UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER - Computer Data Storage

- Hard Drive Disk (HDD)

- System Unit (Graphic cards, Sound cards, Memory, Motherboard and chips), etc.
COMPUTER

⮚ An electronic device, operating under the control of instructions stored in its own
memory that can accept data (input), process the data according to specified rules,
produce information (output), and store the information for future use.

FUNCTIONALITIES OF A COMPUTER

⮚ Any digital computer carries out five functions in gross terms:

● Takes data as input.
● Stores the data/instructions in its memory and use them when required.
● Process the data and converts it into useful information.
● Generates the output. INPUT DEVICES
● Controls all the above four steps.
⮚ Any piece of peripheral piece of computer hardware equipment.
⮚ Provide data and control signals to an information processing system such as a
computer or other information appliance.
⮚ Translate data form form that humans understand to one that the computer can work
with.
⮚ Most common: Keyboard and Mouse.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS

⮚ Any kind of computers consists of HARDWARE and SOFTWARE.

HARDWARE

⮚ Collection of physical elements that constitutes a computer system.

⮚ Physical parts or components of a computer. All of which are physical objects that can
be touched.
Example of parts of a Computer:
- Monitor
- Mouse
- Keyboard
Example of Input Devices:

2. CONTROL UNIT (CU)

- Control and co-ordinates computer components.

1. Read the code for the next instruction to be executed.

2. Increment (increase “++”) the program counter so it points to the next
instruction.
Note: The most common use keyboard is the QWERTY keyboard. Generally 3. Read whatever data the instructions requires from the cells in memory.
standard Keyboard has 104 keys. 4. Provide the necessary data to an ALU or register.
5. If the instruction requires an ALU or specialized hardware to complete,
instruct the hardware to perform the requested operation.
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)
*Registers – stores the data that is to be executed next, “very fast storage area”.
⮚ Brain of a computer.
⮚ Responsible for all functions and processes.
⮚ Regarding computing power, the CPU is the most important element of a computer PRIMARY MEMORY
system.
1. RAM
⮚ Random Access Memory (RAM)
⮚ A memory scheme within the computer system responsible for storing data on a
The CPU is comprised of three main parts:
temporary basis, so that it can promptly accessed by the processor as and when
1. ARITHMETIC LOGIC UNIT (ALU) needed.
- Executes all arithmetic and logical operations. ⮚ Volatile in nature – data will be erased once supply to the storage device is turned off.
- Arithmetic operations are: ⮚ Stores data randomly from the RAM storage.
▪ Addition ⮚ “Random Access” – you can access any memory cell directly if you know the row and
▪ Subtraction column that intersect that cell.
▪ Multiplication
▪ Division
- Logical operations are: 2. ROM
▪ Numbers ⮚ Read Only Memory (ROM)
▪ Letters ⮚ A permanent form of storage.
▪ Special characters ⮚ Stays active regardless of whether power supply to it is turned on or off.
⮚ ROM devices do not allow data stored on them to be modified. - This storage capacity is a clear advantage over the floppy disk storage
media (a magnetic media), which only has a capacity of 1.44 MB.

SECONDARY MEMORY

⮚ Stores data and programs permanently.

⮚ Its retained after the power is turned off.

3.FLASH DISK

1. HARD DRIVE (HD) ⮚ A storage module made of flash memory chips.

- Part of a unit, often called a “Disk Drive”, “Hard Drive” or “Disk Drive” ⮚ Have no mechanical platters or access arms.
- Store and provides relatively quick access to large amounts of data on an ⮚ The term “disk” is used because the data are accessed as if they were on a
electromagnetically charged surface or set of surfaces. hard drive.
⮚ The disk storage structure is emulated.

2. OPTICAL DISK
- Optical Disk Drive (ODD)
- Optical Drive – generic name; usually described as “CD”, “DVD”, “Bluray”,
followed by “drive”, “writer”, etc.
- A disk drive that uses laser light as part of the process of reading or writing
data to or from optical discs.
- Some drives can only read from discs, but recent drives are commonly both
readers and recorders, also called as burners or writers.
- Compact discs, DVDs, Blu-ray discs are common types of optical media which
can be read and recorder by such drives.
- Three main types of Optical Media:

1. CD
- Can store up to 700 megabytes (MB) of data.
2. DVD
- Can store up to 8.4 GB of data. OUTPUT DEVICES
3. Blu-ray discs
⮚ An output device is any piece of computer hardware equipment.
- Newest type of optical media.
- Can store up to 50 GB of data.
⮚ Used to communicate the results of data processing carried out by an information - Other software and the users of the system see it as a functional unit without
processing system (such as a computer) which converts the electronically generated having to be concerned with a low-level details such as transferring data from
information into human-readable form. memory to disk, or rendering text onto a display.
- System Software consists of an operating system and some fundamental
utilities such as disk formatters, file managers, text editors, user authentication
(login) and management tools and networking and device control software.
B. Application Software
- Used to accomplish specific tasks other than just running the computer
system.
- May consist of a single program, such as an:

Image Viewer – a small collection of programs (often called as a Software

Package) that work closely together to accomplish a task, such as a:

Spreadsheet or Text Processing System – a larger collection (often called a

Software Suite) or related but independent programs and packages that have a
common user interface or shared data format, such as:

Microsoft Office – which consists of closely integrated word processor,

spreadsheet, database, etc.

Software System – such as a database management system, which is a

collection of fundamental programs that may provide some service to a variety
SOFTWARE of other independent applications.

⮚ A genetic term for organized collections of computer data and instructions.

⮚ Often broken into two major categories:
1. System Software
- Provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer.
2. Application Software
- Used by users to accomplish specific tasks.

SOFTWARE TYPES

A. System Software
- Responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual
hardware components of a computer system.
 Size example:

● 1 bit – answer to a yes/no question.

● 1 byte – a number from 0 to 255.
● 90 bytes – enough to store a typical line of text from a book.
● 4 KB – about one page of text.
● 120 KB – the text of a typical pocket book.
● 3 MB – a three-minute song (128k bitrate).
● 650-900 MB – a CD-ROM
● 1 GB – 114 minutes of uncompressed CD-quality audio at 1.4 Mbit/s
● 8-16 GB – size of a normal flash drive.

UNIT OF MEASUREMENTS

Storage Measurements

⮚ Basic unit used in computer data storage is called a bit (binary digit).
⮚ Composed of ones (1) and zeros (0), to do things and talk to other computers. SPEED MEASUREMENT
⮚ All your files, are kept in the computer as binary files and translated into words and
⮚ The speed of Central Processing Unit (CPU) is measured by Hertz (Hz), which represent
pictures by the software (which are also ones and zeros).
a CPU cycle.
⮚ This two number system, is called a “binary number system” since it has only two
⮚ The speed of CPU is known as Computer Speed.
numbers in it.
⮚ The decimal number system in contrast has ten unique digits, zero through nine (0-9).
 LAPTOP AND SMARTPHONE COMPUTERS

LAPTOP

- Is a battery or AC-powered personal computer that can be easily carried

and used in a variety of locations.
COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION - Many laptops are designed to have all of the functionality of a desktop computer,
⮚ Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is which means they can generally run the same software and open the same
considered overlap: type of files.
- Some laptops, such as netbooks, sacrifice some functionality in order to be more
portable.
● Personal Computer
- A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. NETBOOK
- In addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for - Is a type of laptop that is designed to be even more portable.
entering data. - Often cheaper than laptops or desktops.
- A monitor for displaying information. - Less powerful than other types of computers, but provide enough power for
- A storage device for saving data. email and internet access, which is where the name “netbook” comes from.

● Workstation MOBILE DEVICE

- A powerful, single-user computer. - Basically, any handheld computer.
- Is a like a personal computer. - Designed to be extremely portable, often fitting in the palm of your hand or
- Has more powerful microprocessor and a higher-quality monitor. in your pocket.
- Some mobile devices are more powerful, they allow you to do many of the same
● Minicomputer things you can do with a desktop or laptop computer.
- A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users - Include: Tablet computers, e-readers, and Smartphones.
simultaneously.

● Mainframe
- A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
● Supercomputer
- An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second. TABLET COMPUTERS

- Like laptops, tablet computers are designed to be portable.

 - Provide a very different computing experience. INFORMATION
- Tablet computers don’t have keyboards or touchpads but the entire screen is
- For data to become information, it must be contextualized, categorized,
touch-sensitive, allowing you to type on a virtual keyboard and use your finger
calculated and condensed.
as a mouse pointer.
- Paints a bigger picture.
- Mostly designed for consuming media, they are optimized for tasks like web
- Data with relevance and purpose.
browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, and playing games.
- May convey a trend in the environment, or perhaps indicate a pattern of sales for
- A “regular” computer like a desktop or laptop is still needed in order to use
a given period of time.
some programs.
- Found “in answers to questions that begin with such words as who, what,
- The convenience of a table computer means that it may be ideal as a second
where, when, and how many”.
computer.

SMARTPHONES
KNOWLEDGE
- A powerful mobile phone that is designed to run a variety of applications in
addition to phone service. - Closely linked to doing and implies know-how and understanding.
- Basically, small tablet computers. - Possessed by each individual is a product of his experience, and
- Can be used for web browsing, watching videos, reading e-books, playing games encompasses the norms by which he evaluates new inputs from his
and more. surroundings.

_________________________________________________________________________
THE CONTENT OF THE HUMAN MIND CAN BE CLASSIFIED INTO FOUR
CATEGORIES:
DATA, INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE 1. DATA - symbols
2. INFORMATION – data that are processed to be useful
- Provides answers to “who”, “what”, and “where” questions.
DATA 3. KNOWLEDGE – application of data and information
- Answers “how” questions.
- Facts and figures which relay something specific.
4. WISDOM – evaluated understanding.
- Not organized in any way and which provide no further information regarding
patterns, contexts, etc.
- Means “unstructured facts and figures that have the least impact on the
We need to understand that processing data produced Information and process Information
typical manager.”
produces Knowledge and so on.
 - Can perform different type of tasks with the same ease.
- Computers have several limitations too.
- Computer can only perform tasks that it has been programmed to do.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER

⮚ Speed, accuracy, diligence, storage capability and versatility are some of the key
Computers cannot do any work without instructions from the user. It executes
characteristics of a computer.
instructions as specified by the user and does not take its own decisions.
⮚ A brief overview of these characteristics are:
● SPEED
- The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of instructions
COMPUTER VIRUSES
per second.
- Calculations can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.

VIRUSES
● ACCURACY ⮚ A small piece of software that piggybacks on real programs.
- Computer provides a high degree of accuracy. ⮚ Example: A virus attach itself to a program such as a spreadsheet program. Each time
- Computer can accurately give the results of division of any two numbers up to 10 the spreadsheet program runs, the virus runs too, and it has the chance to reproduce (by
decimal places. attaching to other programs) or wreak havoc.

E-MAIL VIRUSES
● DILIGENCE ⮚ An e-mail virus travels as an attachment to e-mail messages.
- Computer does not get tired or fatigued even when used for a longer period of ⮚ Usually replicates itself by automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the
time. victim’s e-mail address book.
- Can perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and ⮚ Some e-mail viruses don’t even require a double-click – they launch when you view the
accuracy from the start till the end. infected message in the preview pane of your e-mail software.

TROJAN HORSES
● STORAGE CAPABILITY ⮚ Is simply a computer program.
- Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer and ⮚ Claims to do one thing but instead does damage when you run it (it may erase your
also retrieved whenever required. hard disk).
- A limited amount of data can be stored temporarily in the primary memory. ⮚ Have no way to replicate automatically.
- A large amount of data can be stored permanently in secondary storage
devices like floppy disk and compact disk. WORMS

⮚ A small piece of software that uses computer networks and security holes to
replicate itself.
● VERSATILITY ⮚ A copy of worm scans the network for another machine that has a specific security
- Computer is versatile in nature. hole.
⮚ Copies itself to the new machine using the security hole, and then starts replicating
from there, as well.

WHAT ARE SOME TIPS TO AVOID VIRUSES AND LESSEN THEIR IMPACT?

● Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it regularly.

● In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an “on access” scanner
(included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start each time
you start up your computer. This will protect your system by checking for viruses
each time you run an executable file.

● Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain
executable code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store as
well as any program you might download from the Internet.

● If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about
accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you within the
community.

● Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email
messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose
valuable work.
UNIT IV: PEOPLEWARE 3. Database Administration Career – monitor system performance, managing data,
sharing of data.
- People or users are considered as one of the most important elements in the *this is where the administration of data or records and transactions of a particular
computer and communication system. organization comes in
- Without these users, it is impossible for computers to do their intended functions.
- With the advent of technology and with the increasing technologies that’s happening o Database Administrator
around us, we’ve seen the significant increase of people working in the ICT industry. *is in charged or the overall head in the management of data.
Ex. In a bank, considering it is connected through multiple channels – the database
administrator needs to ensure that all the transactions are intact, correct and will not
disappear.
PEOPLE IN ICT
Most professional ICT work can be classified into 3 broad areas: 4. ICT Education Career – teaching, trainings
*responsible for providing lectures, discussions for the courses in the program
1. Information Systems/Information Technology
2. Computer System Engineering o IT Lecturer
3. Computer Science o Training Officer
o Education Manager
PROFESSIONAL JOBS IN THE 3 BROAD AREAS:
5. Internet and E-commerce Career – special instances of other ICT careers.
1. Business Analysis Career – evaluating customer business needs, and provides *this particular career has the possibility to crossover with other careers for the reason that
business solutions. most of the companies are into internet connectivity; if you are in this career, you can create
*if there is a need from a company or a business that needs to expand that is either programs or systems regardless of what industry there is.
computerization or improvement of service
o Web Architect
o Business Analyst o Web Designer
o Business Systems Analyst o Web Programmer
o Web Administrator
*inaaral yung takbo ng company, particularly on an identified operation.
- *considered as the backbone of the internet and e-commerce technologies
Ex. the payroll system in the company

6. Multimedia – create and manipulate graphic images, animation, sound, text and
2. Computer Engineering Career – design, installation, repair and service of video.
computers *if you wanted to pursue a career that is related to games, designs, graphics and other
*if you wanted to explore more of a specific profession relative to computer hardware / multimedias
networks
o Computer Engineering o Multimedia Graphics Designer
o Hardware Design Engineer o Multimedia Content Author
o Technical Support Engineer o Animator
o Computer Systems Engineer o Writer
7. Software Development Career – translation of requirements into set of instructions. UNIT V: SOFTWARE
*mainly focus on the translation of business requirements into actual system through coding
*these are enablers for the hardware to work
o Programmer – does the creation of a particular program through coding; only *Hardware - the mechanical device; to work efficiently, software is needed
limited to the actual coding itself
o Software Engineer – from coding, to testing, sometimes getting involved in - It is a generic term or organized collections of code representing instructions
design executed by a computer.
*from a simple instruction and as long as the program is written correctly and it executes a
particular output that should also be correct
8. Project Management Career – problem solving process involving planning,
implementation of project.
- 2 General Types:
*takes a considerable amount of experience to become a Project Manager; must first have an
extensive experience in handling a project, in managing a team; there is an international o System Software
certification for project managers o Application Software
SYSTEM SOFTWARE
o Project Leader
o Project Manager - It provides the basic non-task-specific functions of the computer
*by simply turning on the computer
9. Systems Analysis and Design Career – partner of project managers and system
developers - It is responsible for controlling, integrating, and managing the individual hardware
*specifically study the system and also provide evaluation and assessment on how that components of the computer system.
particular system can be improved through computerization *allows the hardware to communicate (Ex. using keyboard); there is communication of
processes because of the system software
o System Analyst - Kinds: Operating System and Utility Program
o Systems Architect
OPERATING SYSTEM
10. Systems Management and Administration – connections, communications of IT *system software that integrates the operation of all the hardware and other installed
infrastructure programs
*more of managerial careers; manages the operation of the systems, network o Basic Functions of OS:
 Memory Management – provides memory management for
o Systems Administrator instructions that are executed
o Network Administrator  Resource Allocation and Sharing – allows a provision for attached
o Data Communication Consultant – to recommend a new technology that this hardware for it to operate on a multi-tasking basis
company can use; short term work in the company  Backing Store Management – allows to store back-ups in your
computer
 Interrupt handling – provides a signal to the users if there are certain
interrupts in the system
 Allowing users communicate with the computer – helps us do this
kind of communication with the help of OS through the Internet
Communication using various platforms
OPERATING SYSTEMS THAT ARE DEVELOPED SINCE THE CREATION OF
SOFTWARE
Examples of Application Software
UNIX
- Word Processing (Microsoft, Mac)
- A networked computer system designed to allow users to share software and to have - Spreadsheet (Excel)
controlled access to other user’s files. - Databases (Access, Oracle)
- It was developed by Ken Thompson, Dennis Ritchie, and Douglas Mcllroy. - Email (Yahoo, Google mail)
- Presentation Graphics (PowerPoint)
Macintosh OS (MacOS)
- Desktop Publishing
- An operating system developed by Apple Computer. - Web Browsers (Safari, Google Chrome)

MS-DOS (MicroSoft Disk Operating System)

- An operating system commercialized by Microsoft Corporation LICENSING SOFTWARE
- It was initially called QDOS (Quick and Dirty Operating System) developed by Tim *softwares has certain limitations
Paterson.
- Microsoft Windows Operating System Propriety Software
- Network OS (MS NOS)
- Can be purchased off-the-shelf which is manufactured by a particular company
Linux Operating System
Shareware
- An open-source operating system developed by Linus Torvalds
- Available but with limited use
*originally based in UNIX; users could improve it
Freeware
- Can be downloaded somewhere that could be use for instructional purpose,
APPLICATION SOFTWARE educational purpose
- It is used to accomplish specific user-oriented tasks It is important for us to know that not all software can be shared with anyone or with our friends
- Categories of Application Software: that is free
o Bespoke – “tailor-made” to meet the requirements of a specific organization;
Ex. An application is only for 3 users – it could lead to software piracy if it exceeds to the
customized limited users
o Off-the-shelf – can be purchased by anyone
o General Purpose – it does a variety of jobs Academic Alliance – a broader use since it is used in the computer laboratories
o Integrated Packages/Software Suites – packages of common same with the Corporate Licensing
productivity tools that are bundled together
We should know EULA = End User Licensing Agreement; when violated it is
o Generic – can be used to perform a number of tasks, not necessarily for
punishable by law
which the application was originally designed; can also be purchased but not
customized – making adjustments later on in the organization
o Specific – software that only has one/few application; has limited
applications
UNIT VI: NETWORK, INTERNET, AND INTERNET PROTOCOLS COMPUTER NETWORK
DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING - Is a group of computers that use a set of common communication protocols over
digital interconnections for the purpose of sharing resources.
- How computers communicate, works, and how it allows us to use other applications
such as the internet Protocols – standards of interconnectivity (Open System Interconnection, ISO Layer =
set of protocol for Data Communications; 7 layers for the OSI from the physical and
application layer)
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
- Referring to the process CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
NETWORKING Local Area Network (LAN) – group of computers linked electronically to form a
- Pertains to the connection of computer resources common work environment. It facilitates sharing of application and data.

Ex. Wifi connection at home – there were 2-3 gadgets connected

DATA COMMUNICATION
Wide Area Network (WAN) – geographically dispersed telecommunication network
- Refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver via a transmission covering multiple buildings, often across the world.
medium.
Ex. The Internet – LAN can be connected to WAN
*in order for computers to communicate, there is a need for a process coming from a source
and a recipient.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) – intermediate form of network in terms of
Ex. sending an email to a particular recipient but in order for the communication to be sent, geography.
there must be an interface between the two users – there is a Data Communications
Equipment (DCE) or there is also a medium (something that works in a middle of a DCE in *could be in a bigger area than a local area
order for the transition to be successful). Ex. LAN in a school and you wanted to subscribe on the internet, there is an Internet
Service Provider – a MAN (LAN can be connected to the high-speed connectivity)
*before, when there is a need for you to connect on the internet there is what we call Data
Communications Equipment that translates the sending of the information from the sender
– the message is converted by the DCE.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Computers work in digital way, there is a need for it to be converted into Analog Signal –
- Connection of networks: Physical or Electrical Configuration of cabling and
varying fluctuating signals; could be a high signal of low signal but both vary that’s why its
connections comprising a network – the shape of the system.
referred as Analog.
Information – Converted to Digital to Analog – Medium – Data Communications Equipment –
Computer System (allowing the recipient to receive and see the message)
 TYPES OF NETWORK TOPOLOGIES Hybrid – consists of a combination from two or more topologies to form a complex network.
Bus – devices are connected to a common cable. *Present in World Wide Web since a lot of organizations can connect to it and each
organizations have their own kind of network topology.
*Devices are connected to a common cable; single connectivity
NETWORK HARDWARE
Ring – devices are connected to a common cable which loops from machine to machine.
Some that are used in Data connectivity.

*Computer laboratories wherein a common cable connects these computers – they - Includes all computers, peripherals and other equipment needed to perform
are connected around a circle – the connectivity is unidirectional communication and processing within the network.

Disadvantage: uses a lot of cable; if a connection was cut = it is already impossible 1. File Server – most powerful computer in the network; holds the central
for a connector to communicate. communication and data for that particular network connection.

2. Workstations – computers connected to the network which uses the resources

Star – device has its own cable run connecting the device to a common hub or concentrator. in the file server; every computer that communicates in that server.
*Uses centralize networking device; fast transfer of speed of the data; each computer
3. Network Interface Card (NIC) -provides physical connection between the
has its own separate cable; Uses a lot of cables.
network and the computer workstations.
Ex. in a computer shop has this kind of set-up; if the central device fails = whole
communication fails 4. Hub or Concentrator – device that provides a central connection point for
cables in the network; physical layer; connects a network of personal computers
together; used in a LAN
Tree – star of stars network. Each device is connected to its own port on a concentrator in
the same manner as in a star. 5. Repeater – physical layer; can used to extend a LAN

*Multiple stars connected; communicated by its own concentrator but still connected 6. Bridges – device that segments a large network; data link layer; connects
to a network different LANs

7. Routers – translates information from one network to another; networking layer;

Mesh – consists of a network where every device on the network is physically connected to directs data to the network; used in LAN, WAN and MAN.
every other device on the network.
*Multiple path is possible amongst devices that are connected
 Performance Management – monitoring response time and traffic load to manage and
maintain the performance of the network.
*if there is a bottleneck in the network/system, the performance management tracks
NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM
where the traffic occurs
Basic software that contains basic functionalities required for building effective network.
Service Charge Management – monitoring and analyzing of information indicating the use
of network resources.

Basic Functions: *monitor the usage of network; determines how frequent you use apps or sites

1. Data Sharing
2. Printing Sharing
INTERNET
3. Security Management
- Global computer network providing variety of ICT facilities
- Interconnected network
Data Communications and Networking – because we wanted to share information and - INTERNET PROTOCOL SERVICE = World Wide Web (WWW) = standard used in
other resources. connecting to the internet
o Email, FTP – File Transfer Protocol
- HTTP – Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (Interlink Communication)
NETWORK MANAGEMENT - URL – Uniform Resource Locator (similar to website)
- IP ADDRESS (numeric address)
- The responsibilities of a network administrator. o YAHOO = 192.168.255.25 (IP Address)
- DNS – Domain Name System = assuring there is no repetition of website that is
Configuration Management – collection and management of information on current
registered and the assignment of particular IP Address for the websites that are
network resources as well as on changes in network configuration.
found on the internet
*Ensuring that all hardware that connects to the network are configured properly to o www.pup.edu.ph
ensure effective communications.
Fault Management – monitoring system errors to perform automated recovery processes. Tim Berners Lee

*if there are failures in the network, network operating system could determine what - Invented the INTERNET
the source of error is and how it could be resolve later on and at the same time it
triggers an automatic back-up or recovery if those information are very crucial in the o www – server name
operation. o pup – name of organization
o Edu – type of organization
Security Management – monitoring the state of access on the network. o Ph – country specifier
*if multiple users – there should be different accessibility option, it is not possible that
each user has the same access; there must be restrictions to certain operations to
other persons and limitations to the use of processes in the network.
 DOMAIN SUFFIXES INTERNET OF THINGS (IoT)
Websites have a registration-costs that depends. - Refers to the billions of physical devices that are now connected to the internet, all
collecting and sharing data.
- .gov = government organization *for the convenience of the consumer
- .org = non-profit organization - It integrates the interconnection of human culture – our ‘things’ – with the
- .mil = military organization interconnection of our digital information system – ‘the internet’
- .edu = educational institution
- .com = commercial organization; profit oriented
- .biz = for business; initially was used on the early days of domain name system if
MOBILE APPLICATION
you weren’t able to have the .com suffix
- .net = networking organizations; provide internet connections - It is a type of application software designed to run on a mobile device, such as
smartphone or tablet computer, that serves to provide users with similar services to
those accessed on PCs.
- Several Types: Gaming Apps, Productivity Apps, Lifestyle and Entertainment Apps

UNIT VII: TRENDS AND ISSUES & SPECIAL INTEREST TOPICS IN ICT HUMAN COMPUTER INTERACTION (HCI)

CLOUD COMPUTING - Is the study of how people interact with computers and to what extent computers are
or are not developed for successful interaction with human beings.
- It is a delivery of computing services – including servers, storage, databases, *focuses on user interaction – between humans and computers
networking, software, analytics, and intelligence – over the internet to offer faster
innovation, flexible resources and economies of scale. *traces its technological improvement through various knowledge such as: Computer Science,
- Benefits: Cost, Speed, Global Scale, Productivity, Performance, Reliability, Security Ergonomics and Human Factors, Engineering, Design, Sociology and Social Psychology,
- Types: Public (operated by Cloud Service Providers), Private (a particular Ethnography, Cognitive Science, Psychology, Information Security, and Speech Language
Pathology
company/organization exclusively uses a particular Cloud Service), Hybrid (a
combination of Public and Private Cloud; allows data or applications to be shared)

*these three avail Cloud Computing Resources through a provider ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI)
- It is a branch of Science which deals with helping machines find solutions to complex
- Types of Cloud Services: IaaS (Infrastructure as a Service – renting an IT
problems in a more human-like fashion
infrastructure), PaaS (Platform as a Service – on demand environment for
*AI technology was developed in order to collect and to find an improvement in technology
development), Serverless (focuses on functionality wherein the users don’t have to that was patterned to the human behavior
buy his server), SaaS (Software as a Service – delivering software applications - It is concerned with guiding computers to tasks that require human intelligence.
over the internet and on a subscription basis) *there’s a need as well for computers to reason out, to think, to do physical activities that is
similar or replicating human activities
AI TECHNIQUES APPLICATIONS OF AI
- Expert System – is a software-based system that attempts to capture human
- Knowledge Representation knowledge or expertise in a limited domain area.
*little by little captures what’s happening around; studies reasoning, representation of objects *typically used in companies/organizations that relies on too much data; there is a need to
around the device, communications like languages; as the computer encounters such objects, use this data for information processing/decision making by administrators that helps in the
events, communication languages – it will be stored in the system little-by-little performance of the organization
- Search - Neural Networks – a computer system that can simulate the functioning of the
*when the objects encountered an interaction, it will search it in its system/database so that human brain.
the object could interact correctly; when a task is assigned for the machine to perform, it will *also called as Artificial Neural Networks – modeled based on the nervous system of humans
have an intelligent or correct performance particularly the human brain; the neuron collect and identify various data that is presented
- Fuzzy Logic * artificial neurons are provided with various inputs and then the computer machine will
*reaction and interpretation of the machine on certain things generate certain outputs
- Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction (ICAI) – refers to the work of machines that - Natural Language Processing (NLP) – branch of AI which is concerned with
can tutor humans. understanding natural languages.
*used for educational purposes Examples:
 Speech recognition
Uses of ICAI:
 Speech synthesis
- Problem Solving
- Simulation - Robotics – it attempts to develop physical machines that can perform useful work
- Discovery normally done by humans.
- Drill and practice *more of physical performance; usually used in manufactured companies
- Games Ex. ASIMO – developed by Honda; Advanced Step in Innovative Mobility
- Testing

- Computer Vision/Vision Systems – it permits computers to capture, store, and DATA ANALYTICS
manipulate visual images and pictures. - Is the process of analyzing raw data to find trends and answer questions
- Intersection of information technology, statistics and business
*Ex. Retina scan – compare to the database to match the person’s identification; Biometrics
*represent trends; has a projection when it will reach the peak or when will there be an
- Machine Learning – refers to a set of methods that attempt to teach computers to improvement, etc.
solve a problem *analyzes raw data in order to provide a more comprehensive and detailed solutions to
questions that needs further interpretation
- Handwriting Recognizers
- Types:
o Descriptive (answers the question what happened; requires the collection of data
then eventually be processed, will have an analysis and then a visualization)
o Diagnostic (answers the question why it happened?; improves the result of the
descriptive analytics by digging deeper to find the cause)
o Predictive (helps answer questions about what will happen in the future?; will
have a reference on historical data)
o Prescriptive (answers the question what should be done?)
DATA SECURITY *these are all punishable by existing laws

- Refers to protecting data against unauthorized access or use that could result in
exposure, deletion, or corruption of data MALWARE
*concerns on such protection be it from accidental or intentional modification (could be - Malicious software
unauthorized) - It is a software that cybercriminals or hackers create to disrupt or damage a
legitimate user’s computer.
*concerns the safeguard of accessibility; we talk about various ways such as… *could be unsolicited emails/picture files
data encryption wherein you convert data into a code that can’t be easily read without
using a key; - Types:
o Virus (self-replicating program that is once in the system, it will infect the file
data masking where it hides the certain parts of data so that unauthorized persons by malicious code; could destroy apps or the hardware itself)
won’t see the data o Trojans (disguised as a legitimate software; as it enters the system, it can
data erasure – completely removing the data so that the unauthorized person won’t cause damage), Spyware (secretly records what the user does)
totally see it o Ransomware (locks down a user’s file or organization system and needs to
pay a ransom)
data back-up – whenever there is loss of data such as original copies, there is a o Adware (advertising software that seems legitimate but might be the cause of
possibility to create back-ups spreading of malware)
o Botnets (networks or malware that infects computers; once in the system, it
can manipulate the system)
DATA PRIVACY o Phishing (targets the victims; gets the information about the person and use
it to victimize other persons)
- Refers to the concerns regarding how data is handled – regulatory concerns, o Man-in-the-middle attack (intercept to the communication between two
notification, and consent of use. individuals)
- Example of data privacy is gaining consent to collect data from website visitors by o Denial-of-service attack (prevent a successful processing)
using cookies
*also concern with proper handling, processing, storage in use of personal information
*the Philippines has a Data Privacy Act that was signed in 2012 or R.A. 10173
CYBER SAFETY TIPS
- Update your software and operating system
CYBERSECURITY - Use anti-virus software
- Use strong passwords
- It is the practice of defending computers, servers, mobile devices, electronic systems,
- Do not open email attachments from unknown senders
networks, and data from malicious attacks.
- Do not click on links in emails from unfamiliar senders or websites
*wider scope; the system that is working around the data
*the ability to protect the data in the cyberspace from cyber-attacks
- Avoid using unsecure WiFi networks in public places

- Types of cyber threats: Cybercrime (user groups targeting systems to rob by

hacking), Cyber-attack (could be politically motivated; trolls; spread of
misinformation), Cyberterrorism (spread panicking or fear)
HARDWARE READ ONLY MEMORY
- One of the elements of computer and communication system - Also known as firmware – manufacturers/distributors of hardware components
- Referred to as the mechanical device or the physical device that constitute the o Instructions written in ROM by the firm or manufacturer of the chip.
computer Ex. do communications; audios
- Could be chased to its early beginning as a counting device that eventually becomes o Manufacturer of the chip
so complex that through hardware we could perform a lot of operations - Data stored in such chip is non-volatile
- We also consider other elements so that the physical device could do its function - Data stored in these chips is either unchangeable or requires a special operation to
change
Ex. when you save a data/file, it will remain in the ROM – can be modified if there are
Functions of hardware in a computer can be divided into five main units: changes

1. Central Processing Unit – considered as the brain of computer

- Arithmetic Unit SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY
- Control Unit
2. Peripheral Units RAM (Random Access Memory)
- Input Unit
- DRAM (Dynamic RAM)
- Output Unit
- SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM)
3. Storage Unit – secondary unit
- SRAM (Static RAM)

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
ROM (Read Only Memory)
- Sometimes called a chip or microchip
- Mask ROM
- A semiconductor wafer on which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors,
- User Programmable ROM
and transistors are fabricated
- PROM, EPROM (Electronically Programmable ROM), EEPROM
- An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter, computer memory, or
(Electronically Erasable Programmable ROM)
microprocessor.

PROCESSOR STRUCTURE
RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
- The CPU is the backbone of the computer, often compared to the human brain.
*considered as the main/primary storage
- It consists of the control unit and the arithmetic unit
- A semiconductor memory where all read and write functions are performed.
*any kind of processes takes place in the processor
- It is a volatile memory which needs constant supply of power to store data. All data
will be lost when power is turned off
 CONTROL UNIT LOGIC GATES
- Controls all operations of the computer NOT GATE
o Retrieves instructions stored in main storage unit
o Decodes retrieved instruction using the instruction decoder
o Executes and transmits instructions to each unit

ARITHMETIC UNIT
- Arithmetic Unit or officially the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
o Performs calculations, comparison, branch and other processes.
o ALU has functions performing fixed point operation, floating point operation
and decimal

EXECUTING PROGRAM
Processor’s four operating stages
Fetch – a program’s instructions and any needed data into the processor. ‘AND’ GATE
Decode – determines the purpose of the instruction and passes it to the appropriate
hardware element.
Execute – carries out the instruction.
Retire – takes the results of the execution stage and places them into other
processor registers or the computer’s main memory.
‘OR’ GATE ‘NAND’ GATE
- Negation of the AND GATE
- 2 operations: convert first to AND then apply negation

‘XOR’ GATE
Exclusive OR or Exclusive Sum
‘NOR’ GATE
- There should a presence of one ON value
MEMORY ARCHITECTURE MEMORY CAPACITY
STORAGE FUNCTION
- Main Storage UNIT (RAM)
o Volatile

- Auxiliary Storage (ROM)

o Device – non-volatile
 Hard disks
 Magnetic Tape
 Floppy disk
 Magneto-optical disk

MEMORY HIERARCHY STRUCTURE

AUXILIARY STORAGE DEVICE

MAGNETIC DISK UNIT CD-ROM
- Compact disc read-only memory
- Devices that store data using magnetic disks
- Can contain text, graphics, and video as well as sound.
*their way of reading is through magnets
- Cannot be erases or modified.
- Most widely used auxiliary storage device.
- Use CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player to read.
- Magnetic disks for personal computers or workstations are also called fixed disks or
- Used to distribute software
hard disks but the mechanism is the same.
*external device
*Hard drive = multiple tracks; CD-ROM = spiral track
*process – laser technology
*has a limited capacity

DVD
- Digital Versatile Disk or Digital Video Disk
- Capable of storing up to 2 hours (or more, depending on standards used) of
animated images and audio data.
- Can be thought of as layering CD-ROMs one on top of the other
*there are CD that are re-writable

INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES
MAGNETIC MEDIA
- Allows the entry of data in the computer system
TRACKS
- From the user input – input device – conversion – conversion allows the computer to
- Data recorded along rings called ‘tracks’ identify a data or instruction
- Length of the outer tracks are larger than that of the inner tracks differ
*stores data
OUTPUT DEVICE
Sectors – has its own storage addresses each
- From the computer – converts using an output device – result will be understandable
for the human

CYLINDER
- In magnetic disk units
o Multiple magnetic disks
o Groups of tracks with the same radius on each of the disks is set as one
data storage area called a ‘cylinder’
INPUT/OUTPUT ARCHITECTURE WHAT ARE OUTPUT DEVICES?
- Any hardware component that converts data into a human understandable format.
o Monitor
o Printer - hardcopy
o Headphones/Speakers - sounds
o Sound card – built inside the CPU
o Video card – also built inside the CPU
o Braille reader – conversion of letters/characters for those who have visual
impairments

WHAT ARE INPUT DEVICES?

- Any hardware component that allows you to enter data, programs, commands, and
user responses into a computer
o Keyboard – QWERTY operation
o Pointing devices
o Scanner and reading devices
o Optical readers
o Digital cameras
 1971 Faggin, Hoff & Mazor - Intel 4004 The first microprocessor.
YEAR INVENTORS -INVENTIONS DESCRIPTION Computer Microprocessor

1936 Konrad Zuse - Z1 Computer First freely programmable computer.

1971 Alan Shugart &IBM - The "Floppy" Disk Nicknamed the "Floppy" for its
flexibility.
1942 John Atanasoff & Clifford Berry - ABC Who was first in the computing biz is
Computer not always as easy as ABC.
1973 Robert Metcalfe & Xerox - The Ethernet Networking.
1944 Howard Aiken & Grace Hopper - Harvard The Harvard Mark 1 computer. Computer Networking
Mark I Computer
1974/75 Scelbi & Mark-8 Altair & IBM 5100 The first consumer computers.
1946 John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly - 20,000 vacuum tubes later...
Computers
ENIAC 1 Computer

1948 Frederic Williams & Tom Kilburn - Baby and the Williams Tube turn on the 1976/77 Apple I, II & TRS-80 & Commodore Pet More first consumer computers.
Manchester Baby Computer & The memories. Computers
Williams Tube
1947/48 John Bardeen, Walter Brattain & Wiliam No, a transistor is not a computer, but
Shockley - The Transistor this invention greatly affected the 1978 Dan Bricklin & Bob Frankston VisiCalc Any product that pays for itself in two
history of computers. Spreadsheet Software weeks is a surefire winner.
1951 John Presper Eckert & John W. Mauchly - First commercial computer & able to
UNIVAC Computer pick presidential winners. 1979 Seymour Rubenstein & Rob Barnaby - Word Processors.
WordStar Software
1953 International Business Machines - IBM 701 IBM enters into 'The History of
EDPM Computer Computers'.
1981 IBM- The IBM PC - Home Computer From an "Acorn" grows a personal
1954 John Backus & IBM - FORTRAN Computer The first successful high level computer revolution.
Programming Language programming language.

1955 Stanford Research Institute, Bank of The first bank industry computer - also 1981 From "Quick And Dirty" comes the
(In use 1959) America, and General Electric - ERMA and MICR (magnetic ink character Microsoft - MS-DOS Computer Operatin operating system of the century.
MICR recognition) for reading checks. System
1958 Jack Kilby & Robert Noyce -The Integrated Otherwise known as 'The Chip'.
Circuit

1962 Steve Russell & MIT -Spacewar Computer The first computer game invented. 1983 Apple Lisa Computer The first home computer with a GUI,
Game graphical user interface.

1964 Douglas Engelbart - Computer Mouse & Nicknamed the mouse because the tail
Windows came out the end. 1984 Apple Macintosh Computer The more affordable home computer
with a GUI.
1969 ARPAnet The original Internet.
1985 Microsoft Windows Microsoft begins the friendly war with
1970 Intel 1103 Computer Memory The world's first available dynamic RAM Apple.
chip.
HISTORY OF COMPUTING o During 1936 to 1938 Konrad Zuse developed and built the first binary digital computer in the
world (Zl). A copy of this computer is on display in the Museum for Transport and Technology
("Museum fur Verkehr und Technik") (since 1989) in Berlin.
o The first fully functional program-controlled electromechanical digital computer in the world
PEOPLE IN COMPUTER & COMPUTING
(the Z3) was completed by Zuse in 1941, but was destroyed in 1944 during the war. Because
- Charles Babbage (1791 - 1871) of its historical importance, a copy was made in 1960 and put on display in the German
o “The Father of Computing” Museum ("Deutsches Museum") in Munich.
o Born December 26, 1791 in Teignmouth, Devonshire UK, o Next came the more sophisticated Z4, which was the only Zuse Zmachine to survive the war.
Died 1871, London. The Z4 was almost complete when, due to continued air raids, it was moved from Berlin to
o His previous Difference Engine was a special purpose Gottingen where it was installed in the laboratory of the Aerodynamische Versuchanstalt
device intended for the production of tables. (DVL/Experimental Aerodynamics Institute). It was only there for a few weeks before
o 1810: Entered Trinity College, Cambridge Gottingen was in danger of being captured and the machine was once again moved to a
o 1814: graduated Peterhouse small village "Hinterstein" in the Allgau/Bavaria. Finally, it was taken to Switzerland where it
o 1817: received MA from Cambridge was installed in the ETH (Federal Polytechnical Institute/"Eidgenossisch Technische
o 1820: founded the Analytical Society with Herschel and Peacock Hochschule") in Zurich in 1950. It was used in the Institute of Applied Mathematics at the
o 1823: started work on the Difference Engine through funding from the British Government ETH until 1955.
o 1827: published a table of logarithms from 1 to 108000
o 1828: appointed to the Lucasian Chair of Mathematics at Cambridge (never presented a - John Louis von Neumann (1903-1957)
lecture) o Born 28 December 1903, Budapest, Hungary
o 1831: founded the British Association for the Advancement of Science o Died 8 February 1957, Washington DC
o 1832: published "Economy of Manufactures and Machinery” o A child prodigy: When only six years old he could divide eight-digit numbers in his head.
o 1833: began work on the Analytical Engine o Under the tutelage of M. Fekete, with whom he published his first paper at the age of 18.
o 1834: founded the Statistical Society of London o 1921: Entered the University of Budapest in 1921, studied Chemistry, moving his base of
o 1864: published Passages from the Life of a Philosopher studies to both Berlin and Zurich
o 1925: received his diploma in Chemical Engineering
- Konrad Zuse (1910 - ??) o 1928: returned to his first love of mathematics in completing his doctoral degree
o Born June 22, 1910, Berlin-Wilmersdorf o 1930: was invited to visit Princeton University
o invented pre-war electromechanical binary computer designated Z1 which was destroyed o 1933: the Institute for Advanced Studies was founded at Princeton, appointed as one of the
without trace by wartime bombing original six Professors of Mathematics, a position which he retained for the remainder of his
o developed two more machines before the end of the war but was unable to convince the life
Nazi government to support his work o 1953: Medal of Freedom (Presidential Award)
o fled with the remains of Z3 to Zurich where he developed Z4 o 1956: Albert Einstein Commemorative Award, Enrico Fermi Award, Member, American
o developed a basic programming system known as "Plankalkül" with which he designed a Academy of Arts and Science
chess playing program o Von Neumann's interest in computers differed from that of his peers by his quickly perceiving
o 1927: enrolled at the Technical University in Berlin-Charlottenburg and began his working the application of computers to applied mathematics for specific problems, rather than their
career as a design engineer (Statiker) in the aircraft industry (Henschel Flugzeugwerke) mere application to the development of tables.
o 1935: completed a degree in civil engineering. o During the war, Von Neumann's expertise in hydrodynamics, ballistics, meteorology, game
o remained in Berlin from the time he finished his degree until the end of the war in 1945, and theory, and statistics, was put to good use in several projects.
it was during this time that he constructed his first digital computers. o This work led him to consider the use of mechanical devices for computation
o later formed his own company for the construction and marketing of his designs. o He brought together the needs of the Los Alamos National Laboratory (and the Manhattan
Project) with the capabilities of firstly the engineers at the Moore School of Electrical
Engineering who were building the ENIAC, and later his own work on building the IAS
 machine. Several "supercomputers" were built by National Laboratories as copies of his simply a matter of breaking the job down into a series of these simple instructions. This is
machine. identical to the process programmers go through today. He believed that an algorithm could
o Postwar: Von Neumann concentrated on the development of the Institute for Advanced be developed for most any problem. The hard part was determining what the simple steps
Studies (IAS) computer and its copies around the world. His work with the Los Alamos group were and how to break down the larger problems.
continued and he continued to develop the synergism between computers capabilities and o During World War II, Turing used his mathematical skills to decipher the codes the Germans
the needs for computational solutions to nuclear problems related to the hydrogen bomb were using to communicate in the Department of Communications in Great Britain. This was
o There is no doubt that his insights into the organization of machines led to the infrastructure an especially difficult task because the Germans had developed a type of computer called
which is now known as the "Von Neumann Architecture” the Enigma. It was able to generate a constantly changing code that was impossible for the
o recognized the need for parallelism in computers but equally well recognized the problems of code breakers to decipher in a timely fashion.
construction and hence settled for a sequential system of implementation o Turing and his fellow scientists worked with a device called COLOSSUS. The COLOSSUS quickly
o through the report entitled First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC [1945], authored solely by and efficiently deciphered the German codes created by the Enigma. COLOSSUS was
Von Neumann, the basic elements of the stored program concept were introduced to the essentially a bunch of servomotors and metal, but it was one of the first steps toward the
industry. digital computer.
o In the 1950's Von Neumann was employed as a consultant to IBM to review proposed and o Turing went on to work for the National Physical Laboratory (NPL) and continued his research
ongoing advanced technology projects. into digital computers. Here he worked on developing the Automatic Computing Engine
(ACE), one of the first attempts at creating a true digital computer. It was during this time
- Alan Turing (1912 - 1954) that he began to explore the relationship between computers and nature. He wrote a paper
o Born 23 June 1912, London called "Intelligent Machinery" which was later published in 1969. This was one of the first
o Died 7 June 1954, Manchester England times the concept of artificial intelligence was raised.
o Pioneer in developing computer logic as we know it today. One of the first to approach the o Turing believed that machines could be created that would mimic the processes of the
topic of artificial intelligence. human brain. He discussed the possibility of such machines, acknowledging the difficulty
o 1931: Mathematics, Kings College, Cambridge people would have accepting a machine that would rival their own intelligence, a problem
o 1938: Ph.D., Princeton University that still plagues artificial intelligence today. In his mind, there was nothing the brain could
o 1936: Smith's Prize, Cambridge University do that a well designed computer could not. As part of his argument, Turing described
o 1946: Order of the British Empire (OBE) devices already in existence that worked like parts of the human body, such as television
o 1951: Fellow, Royal Society cameras and microphones.
o Alan Mathison Turing was one of the great pioneers of the computer field. He inspired the o Turing believed that an intelligent machine could be created by following the blueprints of
now common terms of "The Turing Machine" and "Turing's Test." the human brain. He wrote a paper in 1950 describing what is now known as the "Turing
o As a mathematician he applied the concept of the algorithm to digital computers. Test." The test consisted of a person asking questions via keyboard to both a person and an
o His research into the relationships between machines and nature created the field of intelligent machine. He believed that if the person could not tell the machine apart from the
artificial intelligence. person after a reasonable amount of time, the machine was somewhat intelligent. This test
o Turing helped pioneer the concept of the digital computer. The Turing Machine that he has become the 'holy grail' of the artificial intelligence community. Turing's paper describing
envisioned is essentially the same as today's multi-purpose computers. the test has been used in countless journals and papers relating to machine intelligence. The
o He described a machine that would read a series of ones and zeros from a tape. These ones 1987 edition of the Oxford Companion to the Mind describes the Turing test as "the best test
and zeros described the steps that needed to be done to solve a particular problem or we have for confirming the presence of intelligence in a machine."
perform a certain task. The Turing Machine would read each of the steps and perform them o Turing left the National Physical Laboratory before the completion of the Automatic
in sequence, resulting in the proper answer. Computing Engine and moved on to the University of Manchester. There he worked on the
o This concept was revolutionary for the time. Most computers in the 1950's were designed for development of the Manchester Automatic Digital Machine (MADAM). He truly believed that
a particular purpose or a limited range of purposes. What Turing envisioned was a machine machines would be created by the year 2000 that could replicate the human mind. Turing
that could do anything, something that we take for granted today. The method of instructing worked toward this end by creating algorithms and programs for the MADAM. He worked to
the computer was very important in Turing's concept. He essentially described a machine
which knew a few simple instructions. Making the computer perform a particular task was
 create the operating manual for the MADAM and became one of the main users of MADAM 1834 AD Georg and Edward Scheutz's Difference Engine
to further his research.
1847 AD to 1854 AD George Boole invents Boolean Algebra
TIMELINE AND HISTORY
1857 AD Sir Charles Wheatstone uses paper tape to store data 1867 AD The first commercial typewriter
350 Million Years BC The first tetrapods leave the oceans
1869 AD William Stanley Jevons invents the Jevons' Logic Machine Circa
30,000 BC to 20,000 BC Carving notches into bones
1874 AD The Sholes keyboard 1876 AD George Barnard Grant's Difference Engine
8500 BC Bone carved with prime numbers discovered
1878 AD The first shift-key typewriter
1900 BC to 1800 BC The first place-value number system
1881 AD Allan Marquand's rectangular logic diagrams
1000 BC to 500 BC The invention of the abacus
1881 AD Allan Marquand invents the Marquand Logic Machine
383 BC to 322 BC Aristotle and the Tree of Porphyry
1886 AD Charles Pierce links Boolean algebra to circuits based on switches
300 BC to 600 AD The first use of zero and negative numbers
1890 AD John Venn invents Venn Diagrams
1285 AD to 1349 AD William of Ockham's logical transformations
1890 AD Herman Hollerith's tabulating machines Circa
1434 AD The first self-striking water clock
1900 AD John Ambrose Fleming invents the vacuum tube
1500 AD Leonardo da Vinci's mechanical calculator
1902 AD The first teleprinters 1906 AD Lee de Forest invents the Triode
1600 AD John Napier and Napier's Bones
1921 AD Karel Capek's R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots)
1621 AD The invention of the slide rule
1926 AD First patent for a semiconductor transistor
1625 AD Wilhelm Schickard's mechanical calculator
1927 AD Vannevar Bush's Differential Analyser Circa
1640 AD Blaise Pascal's Arithmetic Machine
1936 AD The Dvorak keyboard
1658 AD Pascal creates a scandle
1936 AD Benjamin Burack constructs the first electrical logic machine
1670 AD Gottfried von Leibniz's Step Reckoner
1937 AD George Robert Stibitz's Complex Number Calculator
1714 AD The first English typewriter patent
1937 AD Alan Turing invents the Turing Machine
1761 AD Leonhard Euler's geometric system for problems in class logic
1939 AD John Vincent Atanasoff's special-purpose electronic digital computer
1800 AD Jacquard's punched cards Circa
1939 AD to 1944 AD Howard Aiken's Harvard Mark I (the IBM ASCC)
1800 AD Charles Stanhope invents the Stanhope Demonstrator
1940 AD The first example of remote computing
1822 AD Charles Babbage's Difference Engine
1941 AD Konrad Zuse and his Z1, Z3, and Z4
1829 AD The first American typewriter patent
1943 AD Alan Turing and COLOSSUS
1830 AD Charles Babbage's Analytical Engine
1943 AD to 1946 AD The first general-purpose electronic computer – ENIAC 1974 AD The Mark-8 microcomputer

1944 AD to 1952 AD The first stored program computer – EDVAC 1975 AD The 6502 microprocessor

1945 AD The "first" computer bug 1975 AD The Altair 8800 microcomputer

1945 AD Johann (John) Von Neumann writes the "First Draft" 1975 AD Bill Gates and Paul Allen found Microsoftt

1947 AD First point-contact transistor 1975 AD The KIM-1 microcomputer

1948 AD to 1951 AD The first commercial computer – UNIVAC 1975 AD The Sphere 1 microcomputer

1949 AD EDSAC performs its first calculation 1976 AD The Z80 microprocessor

1949 AD The first assembler -- "Initial Orders" Circa 1976 AD The Apple I and Apple II microcomputers

1950 AD Maurice Karnaugh invents Karnaugh Maps 1977 AD The Commodore PET microcomputer

1950 AD First bipolar junction transistor 1977 AD The TRS-80 microcomputer

1952 AD G.W.A. Dummer conceives integrated circuits 1979 AD The VisiCalc spreadsheet program

1957 AD IBM 610 Auto-Point Computer 1979 AD ADA programming language is named after Ada Lovelace"

1958 AD First integrated circuit 1981 AD The first IBM PC

1962 AD First field-effect transistor 1982 AD The TCP/IP protocol is established, and the term "Internet" is used

1963 AD MIT's LINC Computer 1982 AD IBM launches double-sided 320K floppy disk drives

1970 AD First static and dynamic RAMs 1984 AD The domain name server (DNS) is introduced to the Internet (~1,000 hosts)

1971 AD CTC's Datapoint 2200 Computer 1987 AD William Gibson coins the term "cyberspace" in his novel Neuromancer

1971 AD The Kenbak-1 Computer 1985 AD Microsoft Windows is launched

1971 AD The first microprocessor: the 4004 1987 AD The number of Internet hosts exceeds 10,000

1972 AD The 8008 microprocessor 1988 AD Laptops are developed

1973 AD The Xerox Alto Computer 1988 AD The first optical chip is developed

1973 AD The Micral microcomputer 1988 AD Write Once Read Many times (WORM) disks are marketed by IBM

1973 AD The Scelbi-8H microcomputer 1989 AD The "World Wide Web", invented by Tim Berners-Lee

1974 AD The 8080 microprocessor 1989 AD The Sound Blaster card is released

1974 AD The 6800 microprocessor 1990 AD The number of Internet hosts exceeds 300,000
1991 AD Linus Torvalds of Finland develops Linux, a variant of the UNIX operating system 2000 AD IBM releases a follow-up to Deep Blue, nicknamed Blue Gene: it operates at 1 quadrillion ops per
second (one peta flop) and is 1,000 times faster than Deep Blue. Blue Gene will be used for modelling human
1992 AD Gopher servers are used to provide students with online information proteins
1993 AD Commercial providers are allowed to sell Internet connections to individuals HISTORY OF SUPERCOMPUTERS
1993 AD Pentium is released Seymur Cray (1925-1996)
1993 AD The first graphics-based web browser, Mosaic, becomes available Much of the early history of the supercomputer is the history of the father of the supercomputer, Seymour
1993 AD The PDF (Portable Document Format) standard is introduced by Adobe Cray (1925-96), and the various companies he founded; in particular, Cray Research, which was the U.S. leader
in building the fastest supercomputers for many years.
1997 AD AMD releases its Am486 microprocessor to compete with Intel's 80486
o 1957: Founded Control Data Corporation
1994 AD Object-oriented authoring systems such as HyperCard, Hyperstudio, and Authorware grow in o 1958: Developed CDC 1604, first fully transistorized computer
popularity o 1958-1972: Designed the CDC 6600, which used 60-bit words and parallel processing, demonstrated
RISC design, and was forty times faster than its predecessor, followed by the CDC 7600 system
1994 AD Netscape 1.0 is written as an alternate browser to the National Center for Supercomputing
o 1972: Founded Cray Research
Applications (NCSA) Mosaic
o 1976: Designed CRAY-1 (100 megaflops)
1994 AD First wireless technology standard (Bluetooth) o 1985: Designed CRAY-2 (1-2 gigaflops)
o 1989: Founded Cray Computer Corporation, designed CRAY-3 (4-5 gigaflops).
1994 AD Yahoo! Internet search service launched o 19??: Followed it with the CRAY-4, also based on gallium arsenide, which is twice as fast in per-node
performance as the CRAY-3 and is smaller than the human brain.
1994 AD The World Wide Web comprises at least 2,000 Web servers
o 1980s-90s: Advent of competition from Japanese companies such as Fujitsu Ltd., Hitachi Ltd., and NEC
1995 AD Windows 95 is released, as well as Pentium Pro Corp.; and the rise in popularity of distributed computing based on large numbers of smaller
microcomputers working together in a limited way all served to shrink the U.S. supercomputer
1995 AD Netscape announces JavaScript industry
o 1995: Cray Computer filed for bankruptcy
1996 AD Netscape Navigator 2.0 is released
o 1995: Two University of Tokyo researchers broke the 1 teraflops (1.08 teraflops) barrier with their
1996 AD The number of Internet hosts approached 10,000,000 1,692-processor GRAPE-4 (Gravity Pipe number 4) special purpose supercomputer costing less than
two million U.S. dollars.
1996 AD Microsoft releases the first version of Internet Explorer o 1996: According to a November 11, 1996 announcement by Cray Research, a 2,048-processor CRAY
T3E-900 (TM) broke the world record for a general purpose supercomputer with an incredible 1.8
1997 AD Deep Blue by IBM defeats Kasporov
teraflops peak performance.
1997-1998 AD The first Beboputer Virtual Computer Intel releases the Pentium MMX for games and o 1996: Curiously, a December 16, 1996 announcement made by Intel Corporation, stated that their
multimedia enhancement Intel releases the Pentium II processor Microsoft releases Windows 98 AMD releases "ultra" computer, developed in a partnership with the U.S. Department of Energy, is the world's first
the K-6 microprocessor Palm Computing markets the first PDA (Personal Digital Assistant), the Palm Pilot supercomputer to break the 1 teraflops barrier.
Internet-based computing starts on a large scale with downloadable programs such as SETI@Home o 1997: A number of other companies have supercomputers operating in the 1 teraflops range, for
example: NEC Corporation's SX-4 has a peak performance of 1 teraflops, the Fujitsu (Siemens-Nixdorf)
1999 AD Linux Kernel 2.2.0 is released. The number of people running Linux is estimated to be about 10 VPP700 peaks at 0.5 teraflops, and the Hitachi SR2201 High-end model peaks at 0.6 teraflops.
million AMD releases K6-III, the 400MHz version The 2000 (Y2K) compliance preparation AMD releases its o Ongoing and Near Future: A press release by Intel indicates that the completed "ultra" computer, also
proprietary Athlon chip, which sets a new speed record of 1 GHz outpacing all of the competing Pentium known as ASCI Option Red will incorporate over 9,000 Pentium Pro® processors, reach peak speeds of
microprocessors offered by Intel 1.8 teraflops, and cost $55 million.
o Part of the Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative (ASCI), Option Red at the Sandia National o 1976: Dr. Robert M. Metcalfe develops Ethernet, which allowed coaxial cable to move data extremely
Laboratory will be followed at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory by ASCI Option fast. This was a crucial component to the development of LANs. The packet satellite project went into
Blue-Pacific, a $93 million 4,096-processor supercomputer designed and built by IBM with an practical use. SATNET, Atlantic packet Satellite network, was born. This network linked the United
estimated peak performance of 3.2 teraflops. States with Europe. Surprisingly, it used INTELSAT satellites that were owned by a consortium of
o Future: Over the next ten years, the ASCI program will sponsor the development and delivery of three countries and not exclusively the United States government. UUCP (Unix-to-Unix CoPy) developed at
more supercomputers to the Lawrence Livermore, Los Alamos, and Sandia national laboratories that AT&T Bell Labs and distributed with UNIX one year later. The Department of Defense began to
will reach speeds of 10, 30, and finally 100 teraflops. Though they will be made available for other experiment with the TCP/IP protocol and soon decided to require it for use on ARPANET.
applications, the primary use of this tremendous amount of computing power will be to maintain the Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 111+
safety and reliability of the U.S.'s remaining stockpile of nuclear weapons. o 1979: USENET (the decentralized news group network) was created by Steve Bellovin, a graduate
o Future: If 100-teraflops computing seems to be a lofty goal, it should be noted that there is at least student at University of North Carolina, and programmers Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis. It was based on
one petaflops (quadrillions of floating point operations per second) project in progress. The University UUCP. The Creation of BITNET, by IBM, "Because its Time Network", introduced the "store and
of Tokyo's GRAPE:TNG project aims to have a petaflops-class computer by the year 2000. Also known forward" network. It was used for email and listservs.
as the GRAPE-5, it would have 10,000-20,000 higher-powered processors and cost around $10 million. Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 111+
More interesting, the new GRAPE system, though still special-purpose hardware, will be less o 1981: National Science Foundation created backbone called CSNET 56 Kbps network for institutions
specialized than before and will be able to perform a variety of astrophysical and cosmological without access to ARPANET. Vinton Cerf proposed a plan for an inter-network connection between
simulations. CSNET and the ARPANET.
o 1957: The USSR launches Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite. In response, the United States Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 213
forms the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) within the Department of Defense (DoD) to o 1983: Internet Activities Board (IAB) was created in 1983. On January 1st, every machine connected to
establish US lead in science and technology applicable to the military. Backbones: None - Hosts: None ARPANET had to use TCP/IP. TCP/IP became the core Internet protocol and replaced NCP entirely. The
o 1962: RAND Paul Baran, of the RAND Corporation (a government agency), was commissioned by the University of Wisconsin created Domain Name System (DNS). This allowed packets to be directed to a
U.S. Air Force to do a study on how it could maintain its command and control over its missiles and domain name, which would be translated by the server database into the corresponding IP number.
bombers, after a nuclear attack. This was to be a military research network that could survive a This made it much easier for people to access other servers, because they no longer had to remember
nuclear strike, decentralized so that if any locations (cities) in the U.S. were attacked, the military numbers.
could still have control of nuclear arms for a counter-attack. His final proposal was a packet switched Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 562
network. o 1984: The ARPANET was divided into two networks: MILNET and ARPANET. MILNET was to serve the
Backbones: None - Hosts: None needs of the military and ARPANET to support the advanced research component, Department of
o 1968: ARPA awarded the ARPANET contract to BBN. BBN had selected a Honeywell minicomputer as Defense continued to support both networks. Upgrade to CSNET was contracted to MCI. New network
the base on which they would build the switch. The physical network was constructed in 1969, linking was to be called NSFNET (National Science Foundation Network), and old lines were to remain called
four nodes: University of California at Los Angeles, SRI (in Stanford), University of California at Santa CSNET.
Barbara, and University of Utah. The network was wired together via 50 Kbps circuits. Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 1024
Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET - Hosts: 4 o 1985: The National Science Foundation began deploying its new T1 lines, which would be finished by
o 1972: The first e-mail program was created by Ray Tomlinson of BBN. The Advanced Research Projects 1988.
Agency (ARPA) was renamed The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (or DARPA). ARPANET Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, 1.544Mbps (T1) NSFNET, plus satellite and radio
was currently using the Network Control Protocol or NCP to transfer data. This allowed connections - Hosts: 1961
communications between hosts running on the same network. o 1986: The Internet Engineering Task Force or IETF was created to serve as a forum for technical
Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET - Hosts: 23 coordination by contractors for DARPA working on ARPANET, US Defense Data Network (DDN), and
o 1973: Development began on the protocol later to be called TCP/IP, it was developed by a group the Internet core gateway system.
headed by Vinton Cerf from Stanford and Bob Kahn from DARPA. This new protocol was to allow Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, 1.544Mbps (T1) NSFNET, plus satellite and radio
diverse computer networks to interconnect and communicate with each other. connections - Hosts: 2308
Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET - Hosts: 23+ o 1987: BITNET and CSNET merged to form the Corporation for Research and Educational Networking
o 1974: First Use of term Internet by Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn in paper on Transmission Control Protocol. (CREN), another work of the National Science Foundation.
Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET - Hosts: 23+
 Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, 1.544Mbps (T1) NSFNET, plus satellite and radio limited system of today. The problem that has arisen is that it is not known how both the old and the
connections - Hosts: 28,174 new addressing systems will be able to work at the same time during a transition period.
o 1988: Soon after the completion of the T1 NSFNET backbone, traffic increased so quickly that plans Backbones: 145Mbps (ATM) NSFNET (now private), private interconnected backbones consisting
immediately began on upgrading the network. mainly of 56Kbps, 1.544Mbps, 45Mpbs, and 155Mpbs lines, plus satellite and radio connections -
Backbones: 50Kbps ARPANET, 56Kbps CSNET, 1.544Mbps (T1) NSFNET, plus satellite and radio Hosts: over 15,000,000, and growing rapidly.
connections - Hosts: 56,000
o 1990: Merit, IBM and MCI formed a not for profit corporation called ANS, Advanced Network &
Services, which was to conduct research into high speed networking. It soon came up with the
concept of the T3, a 45 Mbps line. NSF quickly adopted the new network. Tim Berners-Lee and CERN
in Geneva implements a hypertext system to provide efficient information access to the members of
the international high-energy physics community.
Backbones: 56Kbps CSNET, 1.544Mbps (T1) NSFNET, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts:
313,000
o 1991: CSNET (which consisted of 56Kbps lines) was discontinued having fulfilled its important early
role in the provision of academic networking service. The NSF established a new network, named
NREN, the National Research and Education Network. The purpose of this network is to conduct high
speed networking research. It was not to be used as a commercial network, nor was it to be used to
send a lot of the data that the Internet now transfers.
Backbones: Partial 45Mbps (T3) NSFNET, a few private backbones, plus satellite and radio connections
- Hosts: 617,0001992Internet Society is chartered.
o 1993: InterNIC created by NSF to provide specific Internet services: directory and database services
(by AT&T), registration services (by Network Solutions Inc.), and information services (by General
Atomics/CERFnet). Marc Andreessen and NCSA and the University of Illinois develops a graphical user
interface to the WWW, called "Mosaic for X".
Backbones: 45Mbps (T3) NSFNET, private interconnected backbones consisting mainly of 56Kbps,
1.544Mbps, and 45Mpbs lines, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 2,056,000
o 1994: Growth!! Many new networks were added to the NSF backbone. Hundreds of thousands of new
hosts were added to the INTERNET during this time period. ATM (Asynchronous Transmission Mode,
145Mbps) backbone is installed on NSFNET.
Backbones: 145Mbps (ATM) NSFNET, private interconnected backbones consisting mainly of 56Kbps,
1.544Mbps, and 45Mpbs lines, plus satellite and radio connections - Hosts: 3,864,000
o 1995: The National Science Foundation announced that as of April 30, 1995 it would no longer allow
direct access to the NSF backbone. The National Science Foundation contracted with four companies
that would be providers of access to the NSF backbone (Merit). These companies would then sell
connections to groups, organizations, and companies. $50 annual fee is imposed on domains,
excluding .edu and .gov domains which are still funded by the National Science Foundation.
Backbones: 145Mbps (ATM) NSFNET (now private), private interconnected backbones consisting
mainly of 56Kbps, 1.544Mbps, 45Mpbs, 155Mpbs lines in construction, plus satellite and radio
connections - Hosts: 6,642,000
o 1996-present: Most Internet traffic is carried by backbones of independent ISPs, including MCI, AT&T,
Sprint, UUnet, BBN planet, ANS, and more. Currently the Internet Society, the group that controls the
INTERNET, is trying to figure out new TCP/IP to be able to have billions of addresses, rather than the
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTING
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
(NOTES)
- Automation = fast

- Accuracy = process highest degree of accuracy based on its results/outputs

UNIT 1: OVERVIEW OF ICT 11/04/2021
- Reliability = we can rely on the computer’s performance
COMPUTER
- Versatility = capable of various functionalities; could also perform mathemathical/logical
- transforms into various scale operations and calculations

- Other forms: Analog watch, digital watch, pedometer, atm machine, calculator, - Memory = we could store so much information
laptop, abacus - Speed = perform the fastest; billion if calculations per second; speed wise
- A simple computing device to a powerful device - Diligent = computers interact with user intervention with various instructions
- Communicate through numbers OTHER CHARACTERISTICS…

- Electronic device - *Consistency = results/outputs (will based on instructions)

- accepts data, processes it & converts it into useful information - *Ease of use = portability

- Input - *User friendly = for the computers to act like humans

- Process - *Allows to multi-task = can do different tasks at the same time

- *Endurance = mechanical and can operate 24/7

- Output
- *Adaptability = Can adapt in the environment
- Storage
- *Resiliency = somehow relates to endurance
- Communication
- capability to store data and information
- capacity to store information bigger
- allows us to communicate progressively

*In all fields, the great effect of computer is there to perform works efficiently.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER

LIMITATIONS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM For individual users

- can only do what it is designed or programmed to do  Desktop

 Workstation = used in a workplace
- cannot correct input data (can analyze but not correct)
 Notebook = laptops
- cannot think and derive meanings from objects (relative to computer graphics)  Tablets
 Handheld = palmtop
- can only process jobs expressed in a number of steps (steps are algorithmic)
 Smartphones
- cannot completely avoid errors due to system malfunctions or human errors
Organizations

 Servers = file servers ; big CPU with a lot if hard disk/hard drives inside; storage/memory
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS  Mainframes and Supercomputers = demand for big storage and fast calculations
 Analog - characterized by flactuations (on and off)
 Digital - charaterized by counting
ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM
 Hybrid - combination of analog and digital
 According to purpose  Data
- General = variety of purpose or tasks  Hardware
- Special purpose = for limited activities (ex. ATM)  Software
 Communication
 According to size - differences in specifications and physical sizes (ex. typical computers)  Information
 Peopleware
- Microcomputer

- Minicomputer
APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER
- Mainframe
Different fields such as:
- Super Computers
 Work
 Education
 Music/Arts
 Home, etc.
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