continuity. Based on 7.49 x 10-4 damage output, the model will break after 1267 cycles. The
model failed. This data came from the fatigue study. With peak loads and linear superposition, this was
the worst scenario. The drone can land and take off 1267 times before its landing gear fails, which is the
worst case scenario. Cross-correlation analysis across load conditions may also affect the outcome.
Optimizing the drone and landing gear's form and components may increase their durability. This might
be done later.

Keywords: Fatigue Test, High Life Cycle, Aluminium

1. Introduction
The global commercial drone market size was valued at USD 13.44 billion in 2020. It is expected to
expand at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 57.5% from 2021 to 2028. In terms of volume,
the demand was recorded at 689.4 thousand units in 2020. Drones are used for multiple applications
ranging from filmmaking to emergency response. Additionally, these devices are witnessing a high
demand in the real estate and construction sector owing to their ability to survey lands, provide
continuous and precise project notifications, improve safety, and prevent dangerous incidents on
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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024
construction sites. Business use cases for drones have witnessed considerable growth over the past few
years. Market participants such as drone manufacturers and software solution providers are constantly
engaged in designing, testing and improving solutions for various markets.

Figure 1: Increase in Drone Market Size

1.1 Drones
The term “drone” usually refers to any unpiloted aircraft. Sometimes referred to as “Unmanned aerial
Vehicles" (UAVs), these crafts can carry out an impressive range of tasks, ranging from military
operations to package delivery. Drones can be as large as an aircraft or as small as the palm of the hand.
Originally developed for the military and aerospace industries, drones have found their way into the
mainstream because of the enhanced levels of safety and efficiency they bring. These robotic UAVs
operate without a pilot on board and with different levels of autonomy. A drone’s autonomy level can
range from remotely piloted (a human controls its movements) to advanced autonomy, which means that
it relies on a system of sensors to control its movement.
2. Toll Literature Review
• Shuai, et al. [1]- we studied Temperature, as a critical factor, significantly impacts on the performance
of lithium-ion batteries and also limits the application of lithium-ion batteries. Accurate measurement of
temperature inside lithium-ion batteries and understanding the temperature effects are important for the
proper battery management. They found the effects of temperature to lithium-ion batteries at both low
and high temperature ranges. This review overviews recent development in both the understanding of
the temperature effects and the temperature monitoring, and discusses the challenges and possible future
directions in achieving optimum battery performance.
• Arnaud Girin [2]- we studied and design battery cooling systems and the importance of thermal
management were understood. This also gives idea of how voltage value varies with temperatures of a
Li-ion battery. Figure.2.1&2.2
• Shayok, etal.[3]- we have learned that there have been attempts to use hydrogen fuel cell onboard
drones. Fuel cell stacks and fuel tank assemblies can have high strength to weight. Therefore, they can
enable long-distance drone aircraft, but fuel cell stacks and associated systems, are generally more
expensive. Therefore, this work proposes the use of the novel stack of electric hydride fuel containing
metal hydride as a power source located on the drone. The main advantage of this is that the fuel sticks
can be used to cool the batteries, and the negative effect is that this slightly reduces the load on the
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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024
internal Li-ion battery and provides a slight increase during flight. This work presents the results of
experimental studies showing the main effect (i.e., lower battery temperature) and the second side effect
(i.e., a slight increase in flight time) obtained using a fuel cell stack. In this work, the metal hydride fuel
stick power hydrogen fuel cell is used in conjunction with the Li-ion onboard a drone battery.
• Xin, et al.[4]- we have learned that the effects of Li-ion battery pack packets confirmed the efficiency
of the MHPA-based cooling system [Micro-Heat Pipe Array] by lowering the battery pack temperature
by 1C and reducing the temperature difference within the battery packs. and cells during operation. Test
and calculation results revealed improved stability and battery safety during the charge-discharge cycle.
This MHPA novel based on cooling system has features of energy efficiency, simplification and
coherence. Based on test data, heat production and dissipation of the Li-ion battery pack are analyzed.
3. Research Gaps & Objectives
From literature survey, most studies were done on studying the materials of drone and structural
integrity of the drone itself, but very few studies focus mainly on the landing gear of the drone itself.
Studying the fatigue life of a drone landing gear and trying to increase it can yield tremendous increase
in the usability of drones in fields of lower income such as agriculture. Development of the correct
configure for landing gear also has not been dived into a lot. Hence the present study was carried out to
study the fatigue of the landing gear and decide a suitable configuration.
 To study the static stresses on the drone to ensure static equilibrium.
 To investigate the continuity of the drone model by performing a Modal Analysis
 Performing a fatigue analysis to estimate the life of drone landing gear.

Methodology followed to complete the project included using MSC Apex to mesh the drone model,
MSC Nastran and MSC Apex to compute the linear static analysis and the Model Analysis, and CAE
Fatigue to estimate the damage and life.
4. Methodology
An initial drone model, provided by a Design Agency, was divided into the main hub and rotor tubes
group and the landing gear group. The existing landing gear, as originally proposed, was replaced by a
new landing gear designed and connectivity was re-established. Normal Mode analysis was performed
to ensure the connectivity of the model. Four Point and Two Point loads were applied subsequently as
transient load in order to perform a transient response. This was expected to simulate the Landing
Impact. The load was then converted into a cyclic load for fatigue analysis. Fatigue material properties
were applied to the parts of the landing gear and fatigue analysis, using the CAE Fatigue module, was
performed.

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024

Figure 2: Methodology

5. Simulation of a Hexacopter Drone

5.1 Static Analysis:

Static Analysis is executed when one or multiple point time-invariant loads are applied at given
positions on the model. It is done to check for static equilibrium i.e., to ensure that there are no
unbalanced forces in the model.

1. To find the points of high and low stresses in the model.

2. To ensure proper stiffness distribution by examining the displacements.

When performing static analysis, using the finite element method, the structure is represented as a
collection of discrete elements. These elements can be thought of as building blocks from which one can
construct a model of the actual structure. Each element is connected to the neighboring element at a
node. The stiffness of the element is represented internally in the form of a matrix called the Element
Stiffness Matrix. The size of this matrix depends on the type of element and the degrees of freedom
associated with that element. All of the element stiffness matrices are assembled into a single matrix
called the global stiffness matrix. This global stiffness matrix represents the total structural stiffness
before the boundary conditions are considered; therefore, the global stiffness matrix is, in general, a
singular matrix. The physical meaning of a singular stiffness matrix is that the whole structure or part of
the structure can displace as a free body without producing any internal forces in the members.
In static analysis, adequate boundary conditions must be applied to the model in order to prevent any
rigid body motion of the structure. Once the boundary conditions are applied to the model appropriately,
the global stiffness matrix is reduced to a nonsingular stiffness matrix representing the constrained
structure. If no boundary condition is applied, the global stiffness matrix remains as a singular matrix
and the solution becomes trivial. All the loads that are applied to the model are combined to form the
load vector.

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024
After the constrained stiffness matrix and the load vector are generated, the static equilibrium matrix
equation given below is solved as follows:
[𝐾]{𝑢} = {𝑝}
where,
[𝐾] = system stiffness
{𝑢} = grid point displacements
{𝑝} = applied load vector
The unknowns in the above equation are the displacements {𝑢} at the grid points in the model.
Determining the displacements involves the inversion of the stiffness matrix [𝐾] and multiplying it by
the force vector {𝑝}. In reality, the process of inverting a matrix is too time consuming; therefore, a
process based on the Gauss elimination method is used. The resulting displacements are the same--the
solution process is just faster.
Once the displacements at the grid points are known, any desired outputs, such as element forces, strains
and stresses can be computed.

Figure 3: Forces and stresses from displacement results

5.2 Fatigue
Fatigue is a failure under a repeated or otherwise varying load which never reaches a level sufficient to
cause failure in a single application. It can also be thought of as the initiation and growth of a crack, or
growth from a pre-existing defect, until it reaches a critical size, such as separation into two or more
parts.

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024

Figure 4: Fatigue Five Tick Box

6. Results & Discussions

All the load cases shown in Table 4.4 were superposed with each other and the superposed
function was applied as one duty cycle onto the model as shown in Figure 6.1 in the time load scheduler.

Figure 5: CAE Fatigue performing the Fatigue.

6.1 Damage Tolerance
When the time history is processed, CAE Fatigue uses Rain Flow counting to give the Damage on the
structure based in the duty cycle of loading applied. Figure 6.2 shows the damage to the structure.

Figure 6: Damage Plot

As seen on the fringes on the right, the maximum damage value is 7.49e-04, which is a lot lesser than 1.
Since damage value is less than one, in one duty cycle, there is no failure seen.

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024
6.2 Estimated Life
In a similar way as shown in the previous sub chapter, life of different parts of the Landing Gear is
shown for the given time history in Figure 6.3.

Figure 7: Estimated Life

At the base of the landing gear the, the number of cycles crosses 1018 cycles of loading whereas at the
top, it can withstand 1267 cycles of loading. This is a worst-case scenario since the maximum load for
all cyclic loading has been considered and all load cases have been linearly superposed.
6.3 Interpretation of Results
In Static Analysis, the Overall Load Resultant and Single Point Constraint Reaction Forces are
balancing each other, meaning that the structure has static equilibrium.
In Modal Analysis, all flexible modes show continuity in the model. Both static and normal modes show
the landing gear has the maximum stress and least deflection. Hence only the Landing Gear was
considered for Fatigue.
In Fatigue analysis, it is to be noted that both maximum damage and least number of cycles to failure is
tending towards the top part of the landing gear although the load history is at the base of the landing
gear. This is due to buckling in the vertical tubes of the landing gear. Buckling can cause a decrease in
life of almost 1014 cycles in total.
6.4 Static Analysis

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024

Figure 8: Stress Plot for 2 Point Landing

Figure 9: Stress Plot for 4 Point Landing

6.5 Normal Modes Analysis

Since the model is in free-free condition, the first six natural frequencies extracted from the analysis are
rigid body modes. From the seventh mode, flexible modes are observed. Figures 4.9 through 4.12 depict
modes seven through ten.

Figure 10: Mode 7

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ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024

Figure 11: Mode 8

7. Conclusions and Future Scope:
Drone technology has been a particularly important field in the recent year and will continue to grow in
popularity owing. Analyzing drones for stresses and fatigue will always be important given the amount
of money spent to building them. Most companies that purchase drones of higher caliber will not want
to constantly get it repaired or replaced. Hence, getting these analyses correct is highly necessary.
 Static Analysis shows that the drone model satisfies static equilibrium and is structurally intact.
 Modal Analysis confirmed the continuity of the model.
 Landing Gear of any drone model is the prime focus of fatigue analysis due to the high loads and
stresses to faces.
 Simply supported landing gear is preferred over a cantilever type landing gear due to more even
load distribution.
 Fatigue Analysis of the landing gear shows that the landing gear can withstand 1267 load cycles
in the worst-case scenario.

Mentioned below are the future possibilities of this project:

 Optimize drone design to increase fatigue life.
 Usage of newer materials and draw a comparison with current model.
 Usage of Composites in the entire model and to see how it compares.
 Cross corelating the load cases in order to get a more realistic life estimation.
 Validating the simulation results with real life testing of drone model

References
1. Commercial Drone Market Size, Share & Trends Analysis Report By Product (Fixed-wing,
Rotary Blade, Hybrid), By Application, By End-use, By Region, And Segment Forecasts, 2021 –
2028 (Page 1)
2. Jin-feng LI; Zhuo-wei PENG; Chao-xing LI; Zhi-qiang JIA; Wen-jing CHEN; Zi-qiao ZHENG
(2008). Mechanical properties, corrosion behaviors and microstructures of 7075 aluminum alloy
with various aging treatments. , 18(4), 0–762. (Page 1-3)
3. Balachandran, A., Divyesh Karelia, Jayaramulu Challa and Conceicao Rodrigues. “MATERIAL
SELECTION FOR UNMANNED AERIAL VEHICLE.” , International Journal of Mechanical
Engineering and Technology (2014), (Page no. 35 – 38)
4. Shrotri, Kshitij; Schrage, Daniel (2009). Composite Skid Landing Gear Design Feasibility.
UGC CARE Group-1, 9
 Industrial Engineering Journal
ISSN: 0970-2555
Volume: 57, Issue 05, No. 5, May : 2024
Journal of the American Helicopter Society, 54(4), 042004–. (Page No. 042004-1 to 042004-3)
5. M Urdea, Stress and Vibration Analysis of a Drone, 2021 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater. Sci. Eng. 1009
012059 (Page No. 1 – 3)
6. MSC Nastran 2021.1 Linear Static User Guide (Page No. 18-30)
7. MSC Nastran 2021.1 Dynamic Analysis User Guide (Page No.42-49)
8. MSC Nastran 2021.1 Embedded Fatigue User Guide (Page No. 2-8)
9. Reddy, S. and Yadav, V., "Duty Cycle Fatigue Simulation for Differential Casing," SAE
Technical Paper 2012-01-0813, 2012 (Page No. 1 – 5)
10. Singh, KL & Ranganath, VR. (2007). Cycle counting using rainflow algorithm for fatigue
analysis. Structural Integrity Division, NAL (Page No. 301 – 302)
11. Chen, Jinbao & Nie, Hong & Zhang, Zemei & Li, Lichun. (2014). Finite element linear static
structural analysis and modal analysis for Lunar Lander. Journal of Vibroengineering. 16. (Page
No. 399-406.)
12. Pendleton, Richard L.; Tuttle, Mark E. (1989). Manual on Experimental Methods for Mechanical
Testing of Composites || Classical Lamination Theory., 10.1007/978-94-009-1129-1(Chapter 3),
(Page No. 11–16).

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