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Pe Fir Handbook 1 4

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PE Fire

Protection
Reference Handbook
Version 1.4

This document is protected under U.S. and international copyright law. You may
print this document for your personal use, but you may not distribute it
electronically or in print or post it on the internet without the express written
permission of NCEES. Contact [email protected] for more information.

All NCEES material is copyrighted under the laws of the United States. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without the prior written permission of NCEES.
Requests for permissions should be addressed in writing to [email protected].

Fifth posting December 2023

Version 1.4
INTRODUCTION
About the Handbook
The Principles and Practice of Engineering (PE) Fire Protection exam is computer-based, and NCEES will supply
all the resource material you can use during the exam. Reviewing the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook
before exam day will help you become familiar with the charts, formulas, tables, and other reference information
provided. You will not be allowed to bring your personal copy of the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook into
the exam room. Instead, the computer-based exam will include a PDF version of the handbook for your use. No
printed copies of the handbook will be allowed in the exam room.

The PDF version of the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook that you use on exam day will be very similar to
this one. However, pages not needed to solve exam questions—such as the cover and introductory material—may
not be included in the exam version. In addition, NCEES will periodically revise and update the handbook, and
each PE Fire Protection exam will be administered using the updated version.

The PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook does not contain all the information required to answer every question
on the exam. Theories, conversions, formulas, and definitions that examinees are expected to know have not been
included. The handbook is intended solely for use on the NCEES PE Fire Protection exam.

Other Supplied Exam Material

In addition to the PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook, the exam will include codes and standards for your
use. A list of the material that will be included in your exam is shown on the exam specifications. Any additional
material required for the solution of a particular exam question will be included in the question itself. You will not
be allowed to bring personal copies of any material into the exam room.

Updates on Exam Content and Procedures

NCEES.org is our home on the web. Visit us there for updates on everything exam-related, including specifications,
exam-day policies, scoring, and practice tests.

To familiarize yourself with the format, style, and navigation of a computer-based exam, visit the Exam Resources
section on the NCEES YouTube channel.

Errata
To report errata in this book, log in to your MyNCEES account and send a message. Examinees are not penalized
for any errors in the handbook that affect an exam question.

Contributors
The PE Fire Protection Reference Handbook was developed by members of the Society of Fire Protection
Engineers and is maintained by NCEES.
CONTENTS
1 GENERAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Units and Conversion Factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Nomenclature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 General Formulas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Engineering Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2 FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.1 General Fire Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Risk Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.3 Fire Protection Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4 Fire Protection Analysis—Information Sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3 FIRE DYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1 Basics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Fire Growth and Heat-Release Rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.3 Heat Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Plumes and Flames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.5 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.6 Compartment Fires. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4 WATER-BASED EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.1 Fluid Mechanics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.2 General Water Flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.3 Fire Hydrants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4 Fire Sprinkler Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Hydraulic Calculations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6 Water Hammer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.7 Pressures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8 Fire Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.9 Water-Mist Fire Suppression Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.10 Pipe Diameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5 SPECIAL HAZARD EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.1 Foam Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.2 Low-Expansion Foam Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.3 High-Expansion Foam Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.5 Clean Agents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

©2020 NCEES iii

Contents

6 FIRE ALARM AND DETECTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

6.1 General Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.2 Heat Detector RTI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.3 Rate of Heat Release. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.4 Heat Detector Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.5 Smoke Detector Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
6.6 Audibility Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6.7 Illumination Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
6.8 Voltage Drop Calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7 SMOKE CONTROL. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.1 Fundamentals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.2 Smoke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.3 Airflow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.1 Flammability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.2 Vapor Clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.3 Explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.4 Explosion Venting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
8.5 Dusts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
9 PASSIVE BUILDING SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9.2 Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.3 Concrete/Masonry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.4 Timber/Wood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
9.5 Tied Fire Walls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
10 EGRESS AND OCCUPANT MOVEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
10.2 Evacuation Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
10.3 Egress Behavior in Smoke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
10.4 Emergency Lights. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
10.5 Remoteness of Exits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

11 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

11.1 General. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
11.2 Thermodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
11.3 Physical and Combustion Properties of Selected Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
11.4 Heat of Combustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
11.5 Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
11.6 Critical Heat Flux and Thermal Response Parameter of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
11.7 Thermal Properties and Thermal Response Properties of Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
11.8 Yields of Fire Products and Heats of Combustion for Well-Ventilated Firesa. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.9 Combustion Properties of Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.10 Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
11.11 Limiting Oxygen Concentrations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
11.12 Pool Burning: Thermochemical and Empirical Constants for a Number of Common ‌
Organic Fuels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
11.13 Effective Opposed-Flow Flame Spread Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.14 Fire Propagation Index and Smoke Development Index for Polymetric Materials. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

1.1.2 Constants
Quantity Symbol Value Units

gravity acceleration (standard) SI g 9.807 m/s2

gravity acceleration (standard) USCS g 32.174 ft/sec2

1.1.3 Flow
1 ft3/sec = 449 gpm

1.1.4 Pressure
1 ft of water = 1.13 in. of mercury

1 Pa (Pascal) = 1 N/m2 = 1 J/m3 = 1 kg/m●s2

ft of water × 0.433 = lb/in2

lb/in2 × 2.307 = ft of water

1.1.5 Sound
120 dB = 20 Pa = 1 W/m2

1.1.6 Temperature
Fahrenheit
°F = 1.8 (°C) + 32

Celsius
cF − 32
°C = 1.8
Rankin
°R = °F + 459.69

Kelvin
K = °C + 273.15

1.1.7 Volume
1 ft3 = 7.4805 gal

1.1.8 Other Units and Conversion Factors

Multiply By To Obtain Multiply By To Obtain
acre 43,560 square feet (ft2) joule (J) 9.478 × 10–4 Btu
ampere-hr (A-hr) 3,600 coulomb (C) J 0.7376 ft-lbf
ångström (Å) 1 × 10–10 meter (m) J 1 newton•m (N•m)
atmosphere (atm) 76.0 cm, mercury (Hg) J/s 1 watt (W)
atm, std 29.92 in., mercury (Hg)
atm, std 14.70 lbf/in2 abs (psia) kilogram (kg) 2.205 pound-mass (lbm)
atm, std 33.90 ft, water kgf 9.8066 newton (N)
atm, std 1.013 × 105 pascal (Pa) kilometer (km) 3,281 feet (ft)
km/hr 0.621 mph
5
bar 1 × 10 Pa kilopascal (kPa) 0.145 lbf/in2 (psi)
bar 0.987 atm kilowatt (kW) 1.341 horsepower (hp)
barrels–oil 42 gallons–oil kW 3,413 Btu/hr
Btu 1,055 joule (J) kW 737.6 (ft-lbf )/sec
Btu 2.928 × 10–4 kilowatt-hr (kWh) kW-hour (kWh) 3,413 Btu
Btu 778 ft-lbf kWh 1.341 hp-hr
Btu/hr 3.930 × 10–4 horsepower (hp) kWh 3.6 × 106 joule (J)
Btu/hr 0.293 watt (W) kip (K) 1,000 lbf
Btu/hr 0.216 ft-lbf/sec K 4,448 newton (N)

calorie (g-cal) 3.968 × 10–3 Btu liter (L) 61.02 in3

cal 1.560 × 10–6 hp-hr L 0.264 gal (U.S. Liq)
cal 4.184 joule (J) L 10–3 m3
cal/sec 4.184 watt (W) L/second (L/s) 2.119 ft3/min (cfm)
centimeter (cm) 3.281 × 10–2 foot (ft) L/s 15.85 gal (U.S.)/min (gpm)
cm 0.394 inch (in)
centipoise (cP) 0.001 pascal•sec (Pa•s) meter (m) 3.281 feet (ft)
centipoise (cP) 1 g/(m•s) m 1.094 yard
centipoise (cP) 2.419 lbm/hr-ft m/second (m/s) 196.8 feet/min (ft/min)
centistoke (cSt) 1 × 10–6 m2/sec (m2/s) mile (statute) 5,280 feet (ft)
cubic feet/second (cfs) 0.646317 million gallons/day (MGD) mile (statute) 1.609 kilometer (km)
cubic foot (ft3) 7.481 gallon mile/hour (mph) 88.0 ft/min (fpm)
cubic meters (m3) 1,000 liters mph 1.609 km/h
mm of Hg 1.316 × 10–3 atm
electronvolt (eV) 1.602 × 10–19 joule (J) mm of H2O 9.678 × 10–5 atm

foot (ft) 30.48 cm newton (N) 0.225 lbf

ft 0.3048 meter (m) newton (N) 1 kg•m/s2
ft of H2O 0.4332 psi N•m 0.7376 ft-lbf
ft-pound (ft-lbf) 1.285 × 10–3 Btu N•m 1 joule (J)
ft-lbf 3.766 × 10–7 kilowatt-hr (kWh)
ft-lbf 0.324 calorie (g-cal) pascal (Pa) 9.869 × 10–6 atmosphere (atm)
ft-lbf 1.356 joule (J) Pa 1 newton/m2 (N/m2)
ft-lbf/sec 1.818 × 10–3 horsepower (hp) Pa•sec (Pa•s) 10 poise (P)
pound (lbm, avdp) 0.454 kilogram (kg)
gallon (U.S. Liq) 3.785 liter (L) lbf 4.448 N
gallon (U.S. Liq) 0.134 ft3 lbf-ft 1.356 N•m
gallons of water 8.3453 pounds of water lbf/in2 (psi) 0.068 atm
gamma (γ, Γ) 1 × 10–9 tesla (T) psi 2.307 ft of H2O
gauss 1 × 10–4 T psi 2.036 in. of Hg
gram (g) 2.205 × 10–3 pound (lbm) psi 6,895 Pa

hectare 1 × 104 square meters (m2) radian (rad) 180/π degree

hectare 2.47104 acres
horsepower (hp) 42.4 Btu/min slug 32.174 pound-mass (lbm)
hp 745.7 watt (W) stokes 1 × 10–4 m2/s
hp 33,000 (ft-lbf)/min
hp 550 (ft-lbf)/sec tesla 1.0 weber/m2
hp-hr 2,545 Btu therm 1 × 105 Btu
hp-hr 1.98 × 106 ft-lbf ton (metric) 1,000 kilogram (kg)
hp-hr 2.68 × 106 joule (J) ton (short) 2,000 pound-force (lbf)
hp-hr 0.746 kWh
watt (W) 3.413 Btu/hr
inch (in.) 2.540 centimeter (cm) W 1.341 × 10–3 horsepower (hp)
in. of Hg 0.0334 atm W 1 joule/s (J/s)
in. of Hg 13.60 in. of H2O weber/m2 (Wb/m2) 10,000 gauss
in. of H2O 0.0361 lbf/in2 (psi)
in. of H2O 0.002458 atm

1.2 Nomenclature
The following is general nomenclature used throughout this handbook. Additional variables are defined within specific
sections.

Symbol Quantity Units (U.S.) Units (SI)

a area in2 or ft2 mm2 or m2
a acceleration ft/sec2 m/s2
bhp brake horsepower hp W (Watt)
Hazen-Williams pipe
C dimensionless
roughness coefficient
d diameter in. or ft mm
ε pipe roughness factor ft m
f Darcy friction factor dimensionless

e o -ft
lb m
F force slug-ft g N (Newtons)
=
lb f =
sec 2 sec 2
g acceleration due to gravity ft/sec2 m/s2
h fluid height ft m
H total head ft m
L length of pipe ft m
m mass lbm kg
mo mass flow rate lbm/sec kg/s
n rotational speed (pumps) rpm rpm
Re Reynolds number dimensionless
p pressure psi or lbf/in2 N/m2 or Pascal
P power ft-lb/sec W
Q volumetric flow rate gpm liter/s
ρ density lb/ft3 g/cm3
t time sec or min s
v velocity ft/sec m/s
v kinematic viscosity ft2/sec cm2/s (stoke)
V volume in3 or ft3 liters
w weight (force) lbf N (or kgf)
Z vertical distance ft m

1.3 General Formulas

Volume of a pipe:

V = 0.25pd 2L

Area of a circle/pipe:
r
A = 4 d2

Vapor density:
molecular weight
Vapor density = 29
Heat:

Total heat = weight × Hc

where

Hc = heat of combustion (J/kg)

Total heat in J

Weight (kg)

1.4 Engineering Economics

1.4.1 General
Factor Name Converts Symbol Formula
Single Payment, Compound Amount to F given P (F/P, i%, n) (1 + i)n
Single Payment, Present Worth to P given F (P/F, i%, n) (1 + i)–n
i
Uniform Series, Sinking Fund to A given F (A/F, i%, n)
_1 i i 1
n

i _1 i i
n
Capital Recovery to A given P (A/P, i%, n)
_1 i i 1
n

Uniform Series, Compound Amount to F given A (F/A, i%, n) ^1 + ihn - 1

i
_1 i i 1
n
Uniform Series, Present Worth to P given A (P/A, i%, n)
i _1 i i
n

_1 i i 1
n
Uniform Gradient, Present Worth to P given G (P/G, i%, n) n
i 2 _1 i i i _1 i i
n n

_1 i i 1
n
Uniform Gradient †, Future Worth to F given G (F/G, i%, n) n
i 2 i
1 n
Uniform Gradient, Uniform Series to A given G (A/G, i%, n) i _1 i in 1

Nomenclature and Definitions:

A = Uniform amount per interest period

B = Benefit
BV = Book value
C = Cost
d = Inflation-adjusted interest rate per interest period
Dj = Depreciation in year j
EV = Expected value
F = Future worth, value, or amount
f = General inflation rate per interest period
G = Uniform gradient amount per interest period
i = Interest rate per interest period
ie = Annual effective interest rate
MARR = Minimum acceptable/attractive rate of return
m = Number of compounding periods per year
n = Number of compounding periods; or the expected life of an asset
P = Present worth, value, or amount
r = Nominal annual interest rate
Sn = Expected salvage value in year n

Subscripts:
j = at time j

n = at time n

c F m n
F A
@ G F#A
i A G

1.4.2 Time Value of Money

RS V
SS c I m N WWW N
P SS
S 1 1 100 WW F c1 I m P 0
SS I W
WW v 100 v
S 100 W
where T X

P = payment

Fv = future value

Pv = present value

I = interest rate (%)

Note: This will yield negative numbers for at least one result due to that number being a value that is paid.

1.4.3 Non-Annual Compounding

ic = c1 + m m - 1
m
r

1.4.4 Breakeven Analysis

By altering the value of any one of the variables in a situation, while holding all the other values constant, it is possible
to find a value for that variable that makes the two alternatives equally economical. This value is the breakeven point.
The payback period is the period of time required for the profit or other benefits of an investment to equal the cost of the
investment.

1.4.5 Inflation
To account for inflation, the dollars are deflated by the general inflation rate per interest period f, and then they are shifted
over the time scale using the interest rate per interest period i. Use an inflation-adjusted interest rate per interest period d for
computing present worth values P.

d i f (i # f )

1.4.6 Depreciation
C Sn
Dj n

1.4.7 Book Value

BV = initial cost – ∑Dj

1.4.8 Capitalized Costs

Capitalized costs are present worth values using an assumed perpetual period of time.
A
P= i

1.4.9 Benefit-Cost Analysis

In a benefit-cost analysis, the benefits B of a project should exceed the estimated costs C.
B
B–C≥0 or C $1

1.4.10 Modified Accelerated Cost Recovery System (MACRS)

Dj = (factor) C

MACRS FACTORS
Recovery Period (Years)
Year 3 5 7 10
Recovery Rate (Percent)
1 33.33 20.00 14.29 10.00
2 44.45 32.00 24.49 18.00
3 14.81 19.20 17.49 14.40
4 7.41 11.52 12.49 11.52
5 11.52 8.93 9.22
6 5.76 8.92 7.37
7 8.93 6.55
8 4.46 6.55
9 6.56
10 6.55
11 3.28

©2020 NCEES 8
2 FIRE PROTECTION ANALYSIS
2.1 General Fire Safety
2.1.1 Material Compatibility
Material compatibility is of importance for proper functionality of all systems and equipment. Information on oxidizing
chemicals, combustible chemicals, unstable chemicals, water- and air-reactive chemicals, and corrosive chemicals is
available in many sources including installation standards.

2.1.2 Acceptable Thresholds

2.1.2.1 Maximum Temperature
Maximum temperatures affect operability of machinery, ignition of flammable vapors or gases (autoignition), and
degradation of materials including structural elements.
Temperature thresholds for ignition prevention:
• Autoignition temperature – The minimum temperature required to initiate self-sustained combustion in a substance
without any apparent source of ignition.
• Flash-point temperature – The minimum temperature at which the liquid gives off sufficient vapor to form an ignitable
mixture with air near the surface of the liquid or within the test vessel used. There are two methods of testing flash
point: closed-cup and open-cup.
• Closed-cup testing involves conditions similar to those in a closed tank. Most flash-point temperatures are
given for closed-cup.
• Open-cup testing is representative of open systems such as open tanks. This value will be indicated with a
symbol of oc.
• Generally, there is a difference of 10–20°F between closed-cup and open-cup flash-point temperatures.
• At flash-point temperatures an ignitable mixture will form but the mixture will not ignite automatically. It is
capable of being ignited in the presence of an ignition source.
• Fire point – The lowest temperature of a liquid in an open container at which the vapors evolve fast enough to support
continuous combustion. The fire point is not the same as the autoignition temperature. An external ignition source must
be present.
• Diluted water-miscible flammable liquids might have a flash point but no fire point. This is a consideration when
evaluating protection of storage of heavily diluted water-miscible flammable liquids.

2.1.3 Electrical Fires

2.1.3.1 Ignition Modes Involving Electric Current
Electric sparking or arcing can ignite materials in all phases: gases, liquids, solids, liquid aerosols, and dust clouds.
Ignition in gaseous and dust cloud media has been studied extensively. Ignition in bulk liquids is rare, apart from oil-ﬁlled
transformers and other HV devices. Ignition of liquid sprays, fogs, or aerosols is problematic in some industries, however.
Ignition of solids from arcing or sparking is common.

Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) of Some Minimum Ignition Energy (MIE) for Various
Common Gases and Vapors Dust Clouds
Substance MIE (mJ) Substance MIE (mJ)
Acetone 2.15 Aluminum 50
Acetylene 0.03 Aspirin 25–30
Ammonia 680 Black powder 320
Benzene 0.91 Coal 250
Butane 0.26 Cocoa 100–180
Carbon disulfide 0.039 Coffee 160
Cyclohexane 2.65 Cornstarch 30–60
Ethane 0.42 Cotton linters 1,920
Ethylene 0.114 Dextrin 40
Ethylene oxide 0.105 Flour, cake 25–80
Furan 0.328 Grain dust 30
Heptane 1.15 Magnesium 40
Hexane 0.29 Manganese 305
Hydrogen 0.03 Nitrostarch 40
Hydrogen sulfide 0.077 Nylon 20–30
Iso-octane 2.9 Paper dust 20–60
Methane 0.71 Phenol formaldehyde 10–6,000
Methanol 0.3 Polyethylene 70
Pentane 0.82 Polyethylene terephthalate 35
Propane 0.5 Polystyrene 40–120
Propylene 0.418 Rice 40–120
Toluene 2.5 Silicon 100
Vinyl acetylene 0.095 Soap powder 60–120
p-Xylene 0.2 Sugar, powdered 30
From Ignition Handbook, used by permission. Tantalum 120
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
Tin 80
fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.
Titanium 25
TNT 75
Urea formaldehyde 80–1,280
Wheat starch 25–60
Wood flour 30–40
Zinc 960
From Ignition Handbook, used by permission.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection
Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Apart from metals and some other rare substances, no combustible solids have an ignition temperature over 1,000°C. The
temperature of an electric arc is at least 6,500 K and may be much higher. Yet an electric arc impinging onto a combustible
solid is not necessarily assured of igniting it. Two primary factors operate in such cases:

1. The arc impingement may be very brief; many combustible materials can resist enormous heat ﬂuxes if these are
sustained only brieﬂy.
2. The material may ablate too rapidly to allow ignition. These mechanisms, however, are understood only
qualitatively.

2.2 Risk Analysis

Risk analysis estimates the probability of fire occurring and evaluates its consequences by weighting both fire severity and
probability. The results of a risk analysis can be used to estimate the average expected loss and its consequences, the largest
possible loss and its consequences, or other parameters. Risk analysis takes fault analysis methodology, extreme value
theory, and reliability theory into account in analyzing fire risk of fire safety.

Many methods or techniques may be used to evaluate risk. Examples include failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA),
event tree analysis (ETA), hazard and operability analysis (HAZOP), fault tree analysis, criticality analysis, and
consequence analysis.

2.2.1 Reliability Analysis

Reliability, represented by the letter R, is the probability of an item functioning after a predefined time, T. This definition
introduces the concept of probability in reliability analysis. As such, the time to failure of a system or component is
considered a random variable characterized by a probability distribution. The reliability of the system is the area under the
probability distribution to the right of time T. Consequently, the unreliability of a system or component, represented by the
letter F, is simply F = 1 – R. The unreliability will be the area under the curve to the left of time T. The following figure
illustrates this concept. The curve in the figure represents the probability distribution characterizing the time to failure:

UNRELIABILITY RELIABILITY

T t

Conceptual Representation for the Definition of Reliability and Unreliability

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with
permission from SFPE.

The process of conducting a reliability, availability, or maintainability analysis consists of the following general steps:

1. Definition of system boundaries

2. Failure mode analysis
3. Collection of reliability data
4. Selection of appropriate modeling method or technique
5. Quantification
6. Documentation
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

2.2.2 Event Tree Analysis

An event tree is a diagram consisting of the sequence of possible states of a system and of corresponding events that
lead to those states. By assigning probabilities to the outcomes of the intermediate events, the cumulative probability of
consequences can be calculated.

Event tree analysis (ETA) is often used to analyze complex situations with several possible scenarios, where several fire or
life safety systems are in place or are being considered. In brief, event trees are developed for a scenario, and probabilities
and frequencies for components are applied (see previous discussion on ETA).

One method for quantifying fire risk from multiple fire scenarios is given as

/ Riski = / _ Lossi # Fi i
where

Riski = risk associated with scenario i

Lossi = loss associated with scenario i

Fi = frequency of scenario i occurring

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

2.2.3 Criticality Analysis

Criticality analysis estimates the effect of fire prevention measures by assigning probabilities and severities to different
possible fire scenarios. This approach is also known as operational risk management.

2.2.4 Building Fire Risk Analysis

Building fire risk analysis is one specific application of risk analysis. In fire safety analysis, the level of building fire safety
is complementary to the level of fire risk. The chance of not having a fire is 1 minus the chance of having a fire (risk).
Building fire safety analysis may also involve cost-benefit analysis.

To reduce overall risk in an industrial facility, a planned hazardous materials storage area is recommended and sometimes
required, depending on the hazardous materials being stored. The location, construction, and level of protection required
depend on the level of hazard the stored materials pose. The best option is to have a detached low-value structure that would
reduce the risk to the public, nearby structures, or occupants of those nearby structures at risk. If this is not achievable, the
next best option is a structure attached to the facility that has no penetrations into the facility that would allow transfer of
products of combustion or a material spill from the structure to the facility.

Building fire risk analysis should consider

1. What the fire hazards are and how fires might occur
2. How the unwanted outcomes (consequences) are valued and by whom (including offsetting benefits)
3. What differences in risk perception and valuation exist and how they should be treated (i.e., should high-
consequence events be disregarded if the probability of occurrence is very low?)
4. Whether any social or cultural issues may be relevant
5. Any different stakeholder views on the likelihood of fire occurrence and of the resulting consequences
6. Whether uncertainty, variability, and unknowns have been identified and appropriately addressed
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

2.2.5 Limits of Analysis

The limitations of developed models or equations should always be verified and examined when applying them to specific
problems.

The factors affecting the reliability of predictions provided by models or equations may be categorized as follows:

• Definition and conceptualization of the assessed problem or scenario

• Formulation of the conceptual model
• Formulation of the computational model
• Estimation of the parameter values
• Data on which the models or equations are based

2.2.6 Percent Error Formula

Actual yield
Percentage yield = Theoretical yield # 100%

2.3 Fire Protection Management

A comprehensive fire protection management program is critical to ensuring the health, safety, and welfare of a building's
occupants. To sustain a desired level of life safety, the building components and systems must be managed. In addition,
activities occurring within the building must be managed to remain within design limitations.

This topic also includes fire prevention measures such as hot work (welding) permits, housekeeping, security service,
maintenance of warehouse aisles and flue spaces, and maintenance of performance-based design parameters.

Three factors are important in managing an adequate level of life safety in an existing facility:

• Capabilities and limitation of design

• Facility system impairments procedures
• Inspection, testing, and maintenance frequencies

The type, quantity, and arrangement of fuel present within a building can significantly affect the magnitude of a fire event.
The building design or a prescriptive code requirement may contemplate a specified maximum fuel loading associated
with a specific occupancy so that the fire protection systems can perform reliably and efficiently. Elements that can have an
impact on this design include

• Size and type of fuel packages

• Maximum quantity of fuel packages within the specified area
• Allowable locations for storage of display of specified fuel packages
• Required spatial separation between fuel packages

2.3.1 Fire Protection System Reliability Prediction

Method to predict the required maintenance interval for a fire protection system that is based on the system's reliability:
ln R R
tR

where

ln RR = Napierian log of the required reliability, RR

Λ = inherent failure rate of the system

tR = required maintenance interval to achieve the required reliability

2.3.2 Reliability of Fire Protection System

ΛT = 1 – PT

where

ΛT = failure rate of the total system

PT = probability of successful operation for the system, or reliability

The failure rate, Λ, of a system assembled from components having exponential failure rates is computed from the sum of
the failure rates of each of the components, Λn, from

Λ = q1λ1 + q2λ2 + q3λ3 + · · · + qnλn

where

Λ = failure rate of the total system

qn = quantity of the nth component in the system

λn = failure rate of the nth component in the system

2.4 Fire Protection Analysis—Information Sources

Fire prevention can be defined as the design and monitoring of physical conditions, automated processes, and human
activities to minimize the chance of fire. The chance of fire is minimized by controlling fuel, oxidizers, and ignition
energy; by taking process fire safety and hazard abatement measures; and by implementing management programs for loss
prevention and control. Fire prevention is found in every phase of a facility, from preliminary design through demolition.

2.4.1 Data Interpretation

• Identify and assess the impact of changes (e.g., facility, occupant, content, process/activity)
• Analyze system test results (e.g., fire pump, sprinkler, fire alarm)
• Analyze fire test results
A number of types of fire tests can be analyzed:

• Flame spread over building materials (internal and external)

• Smoke production rates
• Ignitability and flammability of clothing, furniture, drapery, and other similar materials
• Flash point, fire point, and similar tests of liquid flammability
• Warehouse commodity classification
• Dust explosivity and ignitability
• Required extinguishing agent concentrations or densities for specific scenarios
• Susceptibility of liquid to static charge accumulation

2.4.2 Fire Test Methods

Fire tests of entire building component, such as doors or compartments, are known as full-scale tests. Bench tests are
smaller-scale tests of representative sample of materials. Fire tests can be grouped into these categories:

• Empirically based bench tests

• Full-scale and component tests
• Research-oriented bench tests

2.4.2.1 Liquid Flammability Tests

The test used to determine the flash points of most liquids is ASTM D56 "Flash Point by Tag Closed Cup Tester." This test
is intended for liquids with a flash point of less than 175°F. Flash points determined in an open-cup test can be as much
as 50°F higher than when determined using a closed-cup test. The Pensky-Martens test is intended for fuel oils with flash
points between 150°F and 230°F.

Corrected flash point = T – 0.033 (760 – P)

where

T = measured closed-cup flash point (°C)

P = ambient atmospheric (barometric)pressure (mm Hg)

Some Values of Closed-Cup Flash Point, Open-Cup Flash Point, and Fire Point Temperatures
Closed-Cup FP (°C) Open-Cup FP (°C) Fire Point (°C)
n-Hexane –22 a NA
n-Heptane –4 –1 2
Methanol b 12 1.0, 13.5b 1.0, 13.5b
n-Octane 12 17 18
Ethanol b 13 6, 18.0b 6, 18.0b
s-Butanol 24 NA 29
m-Xylene 25 NA 44
p-Xylene 25 31 44
n-Butanol 29 36 36, 38, 50
n-Nonane 31 37 42
o-Xylene 32 36 42
JP-6 NA 38 43
n-Decane 44 52 61.5, 66
Decalin NA 57 63
Tetraline NA 71 74
Bicyclohexyl NA 74 79
n-Dodecane 74 NA 103
Fuel oil no. 2 124 NA 129
Fuel oil no. 6 146 NA 177
Glycero 160 176 207
Motor oil 216 NA 224
NA = Not available
a The open-cup flash point of n-hexane is quoted as –26°C in the original Factory Mutual Handbook and repeated

in Babrauskas. This is incorrect.

b Data from Glassman and Dryer. The lower values were obtained with ignition by a pilot flame. The upper values

refer to spark ignition.

Unless otherwise stated, these data come from the Factory Mutual Handbook, as quoted by Babrauskas.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

2.4.2.2 Smoke and Toxic Gas Release

The type of fuel, mode of burning (flaming/smoldering), heat flux, and ventilation factors have a major effect on smoke
development and toxic gas production. Knowledge of smoke development properties is important because smoke inhibits
visibility and exposes occupants to toxic gases.

Tests for smoke production include

ASTM E662: "Specific Optical Density of Smoke Generated by Solid Materials"

ASTM D2843: "Density of Smoke from the Burning or Decomposition of Plastics"

ASTM E906: "Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using a Thermopile Method"

ASTM E1354: "Heat and Visible Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products Using an Oxygen Consumption
Calorimeter"

2.4.3 ASTM E119 (NFPA 251) Furnace Test Correction Factor

2I ` A A S j
C
3 ` AS L j
where

C = correction factor (min or hr)

I = indicated fire resistance period (min or hr)

A = area under the curve of indicated average furnace temperature for the first three-fourths of the
indicated period (°F-hr, °C-hr, °F-min, °C-min)

AS = area under the standard furnace curve for the same part of the indicated period (°F-hr, °C-hr, °F-min, °C-min)

L = lag correction (54°F-hr or 3,240°F-min, 30°C-hr or 1,800°C-min)

©2020 NCEES 16
3 FIRE DYNAMICS FUNDAMENTALS
3.1 Basics
3.1.1 Combustion
Combustion can be expressed chemically, one example being the balanced chemical equation for the combustion of
methane, which is

CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O

(1 mol of methane reacting with 2 mol of oxygen produces 1 mol of carbon dioxide and 2 mol of water)

Heat of reaction = Heat of formation of products – Heat of formation of reactants

Heats of Formation at 25°C (298 K)

Compound (DHf)298 (kJ/mol)
Hydrogen (atomic) +218.00
Oxygen (atomic) +249.17
Hydroxyl (OH) +38.99
Chlorine (atomic) +121.29
Carbon monoxide –110.53
Carbon dioxide –393.52
Water (liquid) –285.8
Water (vapor) –241.83
Hydrogen chloride –92.31
Hydrogen cyanide (gas) +135.14
Nitric oxide +90.29
Nitrogen dioxide +33.85
Ammonia –45.90
Methane –74.87
Ethane –84.5
Ethene +52.6
(continued on next page)

Compound (DHf)298 (kJ/mol)

Ethyne (acetylene) +226.9
Propane –103.6
n-Butane –124.3
isobutane* –131.2
Methanol –242.1
* Heats of formation of other hydrocarbons are tabulated
in Weast.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Complete combustion for a generic hydrocarbon (CxHy) burning in air is written as

y
C x H y + a _O 2 + 3.76N 2 i " xCO 2 + 2 H 2 O + 3.76aN 2

where
y
a x 4
y
cx m
s d
moles air n 4
moles fuel stoich XO 2

s = molar stoichiometric ratio (both above XO )

XO 2 = mole fraction of oxygen in air c 4.76 m

B-Number Values for Different Fuels

Solids Formula B-number Liquids Formula B-number
Polypropylene C3H6 1.29 Methanol CH3OH 2.53
Polyethylene C2H4 1.16 Ethanol C2H5OH 2.89
Polystyrene C8H8 1.55 Propanol C3H7OH 3.29
Nylon 6/6 C12H22N2O2 1.27 Butanol C4H8OH 3.35
Polycarbonate C6H14O3 1.41 n-Pentane C5H12 7.63
PMMA C5H8O2 1.78 n-Hexane C6H14 6.67
PVC C2H3Cl 1.15 n-Heptane C7H16 5.92
Fir wood C4.8H8O4 1.75 n-Octane (gasoline) C8H18 5.42
a-cellulose C6H10O5 6.96 iso-Octane C8H18 6.59
Polyoxymethylene CH2O 1.47 n-Nonane C9H20 4.89
n-Decane C10H22 4.61
n-Undecane C11H24 4.43
n-Dodecane (kerosene) C12H26 4.13
Acetone C3H2O 7.28
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.1.2 Stoichiometric Combustion

If the combustion process is stoichiometric, air or oxygen is being supplied at exactly the rate required to consume the fuel
as it is being made available. The stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio, r, is defined as
rate of supply of air mo
= = o air
r rate of supply of fuel mfuel
The combustion process is rarely complete. The efficiency of the combustion process can be assessed using the equivalence
ratio, f.
mo fuel
d
fuel
n f o p
air actual mair actual mo
r f o fuel p
mair actual
d n
fuel mo fuel
air stoich f p
mo air stoich

If f < 1, the combustion will be fuel lean. If f > 1, it will be fuel rich. Fuel-rich conditions can lead to incomplete
combustion.

3.1.3 Heats of Combustion

The heat of combustion of a fuel is defined as the amount of heat released when unit quantity is oxidized completely to yield
stable end products. Tables for a variety of products can be found in Sections 11.3 and 11.4 of this document.

3.1.4 Heats of Formation

The most stable compounds (CO2 and H2O) have the largest negative values, while positive values tend to indicate an
instability with respect to the parent elements. This can indicate high chemical reactivity, and indeed heats of formation
have been used in preliminary hazard assessment to provide an indication of the risks associated with new processes in the
chemical industry. (See table on page 17.)

3.1.5 Specific Heat

Heat Capacities of Selected Gases at Constant Pressure (101.1 kN/m2)

Cp (J/m●K)
Temperature (K)
Species
298 500 1,000 1,500 2,000
CO 29.14 29.79 33.18 35.22 36.25
CO2 37.129 44.626 54.308 58.379 60.350
H2O(g) 33.577 35.208 41.217 46.999 51.103
N2 29.125 29.577 32.698 34.852 35.987
O2 29.372 31.091 34.878 36.560 37.777
He 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786 20.786
CH4 35.639 46.342 71.797 86.559 94.399
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with
permission from SFPE.

Thermal Capacity of the Products of Combustion of a

Stoichiometric Propane/Air Mixture
Thermal Capacity at 1,000 K
Species No. of Moles
J/mol●K J/K
CO2 3 54.3 162.9
H2O 4 41.2 164.8
N2 18.8 32.7 614.8
Total thermal capacity (per mole of propane) = 942.5
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

3.1.6 Ignition
Methods to predict the ignition of solid materials involve the following properties:

• Specific heat (cp)

• Thermal conductivity (k)
• Density (r)

The product of these properties (kρc) is called thermal inertia. Selected information can be found in Sections 11.7 and 11.13
of this document.

3.1.7 Ignition of Thermally Thin Material

When the external heat flux is much larger than the losses, estimation of the time to ignition can be made using the
following equation:
s C s L `Tig T0 j
tig
qo em
where

tig = time to ignition (s)

s = density (kg/m3)

Cs = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

L = material thickness (m)

Tig = ignition temperature (°C)

T0 = initial temperature (°C)

qo em = external heat flux (kW/m2)

It applies to a material of thickness d heated on one side and insulated on the other, or a material of thickness 2d heated
symmetrically.

The physical thickness, d, of the material must be less than the thermal penetration depth, δT, for it to be considered
thermally thin. Typically, items with a thickness of less than about 1 mm can be treated as thermally thin.

The equation for thermal penetration depth is given as (Fundamentals of Fire Phenomena by J. Quintiere, equation 7.20a)

or
dhc hc `Ts − T0 j
Bi / %
k qo m
where

d = material thickness (m)

T = thermal penetration depth (m)

= thermal diffusivity (m2/s)

t = time (s)

k = thermal conductivity (W/m-K)

Ts = temperature of solid (°C)

T0 = initial temperature (°C)

qo m = heat flux (kW/m2)

Bi = Biot number (dimensionless)

hc = heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-K)

3.1.8 Ignition of Thermally Thick Material

Different equations are applicable to materials with high- and low-incident heat fluxes. The solution using these equations is
an iterative process requiring a comparison of the ignition time to a characteristic time.

The characteristic time, tc, is determined as follows

k s C s
tc
_hT i
2

where

tc = characteristic time (s)

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

ps = density (kg/m3)

C s = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

hT = total heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

It incorporates both convective and radiative heat losses.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.1.8.1 High-Incident Heat Flux

Where tig % tc :
Tig T0
2

tig kr r s Cr s f p

4 qo em
where

tig = time to ignition (s)

kr = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

r s = density (kg/m3)

Cr s = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

Tig = ignition temperature (°C)

T0 = initial temperature (°C)

qo em = external heat flux (kW/m2)

The heat-loss term is not included, implying that it holds true where the heat-flux term is large.

Thermal response parameter, TRP, is defined as

where

TRP = thermal response parameter (kW-s1/2/m2)

ΔTig = ignition temperature above ambient (K)

kr = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

r s = density (kg/m3)

Cr s = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

For fire initiation, a material must be heated above its CHF value. And substitution into the high-incident heat-flux equation
results in the following

where

tig = time to ignition (s)

qo em = external heat flux (kW/m2)

TRP = thermal response parameter (kW-s1/2/m2)

CHF = critical heat flux (kW/m2)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.1.8.2 Low-Incident Heat Flux

Where tig > tc:

See Section 3.1.8.1 for variables and units.

3.1.9 Gas Flame Temperature

Adiabatic Flame Temperature of Lower-Limiting
Hydrocarbon Air Mixtures
Adiabatic Flame Temperature at
Gas
Lower Flammability Limit (K)
Methane 1,446
Ethane 1,502
Propane 1,554
n-Butane 1,612
n-Pentane 1,564
n-Heptane 1,692
n-Octane 1,632
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.1.10 Combustion Efficiency

Combustion efficiency is likely to vary from around 0.3–0.4 for heavily fire-retarded materials to 0.9 or higher in the case of
oxygen-containing products.

The combustion efficiency, χch (dimensionless), can be described as the ratio of the effective heat of combustion and the net
heat of combustion:
Hch
ch
H T
or
h c
ch
h c l
where

DHch = effective heat of complete combustion per unit of fuel vaporized (mJ/kg)

DHT = net heat of complete combustion per unit of fuel vaporized (mJ/kg)

Dhc = effective heat of combustion (MJ/kg)

hc l = net heat of combustion (MJ/kg)

3.1.11 Virtual Origin

The virtual origin is defined as the point source from which the plume above the flame appears to originate.

3.1.11.1 Virtual Origin for Pool Fires

z0 1.02D 0.083Qo 2/5
where

z0 = virtual origin (m)

D = effective diameter (m)

Qo = total heat-release rate (kW)

If the pool is not circular

D c 4
Am
1/2

where

A = area of the pool (m2)

3.1.11.2 Virtual Origin of Other Fire Types

z0 L 0.175Qo c
2/5

where

z0 = virtual origin (m)

L = flame height (m)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)

3.2 Fire Growth and Heat-Release Rates

3.2.1 Heat-Release Rate—General
Qo = mo fuel # DHC

mo fuel = mass burning rate (kg/s)

∆HC = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

3.2.2 Heat-Release Rates—Example Fire Test

Following is an example of a heat-release-rate graph for a burning foam sofa based on fire test data:
FOAM SOFA
4000
.
Q = 0.1736 (t – 80)2

RATE OF HEAT RELEASE (kW)

3000

2000

1000

0
0 100 200 300 400 500
TIME (s)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.2.3 Total Heat Release

Since the energy released by a fire is transported primarily through convection and radiation, the total heat-release rate can
be defined as:

Qo Qo c Qo r

3.2.4 Rate of Heat Release Within a Compartment

To calculate the heat-release rate within the compartment, it is assumed that the fire is ventilation controlled and that all
combustion takes place within the compartment:

Qo mo air # Hc (air)

where

Qo = portion of the heat-release rate (kW)

mo air = mass flow rate of air into the compartment (kg/s)

Hc (air) = heat of combustion (kJ/kg) per unit mass of air consumed (3,000 kJ/kg)

mo air = 0.52A0 H 10/2

where

A0 = effective area of ventilation (m2)

H0 = height of the ventilation opening (m)

3.2.5 Rate of Heat Release for Pallets

The general heat-release rate for a standard pallet, 1.22 m × 1.22 m, can be determined using the following equation:*

Qo 1, 368 (1 2.14h p) (1 0.03M)

where

Qo = heat-release rate (kW)

hp = stack height (m)

M = moisture (%) with an assumed net heat of combustion of 12 × 103 kJ●kg–1

* equation not appropriate for stacks less than 0.5 m in height

The general heat-release rate for a nonstandard pallet per-unit-pallet-floor-area can be determined using the
following equation:**

Qo m 919 (1 2.14h p) (1 0.03M)

where

Qo m = heat-release rate per unit area (kW/m2)

hp = stack height (m)

M = moisture (%) with an assumed net heat of combustion of 12 × 103 kJ●kg–1

** equation not appropriate for stacks less than 0.5 m in height

3.2.6 Power-Law Fire Growth

These growth models do not model fire decay. The most common power-law growth model is the t2 model:

Qo `t ti j
p

where

Qo = heat-release rate of fire at time t (kW)

= fire growth coefficient (kW/s2)

t = time measured into the fire at which the heat release is being calculated (s)

ti = ignition reference time (incorporates time to ignition and incubation period) (s)

p = power (characterizing heat-release rate increase)

3.2.7 t2 Fire Growth Rates

1, 055
a=
t g2
Slow tg = 600

Medium tg = 300

Fast tg = 150

Ultra Fast tg = 75

where

tg = time for fire to grow to 1,055 kW

3.2.8 Heat-Release Rates for t2 Fires with Standard Growth Rates

The t2 fire growth can be depicted as curves at various α values. These are curves that present liquid fuel fires with liquid-
phase and gas-phase flame spread.

3.2.9 t2 Fires—with Fuel Constant

Qo t 2

where

Qo = heat-release rate (kW)

a = fire growth coefficient (kW/s2)

t = time after burning occurs (sec)

These fire heat-release rates curves are chosen to be representative of actual fires involving different commodities and
geometric storage arrangements:

Slow Qo = 0.00293t2

Medium Qo = 0.01172t2

Fast Qo = 0.0469t2

Ultrafast Qo = 0.1876t2

where

Qo is in kW

t2 is in sec
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.2.10 t2 Fires—with Fire Growth Time

Qo (t) = f p # t2
1, 055
t g2
where

Qo (t) = total heat-release rate at time t (kW)

t = time (sec)

tg = time (sec) for a fire to grow from first appearance of flame to 1,055 kW

3.3 Heat Transfer

Methods for calculating the heat transferred by conduction, convection, and radiation.

3.3.1 Conduction
Conduction is the gradual spreading of heat through materials, molecule by molecule. The heat flux is related to the
temperature differential as follows:
T
qo m
where ctm
k
qo m = heat flux at material surface(kW/m2)

t = thickness (m)

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

ΔT = change in temperature (K)

3.3.1.1 Rate of Heat Transfer Through a Solid

The rate that heat is transferred through a solid is directly proportional to the difference in temperature, as given by
Fourier's law. Many thermal properties of materials are time-dependent (i.e., thermal conductivity and specific heat).
Average values that span the range of temperatures under consideration are often used.
dT
Qo kA
dx
where

Qo = rate of heat transfer (kW)

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

A = surface area perpendicular to direction of heat transfer (m2)

T = temperature (K)

x = spatial location within the solid (m)

For heat-transfer rate per unit area:

dT d T2 T1 n
qo m k k
dx x
where

qo m = heat-transfer rate per unit area (kW/m2)

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

T1 = temperature (K)

T2 = temperature (K)

x = spatial location within the solid (m)

3.3.1.2 Conduction Through a Plane Wall

kA _T2 T1 i T1 k
Qo L
where T2

Qo = rate of heat transfer (kW)

Q
L
k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

A = wall surface area normal to heat flow (m2)

L = wall thickness (m)

T1 = temperature of one surface of the wall (K)

T2 = temperature of the other surface of the wall (K)

3.3.1.3 Thermal Resistance

T
Qo R
total
where

Qo = rate of heat transfer (kW)

o = rate of heat transfer (kW)

T = change in temperature (K)

Rtotal = sum of resistances (K/kW)

Resistances in series are added:

Rtotal = SR

For plane wall conduction resistance (K/kW)

L
R = kA
where

L = wall thickness

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

A = wall surface area normal to heat flow (m2)

For cylindrical wall conduction resistance (K/kW)

ln d r2 n
r
1
R
2kL
where

L = cylinder length

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

r1 = cylinder inside radius (m)

r2 = cylinder outside radius (m)

For convection resistance (K/kW)

1
R = hA

where

h = convective heat-transfer coefficient (which depends on the material characteristics, geometry

of the solid, and property of the fluid, including fluid parameters) (kW/m2-K)

A = surface area (m2)

Composite Plane Wall

Fluid 1 kA kB Fluid 2
T∞1 T∞2
h1 h2
. LA LB
Q

T1 T2 T3

1 LA LB 1
h1A kAA kBA h2A
.
Q
T∞1 T1 T2 T3 T∞2

To evaluate surface or intermediate temperatures:

T1 T2 T2 T3
Qo R
RB
A

where

Qo = rate of heat transfer (kW)

T1, T2 g = temperature at surface (K)

RA, RB g = resistance (K/kW)

3.3.2 Convection
Convection is the effect of conduction with the motion of heated fluids. Convection is a significant part of heat transfer
through turbulent plumes associated with most fires. The basic convective heat-release rate (per unit area) equation is

qo m hT

where

qo m = convective heat-release rate per unit surface area (kW/m2)

h = convective heat-transfer coefficient (which depends on the material characteristics, geometry

of the solid, and property of the fluid, including fluid parameters) (kW/m2-K)

ΔT = temperature difference between the fluid and the surface area (K)

3.3.3 Radiation
Variations in the predicted versus measured heat fluxes vary considerably between methods. The following table is a
summary of methods:

Method Range of Use (kW/m2) Preferred Methods (kW/m2)

All heat fluxes, ground
Shokri and Beyler correlation --
level only
Point source model 0–5 #5
Shokri and Beyler model $5 $5
Mudan model All heat fluxes --
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.3.3.1 Point-Source Radiation

This model is the simplest configuration of a radiant source and models the flame by a point source located at the center of
the real flame. This model assumes a vertical target and q is the angle between the target's normal and the line of sight from
the target to the point-source location:

H/2 R

q T

D
L

Nomenclature for Use with the Point-Source Model

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The heat flux on a target for the point-source model (Drysdale) is given by the equation
Qo r cos
qo mr
4r 2
where

qo mr = heat flux on a target perpendicular to radius from the point source (kW/m2)

Qo r = radiative heat release from the fire (typically 20–30% of Qtotal) (kW)

r = distance from plume center at H/2 to the target (m)

q = angle between the normal to the target and the line of sight from the target to the point-source
location (degrees) (The worst case is that cos q = 1 and this factor is ignored.)

3.3.3.2 Incident Heat Flux—Shokri and Beyler Correlation

This method assumes that the pool is circular or nearly circular. It also assumes that the target is vertical and located at
ground level. Radiant heat flux is maximized near the mid-height of the radiating source. A target facing the center of radi-
ation will give the maximum heat flux at a given location. At heights above ground level, the radiant heat flux is expected
to exceed that given by this equation:

qo m 15.4 c D m
L 1.59

where

qo m = incident radiant heat flux (kW/m2)

D = diameter of pool fire (m)

L = distance from center of pool fire to target edge (m)

L
(The edge of a circular pool has a value of D of 0.5.)

The equivalent diameter for noncircular pools is given as

D =

where

A = surface area of noncircular pool (m)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.3.3.3 Radiative Energy Output

Qo r r Qo _0.21 0.0034D i Qo

where

Qo r = total radiative energy output (kW)

r = radiative fraction (dimensionless)

Qo = total heat release (kW)

D = pool diameter (m)

3.3.3.4 Radiative Fraction ( | r ) as a Function of Pool Diameter

0.35

0.30

0.25

Radiative fraction (cr )

0.20 cr = 0.21 – 0.0034 D

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Pool diameter (m)
The Solid Line Is a Curve Fit to the Data
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

r = radiative fraction (dimensionless)

D = pool diameter (m)

3.3.3.5 Energy Absorbed (Heat Transfer)

E = ε × qm × A × t
where

E = energy absorbed (kJ)

e = emissivity (dimensionless)

qm = heat flux (kW/m2)

A = exposed area (m2)

t = time (sec)

3.3.3.6 Emissivity
q T 4
where

q = flame emissive power (W/m2)

e = emissivity (1.0 for a black body) (dimensionless)

σ = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2–K4)

T = temperature (K)

3.3.3.7 Emissivity—with Configuration Factor

For targets very near the fire, other methods that account for configuration (shape) factors are required.
Computing shape factors based on the algebraic formulae would take too long in the exam format; therefore, the shape
factor will likely be given or read off a graph. It is important to understand the relationship of the source to the target when
selecting shape factors. It is also important to understand when shape factors are mathematically combined.
If the emissive power from a surface is known, then it is possible to calculate the intensity of radiation falling at a point at a
known distance from the surface by incorporating a configuration or shape factor, F:

qo m T 4
where

qo m = heat flux (W/m2)

F = configuration factor (dimensionless)

e = emissivity (dimensionless)

s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2–K4)

T = temperature (K)

Under steady-state conditions, Kirchhoff's law stipulates that the absorptivity of a surface is equal to its emissivity. Thus,
under steady-state conditions, given a known incident heat flux and surface emissivity, the total energy absorbed by the
surface can be calculated. In this case the total energy absorbed is also equal to the total energy emitted (i.e., steady state).

qo m ` / F j T 4
where

qo m = flame emissive power (kW/m2)

e = emissivity (1.0 for a black body) (dimensionless)

s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2–K4)

T = absolute temperature (K)

/F = sum of configuration factors

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.3.3.8 Net Energy Exchange by Radiation Between Two Bodies

Body small compared to its surroundings:

Qo 12 A `T14 T 24 j
where

Qo 12 = net heat-transfer rate from the body (W)

e = emissivity of the body (1.0 for a black body) (dimensionless)

s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10–8 W/m2–K4)

A = body surface area (m2)

T1 = temperature (K) of the body surface

T2 = temperature (K) of the surroundings

3.4 Plumes and Flames

Z Z

T0 u0
Entrained
flow Flow
profile

Flame L
T0;u 0
0
Features of a Turbulent Fire Plume, Including Axial Variations
on the Centerline of Mean Excess Temperature, DT0,
and Mean Velocity, u0
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.1 Mean Flame Height

The mean flame height, L, is the distance above the fire source where the intermittency has declined to 0.5. This height
marks the level at which the combustion reactions are essentially complete and the inert plume can be considered to begin.

Under normal atmospheric conditions and for most gaseous and liquid fuels:

L H 1.02D 0.235Qo 2/5

where

L = flame height (m)

H = flame height (m)

D = diameter (m)

Qo = heat-release rate of the pool fire (kW)

The equivalent diameter for noncircular pools is given as

where

A = surface area of noncircular pool

However, if the actual lower heat of combustion (Hc) and the actual mass stoichiometric ratio of air to volatiles (r) are
known or if atmospheric conditions deviate significantly from normal, the following equation should be used:

L 1.02D AQo 2/5

where
RS V1/5
SS c p T3 WWW
A 15.6 SSS 2 Hc 3 WWW
SS g3 d n WW
r
T X

where

D = diameter (m)

g = gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure = 1 kJ/kg-K

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

3 = ambient density = 1.2 (kg/m3)

Hc = actual lower heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

r = actual mass stoichiometric ratio (dimensionless)

Q 37 _ L 1.02D i
5 2

Note: 0.235 is an average applicable to many gaseous and liquid fuels under normal atmospheric conditions
(HC/r within the range of 2,900–3,200 kJ/kg).

3.4.1.1 Entrained Flow

mo ent = entrained mass flow rate in plume (kg/s)

mo ent,L = mo ent at mean flame height

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)

z = height above fire (m)

At the mean flame height, L(ΔTL = 500 K):

mo ent, L _ kg/s i = 0.0058Qo c (kW)

At and below the mean flame height, L, for fire source diameters of 0.3 m and greater:

mo ent _ kg/s i = 0.0058Qo c (kW) : L

3.4.2 Temperature of Smoke Layer

Qo
T T3 Mcc
p

where

T = temperature of smoke in plume (K)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)

M = mass flow rate of plume (kg/s)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (1 kJ/kg-K)

3.4.3 Plume Centerline Temperature Rise

1/3
T3
T0 9.1 f 2 2 p Qo c2/3 _ z z0 j
5/3

gc p 3

z0 = –1.02D + 0.083Q2/5

where
DT0 = T0 – T3

DT0 = temperature rise on centerline (K)

T0 = centerline temperature (K)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

g = gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (1 kJ/kg-K)

3 = ambient density (1.2 kg/m3)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)

z = elevation of interest (m)

z0 = virtual origin (m)

D = effective diameter (m)

Q = total heat-release rate (kW)

D =

3.4.4 Plume Radius to Point Where Temperature Rise Has Declined to 0.5 DT0
T0 1/2
b T 0.12 d T n _ z z0 i
3
where
bDT = plume radius (m)

T0 = centerline temperature (K)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

z = elevation above fire source (m)

z0 = elevation of virtual origin (m)

3.4.5 Plume Centerline Velocity

p Qo 1c/3 _ z z0 j
1/3
g
u0 3.4 f
1/3
c3 T3
where
Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)
g = gravity (9.81 m/s2)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (1 kJ/kg-K)

3 = ambient density (1.2 kg/m3)

z0 = virtual origin (m)

z = elevation of interest (m)

3.4.6 Weak Plume Relations for Point Sources

The plume radius and centerline values for mean excess temperature and mean velocity follow these equations:

o _ z z0 j
T0
1/2
b T 0.12 e
T3
1/3
T3
T0 9.1 f 2 p Q c _ z z0 j
5/3
o 2/3
gc 2p 3

p Qo 1c/3 _ z z0 j
1/3
g
u0 3.4 f
1/3
c p 3 T3

where

bDT = plume radius to the point where the temperature ruse has declined to 0.5 ∆T0 (m)

∆T0 = centerline temperature (K)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW)

z = elevation above the fire source (m)

z0 = virtual origin (m)

u0 = mean axial velocity on centerline (m/s)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

g = gravity = 9.81 (m/s2)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (1 kJ/kg-K)

3 = ambient density (1.2 kg/m3)

At standard temperature and pressure:

1/3
T3
The factor 9.1 f 2 2 p has a value of 25.0 K m5/3kW–2/3
gc p 3
1/3
g
The factor 3.4 f p has a value of 1.03 m4/3s–1kW–1/3
c p 3 T3

3.4.7 Smoldering Combustion

The core of any combustion process is a global exothermic reaction that results in the release of heat and both gaseous
and solid products. Whether smoldering or ﬂaming will be the dominant mode is dictated by which chemical species is
oxidized. If the oxidation takes place in the solid phase, smoldering is dominant; if the oxidation takes place in the gas
phase, then ﬂaming dominates.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.7.1 General Characteristics of Smoldering Combustion

The characteristic temperature, spread rate, and power of smoldering combustion are low compared to flaming combustion.
Typical peak temperatures for smoldering are in the range of 450°C to 700°C, although very energetic and dense fuels such as
coal can reach peaks at around 1,000°C. The effective heat of combustion taking into account the combustion efficiency is in
the range of 6 to 12 kJ/g. These are much lower compared to typical values of around 1,500°C and 16–30 kJ/g, respectively,
for flaming combustion. The heat-release rate per unit area of burning front is low and ranges from 10 to 30 kW/m2. Because
of these characteristics and despite the considerable variation in the chemical nature of smoldering fuels, smoldering spreads
in a creeping fashion, typically around 1 mm/min, which is two orders of magnitude slower than flame spread.

Forward propagation occurs when the oxygen supply is moving in the direction of the smolder front. Opposed propagation
(also called reverse) occurs when the oxygen supply is moving opposite to the smolder front. In general, real smoldering
ﬁres are multidimensional and cannot be classiﬁed into a single mode.

Forward smolder is faster than opposed, under the same fuel and oxidizer supply, and allows for more complete combustion
of the fuel.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.7.2 Suppression of Smoldering Combustion

A smoldering fire can be extraordinarily difficult to suppress. Experiments on heaps of coal show that smoldering requires
large amounts of water. For example, the amount of water required to suppress smoldering coal was measured to be in
the range from 1 to 2 L of water per kg of burning fuel. Moreover, smoldering requires lower oxygen concentration to be
smothered, around 10% O2, compared to 16% O2 for flaming.

The CO/CO2 ratio, which can be thought of as an index of the incompleteness of combustion, is ~0.4 in smoldering but ~0.1
in ﬂaming combustion.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.7.3 Gas Emissions

The mean particle size of the aerosol in smoldering cellulose was measured to be in the range of 2 to 3 μm; this is about
50–200 times larger than the sooty particulates produced by ﬂaming combustion.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.4.8 Opposed-Flow Flame Spread

φ is a parameter that can be quantified with bench scale testing:

Vp c
kc `Tig T0 j
2

where

Vp = flame spread velocity (m/s)

k = conductivity [W/(m°C)]

ρ = density (kg/m3)

c = specific heat [J/(kg°C)]

Tig = temperature at ignition (°C)

T0 = initial temperature (°C)

3.4.9 Wind-Aided Flame Spread Velocity on Thermally Thick Solid

Tw (x,y)

Flame Preheat
dfc
distance

Ignition
xp xp x xp front

Tig
Tw (x,0) qf" (x )
•
Y
Wall temperature Heat flux Model

Upward Wall Flame Spread

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The flame spread occurs in two manners: advancement of the flame front and advancement of the ignition front of the solid
surface. The location of the ignition front is identified as the location where the surface temperature has reached the ignition
temperature.

4qo m fc2 fc ` xfc x p j

Vp
kc `Tig T0 j t ig*
2

kc `Tig T0 j
2

t ig*
4qo m fc2

where

Vp = characteristic steady-flame spread velocity (m/s)

xfc = characteristic flame height (m)

xfc = xp + dfc

xp = pyrolysis front length (m)

t ig* = characteristic time to ignition (sec)

dfc = characteristic preheat distance, essentially the distance between the flame front and the ignition front

k = thermal conductivity (kW/m-K)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

c = heat capacity (kJ/kg-K)

Tig = ignition temperature of the material (K)

T0 = initial surface temperature (K)

qo mfc = characteristic flame heat flux (kW/m2)

3.5 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Fires

3.5.1 Pool Fires Mass Loss Rate
mo m mo m3 _1 e kD i
where

mo m = mass loss rate per unit area (kg/m2–s)

mo m3 = mass loss rate per unit area for an infinite pool diameter (kg/m2–s)

D = pool diameter (m)

kb = extinction absorption coefficient (m–1)

3.5.2 Liquid Fuel Flame Height (Mean Flame Height)

See Section 3.4.1

3.5.3 Burning Duration of Pool Fire

3.5.3.1 Actual Burning Duration
Mass of liquid Vt m 4m
tb,a = Mass burning rate : = =
Amo m Amo m rD 2 mo m
where

tb,a = actual burning duration (sec)

m = mass of liquid (kg)

V = volume of liquid (m3)

mo m = mass loss rate per unit area (kg/m2–s)

r = density of liquid (kg/m3)

A = burning surface area (m2)

D = burning surface diameter (m)

3.5.3.2 Idealized Burning Duration

V
m 4m
Mass of liquid
tb,I Mass burning rate :
Amo m3 Amo m3 D 2 mo m3
where

tb,I = idealized burning duration (s)

m = mass of liquid (kg)

V = volume of liquid (m3)

mo m3 = mass loss rate per unit area (kg/m2–s)

= peak mass burning rate of the fuel per unit area (kg/m2–s)

D = burning surface diameter (m)

r = density of liquid (kg/m3)

A = burning surface area (m2)

3.5.4 HRR from Liquid Pool Fire

The empirical relationship for predicting the heat-release rate from liquid pool fires is

qo hc mo m3 _1 e kD i A

where

qo = heat-release rate (kW)

D = pool diameter (m)

mo m3 = mass loss rate per unit area for an infinite pool diameter (kg/m2/s)

–kβ = extinction-absorption coefficient (m–1)

Dhc = net heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

A = area of pool (m2)

3.6 Compartment Fires

Compartment fires are often discussed in terms of growth stages:

• Ignition
• Growth
• Flashover
• Fully developed
• Decay

POSTFLASHOVER
FLASHOVER
TEMPERATURE RISE

FULLY DEVELOPED FIRE

IGNITION DECAY
GROWTH

TIME

Temperature Rise Over Time of a Typical Room Fire in the Absence of Fire Control
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The following is taken from this source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

The total surface area of a compartment is calculated as

AT = Afloor + Awalls + Aceiling – Aopenings

3.6.1 Ventilation Factor

The ventilation factor is defined as

where

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

3.6.2 Preflashover Compartment Temperatures—with Mechanical Ventilation

The following is an equation for forced ventilation fires based on the method of Foote et al:
0.36
Tg Qo
0.72
0.63 f p e mk cT o
h A
T3 m g T3 c p g p
where

DTg = Tg – T∞

DTg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (K)

Tg = upper gas temperature (K)

T∞ = ambient gas temperature (K)

Qo = total heat-release rate (kW)

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

cp = specific heat of gas (kJ/kg-K)

mg = compartment mass ventilation rate (kg/s)

mg = Vo t 3

where

Vo = ventilation flow rate (m3/s)

3 = 1.18 kg m3

Note: 1 cfm = 0.00047 m3/s

3.6.3 Preflashover Compartment Temperatures—with Natural Ventilation

where

DTg = Tg – T∞

DTg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (K)

Tg = upper gas temperature (K)

T∞ = ambient gas temperature (K)

Qo = total heat-release rate (kW)

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

g = 9.81 (m/s2)

cp = 1.0 kJ/kg-K (specific heat)

3 = 1.2 kg/m3 (ambient air density)

T3 = 295 K

3.6.4 Preflashover Compartment Temperatures—with Natural Ventilation at Standard Temperature and

Pressure
The following is a simplified equation for naturally ventilated fire assuming typical values for ambient conditions, based on
the method of McCaffrey et al:

where

DTg = Tg – T∞

DTg = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (K)

Tg = upper gas temperature (K)

T∞ = ambient gas temperature (K)

Q = total heat-release rate (kW)

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K) [see Section 3.6.5 for calculation of hk]

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

3.6.5 McCaffrey Flashover Heat-Release Equations

where

Qfl = heat-release rate required for flashover (kW)

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

AT = total area of compartment surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

Determine thermal penetration time (tp):

tp d nc 2 m
c 2
k
where time of exposure (t) > thermal penetration time (tp)

k
hk

where t ≤ tp

hk c t m
kc 1/2

k = thermal conductivity of wall material (kW/m-K)

d = thickness (m)

where

ρ = density of compartment surface (kg/m3)

c = specific heat of compartment surface material (kJ/kg-K)

k = thermal conductivity of compartment surface (kW/m-K)

d = thickness of compartment surface (m)

3.6.6 Flashover References

Flashover is at 20 kW/m2 or 500–600°C.

3.6.7 Heat-Release Rate Needed for Flashover

This is a simplified method for predicting the heat-release rate needed to cause flashover, using the Babrauskas method:

Using the Thomas method, the equation is as follows:

Qo 7.8AT 378AO _ HO i
1/2

where

AT = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

Qo = heat-release rate required to cause flashover (kW)

HO = height of opening (m)

3.6.8 Post-Flashover Compartment Temperature

Use Law's formula to calculate post-flashover compartment fire temperatures:

where

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

Tg = Tg (max) _1 e i
0.05

where

Tg = average temperature in the compartment (°C)

L
Y =
7AO (AT –AO)A
1/2

where

L = fire load equivalent to wood (kg)

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

Ψ fire-loading calculation can be assumed 1 where only upper layer temperature is requested.

3.6.9 Transient Ceiling Jet Flow in a Room

(a) (b)
Vf

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

Transient Ceiling Jet Flow in a Room and Corridor

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.6.10 Ceiling Jet Flow Beneath an Unconfined Ceiling

H
•
Q

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Equations below are for axisymmetric fires, where the fire source is away from the enclosure walls. These correlations were
developed for data where the fire source was at a distance from the enclosure walls of at least 1.8 times the ceiling height.
Where the fire source is against a flat wall, use 2Qo instead of Qo . Where the fire source is in a 90° corner, use 4Qo instead of Qo .

3.6.10.1 Weak Plume-Driven Temperature of Ceiling Jet (Alpert)

Qo 2/3 r
Tmax T3 16.9 5/3 fqr H # 0.18
H
Qo 2/3
f 5/3 p
H r
Tmax T3 5.38 2/3 fqr H 2 0.18
c mr
H
where

Tmax = maximum temperature (°C)

T∞ = ambient temperature (°C)

Qo = total heat-release rate (kW)

H = distance from fire source to ceiling (m)

r = radial distance from plume centerline (m)

3.6.10.2 Weak Plume-Driven Velocity of Ceiling Jet (Alpert)

Qo
1/3

U = 0.947 e H
o for r # 0.15
H

Qo
1/3
e o
H r
U = 0.197 for H 2 0.15
cr m
5/6

where

U = maximum ceiling-jet gas velocity (m/s)

Qo = total heat-release rate (kW)

H = distance from fire source to the ceiling (m)

r = radial distance from plume centerline (m)

Many of the correlations described hereafter were developed from tests involving heat-release rates that ranged from
600 kW to 98 MW and total ceiling heights that ranged from 4.6 m to 18 m. These data should be considered limitations
when using the correlations.

3.6.10.3 Strong Plume-Driven Plume Fields

When the flame height is comparable to the ceiling height above the burning fuel, the resulting ceiling jet is driven by a
strong plume.

o _ z z0 j
T0
1/2
b T 0.12 e
T3
1/3
T3
T0 9.1 f 2 2 p Qo c2/3 _ z z0 j
5/3

gc p 3

p Qo 1c/3 _ z z0 j
1/3
g
u0 3.4 f
1/3
c p 3 T3
where

bDT = plume radius to the point where the temperature rise has declined to 0.5 ∆T0 (m)

T0 = centerline temperature (K)

T3 = ambient temperature (K)

z = elevation above the fire source (m)

z0 = elevation of the virtual origin (see Section 3.1.11.1)

g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)

cp = specific heat of air at constant pressure (kJ/kg-K)

3 = ambient density (kg/m3)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (kW/m2-K)

u0 = mean velocity (m/s)

3.6.11 Vent Flows

Two-layer method:
a m1/2
Outflow u u c 2g y
where

uu = velocity of upper layer (m/s)

y = distance above neutral plane (m)

ρa = atmospheric air density (kg/m3)

ρ = upper layer air density (kg/m3)

where

mo u = mass flow rate of upper layer (kg/s)

b = width of vent (m)

C = experimentally determined flow coefficient (0.68)

hv = height of vent (m)

hn = height of neutral plane (m)

ρa = atmospheric air density (kg/m3)

ρ = upper layer air density (kg/m3)

Mass conservation:
d _V i / ` mo mo j
R ij ji
dt
Heat conservation:
d _V T i o o / ` mo T mo T j
cp Q Qh cp ij ji j
dt R

Ideal gas law:

Mp
T R

where

cp = specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg-K)

M = average molecular weight of flowing gas (kg/kg or mol)

p = pressure (Pa)

R = universal gas constant = 8.314 J/K-mol

ρ = density (kg/m3)

T = temperature (K)

j = index of adjacent room connected by vents with the room considered

V, VR = volume of the room (m3)

mo ij = mass outflow rate from room i to an adjacent room j (kg/s)

mo ji = mass inflow rate to room i from an adjacent room j (kg/s)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire source (kW)

Qo h = heat loss from the room gas due to heat transfer (kW)

/ = summation with respect to all the vents between all the adjacent rooms
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

u, Tu, Vu Qh

Q
mp
, T, V md

Fire Room at the Stage of Smoke Layer Filling

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Mass inflow and outflow rates through the vent, mo d and mo u , are given as a function of the neutral plane height, hn:

where

g = gravity constant (m/s2)

b = width (m)

hv = ventilation opening height (m)

hn = neutral plane height (m)

ρa = density of the cold (lower) layer (kg/m3)

ρ = density of the hot (upper) layer (kg/m3)

3.6.12 Required Smoke Vent Area

Ae p(he) p(he)
me
T,

he
mp
Z T,
Z
md
Ad
p(0) p(0)
(a) NATURAL SMOKE VENTING (b) PRESSURE DIFFERENCE (c) PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
CONFIGURATION PROFILE FOR LARGE Ad PROFILE FOR SMALL Ad

Configuration and Pressure Profile of Natural Smoke Venting

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

1. Calculate the plume flow rate ^mo h at layer interface height yc:
mo = 0.08Qo 1/3 y c5/3

where

yc = layer interface height (m)

mo = plume mass flow rate (kg/s)

Qo = heat-release rate (kW)

2. Calculate the smoke layer temperature (T):

Qo
T Ta
cp m ak Aw
where

Qo = heat-release rate (kW)

ak = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

T = smoke layer temperature (K)

Ta = room ambient air temperature (K)

Aw = boundary wall area exposed to heat transfer from smoke layer (m2)

m = mass (kg)

cp = specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg-K)

3. Calculate the smoke layer density (ρ):

352.8
T

where

ρ = smoke layer density (kg/m3)

T = smoke layer temperature (K)

4. Calculate the pressure ∆[∆p(0)] at floor level:

p _0 i
mo 2
2a _CAd i
2

where

mo = plume mass flow rate (kg/s)

ρa = air density (kg/m3)

C = experimentally determined flow coefficient (0.68)

Ad = area of inflow vent near floor (m2)

5. Calculate the pressure at the smoke vent [∆p(hc)] :

p _he i p _0 i _ a i g _he yc i

he = smoke vent height (m)

yc = layer interface height (m)

ρa = air density (kg/m3)

p = smoke layer density (kg/m3)

∆p(0) = pressure at floor level (ρa)

6. Calculate the smoke vent area, Ae:

where

Ae = area (m2)

C = flow coefficient (dimensionless)

he = smoke vent height (m)

ρa = air density (kg/m3)

p = smoke layer density (kg/m3)

∆p(0) = pressure at floor level (ρa)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.6.13 Smoke Characterization and Damage Potentials

The governing mode of smoke deposition is primarily dependent on whether the transport flow is turbulent or laminar and
on the particle size. The flow type can be classified by the magnitude of the particle Reynolds number:
g dp V
Re p

where

rg = gas density (kg/m3)

dp = particle diameter (m)

V = particle velocity (m/s)

h = gas viscosity (kg/s-m)

Laminar flow occurs when the Reynolds number is less than 1 (Rep < 1).

Turbulent flow occurs when the Reynolds number is greater than 1 (Rep > 1).

3.6.13.1 Laminar Flow—Smoke Particles > 1 μm

The following equation applies for smoke particles > 1μm:
p d p2 g
VTS 18

where

rg = particle density (kg/m3)

dp = particle aerodynamic equivalent diameter (m)

g = gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/s2)

VTS = particle terminal settling velocity (m/s)

3.6.13.2 Laminar Flow—Smoke Particles < 1 μm

The following equation for slip correction applies for smoke particles < 1μm:
2.52K
Cc 1 dp
where

Cc = slip correction factor (dimensionless)

L = mean free path (μm), which is 0.066 μm for air at 1 atm and 20°C

dp = particle diameter (μm)

This slip correction factor applies to the right-hand side of the equation for Laminar Flow – Smoke Particles > 1 μm,
increasing the terminal settling velocity.

3.6.13.3 Turbulent Flow—Smoke Particles > 1 μm

1/2
4 p d p g
VTS f p
3C D g
where

VTS = particle terminal settling velocity (m/s)

CD = drag coefficient (dimensionless)

ρp = particle density (kg/m3)

dp = particle diameter (m)

g = gravity constant (m/s2)

ρg = gas density (kg/m3)

3.6.13.4 For Reynolds Number Greater than 1 and Less than 1,000 (1 < Rep < 1,000)

C D Re `1 0.15 Re p0.687 j
24
p

3.6.13.5 Turbulent Flow—Smoke Particles < 1 μm

105

104

Drag Coefficient, CD
103

102 24
CD = Re
p
101

100 CD = 0.44
Stoke's Law Transition Region Newton's Law
10–1
10–3 10–2 10–1 100 101 102 103 104 105

Reynolds Number, Rep

Drag Coefficient Versus Particle Reynolds Number

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

kTCc
D
3d p
where

D = particles' diffusion coefficient (m2/s)

kβ = Boltzmann constant = 1.380649 × 10–23 J/K

T = temperature (K)

Cc = slip correction factor (dimensionless)

η = gas viscosity (Pa-s)

dp = particle diameter (m)

3.6.14 Light Transmission Through Smoke

I0 exp _ ODm l i
I

where

I = transmitted intensity (cd)

I0 = initial intensity (cd)

ODl = optical density (m–1)

l = optical path length (m)

ODm m
fv = c
where

ODl = optical density (m–1)

fv = smoke volume fraction

λ = incident wavelength (m)

c = average coefficient of smoke extinction (dimensionless)

3.6.15 Smoke Mass Concentration

s OD
Cs s fv c
where

Cs = smoke mass concentration (kg/m3)

fv = smoke volume fraction

ρs = smoke particle density (kg/m3)

ODl = optical density (m–1)

λ = incident wavelength (m)

c = average coefficient of smoke extinction (dimensionless)

Terminal settling velocity is

0 d a2 g
VTS
18
where

VTS = terminal settling velocity (m/s)

ρ0 = standard particle density (kg/m3)

da = aerodynamic equivalent diameter (m)

g = gravitational acceleration (m/s2)

η = gas viscosity (kg/s-m)

Aerodynamic Mass Mean Diameter of Smoke from Flaming Plastics

Material dag (mm) sg Environment
Nylon 0.4 2.0 1.0 m3 smoke box
Polycarbonate 3.0 3.4 1.0 m3 smoke box
Polyethylene 1.0 2.5 1,200 m3 enclosure
2.3 4.4 1,200 m3 enclosure
Polymethylmethacrylate
0.7–1.0 NR 0.37 m2 duct [28]
Polypropylene 1.2 2.0 1,200 m3 enclosure
Polyurethane 2.0 1.8 0.18 m2 duct [29]
Polyvinylchloride 1.1 1.8 1.0 m3 smoke box
2.0 2.6 1.0 m3 smoke box
Polystyrene 2.4 2.1 1,200 m3 enclosure
1.5–2.5 NR 0.37 m2 duct [28]
NR Not reported

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.6.16 Mass Burning Rate

The formula to estimate the mass burning rate of the fuel can be given as
qA
mo f = L

where

mo f = mass burning rate of the fuel (kg/s)

q = heat flux to the fuel surface (kW/m2)

A = surface area of the fuel (m2)

L = heat of gasification (kJ/kg)

The rate of energy release is equal to the mass loss rate of the fuel times the heat of combustion of the fuel:

Qo = mo f Dhc

where

Qo = energy release rate of the fire (kW)

mo f = mass burning rate of the fuel (kg/s)

Δhc = effective heat of combustion of the fuel (kJ/kg)

3.6.17 Heat-Release Rate

Qo mo g c p _Tg T3 i qloss

where

Qo = energy-release rate of the fire (kW)

mo g = gas flow-rate out of the opening (kg/s)

cp = specific heat of gas (kJ/kg-K)

Tg = temperature of the upper gas layer (K)

T∞ = ambient temperature (K)

qloss = net radiative and convective heat transfer from the upper gas layer (kW)

3.6.18 Rate of Heat Transfer to Surfaces

The rate of heat transfer to the surfaces is approximated by

qloss h k AT _Tg T3 i

where

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

AT = total area of the compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

Tg = temperature of the upper gas layer (K)

T∞ = ambient temperature (K)

3.6.19 Heat-Release Rate with Natural Ventilation

where

hk = effective heat-transfer coefficient (kW/m2-K)

AT = total area of compartment enclosing surfaces (m2)

AO = area of opening (m2)

HO = height of opening (m)

Alternatively, the equation is sometimes expressed using a coefficient of 620 (instead of 610). This is based on a difference
in the value used for the specific heat of air. The use of either 610 or 620 is acceptable within the accuracy of the
expression.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

3.6.20 Fire-Generated Environmental Conditions

Qf
d n
V
Yi
Hc
e o
fi
where

ρYi = mass concentration of species i (kgi/m3)

`Qf V j = fire heat-release per unit volume of the control volume (kJ/m3)

` Hc fi j = species heat of combustion (kJ/kgi)

Hc O 2, lim _1 1 i
Tg, lim r cp
air

where

ΔTg,lim = upper gas temperature rise above ambient (K)

ΔHc = fuel heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

χO = fraction of oxygen that can be consumed before extinction (dimensionless)

2,lim

χ1 = heat loss factor (dimensionless)

rair = air stoichiometric ratio (kg air/kg fuel)

cp = specific heat at constant pressure (kJ/kg-K)

K = KmρYsoot

where

Km = specific light-extinction coefficient (m2/kg)

Suggested: 7,600 m2/kg for flaming combustion; 4,400 m2/kg for smoke produced by pyrolysis; and
8,700 m2/kg for flaming combustion of wood and plastic fuels
©2020 NCEES 58
Chapter 3: Fire Dynamics Fundamentals

ρYsoot = soot mass concentration (kgsoot/m3)

K = light-extinction coefficient (m–1)

I KL
I0 e
where
I
I0 = light attenuation
I = intensity of incident light (cd)

I0 = intensity of light through smoke (cd)

K = light-extinction coefficient (m–1)

L = light path length (m)

C
S= K

where

S = visibility distance (m)

C = nondimensional constant associated with the object being viewed through smoke (dimensionless)
Suggested: 8 for light-emitting signs; 3 for light-reflecting signs

K = light-extinction coefficient (m–1)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

©2020 NCEES 59
4 WATER-BASED EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
4.1 Fluid Mechanics
4.1.1 Density, Specific Volume, Specific Weight, and Specific Gravity
The definitions of density, specific weight, and specific gravity follow:
limit m
V " 0
V
limit W
V " 0
V
limit g : m
V " 0 g
V

Also SG
w w

where

r = density (also called mass density) (lbm/ft3 or kg/m3)

Dm = mass of infinitesimal volume (lbm or kg)

DV = volume of infinitesimal object considered (ft3 or m3)

g = specific weight = rg (lbf/ft3 or N/m3)

DW = weight of an infinitesimal volume (lb or kg)

SG = specific gravity (dimensionless)

ρw = density of water at standard conditions = 1,000 kg/m3 (62.4 lbm/ft3)

gw = specific weight of water at standard conditions = 9,810 N/m3 (62.4 lbf/ft3) = 9,810 kg/m2●s2

4.1.2 Characteristic of a Static Liquid

h
z2
P1
z1

The Pressure Field in a Static Liquid

Bober, W., and R.A. Kenyon, Fluid Mechanics, Wiley, 1980. .

The difference in pressure between two different points is

P2 – P1 = –γ (z2 – z1) = –γh = –ρgh

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure reading

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum-gauge pressure reading

4.1.3 Principles of One-Dimensional Fluid Flow

Continuity Equation
As long as the flow Q is continuous, the continuity equation, as applied to one-dimensional flows, states that the flow
passing two points (1 and 2) in a stream is equal at each point, A1v1 = A2v2.
Q Av
mo Q Av
where

Q = volumetric flow rate

mo = mass flow rate

A = cross-sectional area of flow

v = average flow velocity

ρ = fluid density

For steady, one-dimensional flow, mo is a constant. If, in addition, the density is constant, then Q is constant.

Bernoulli Equation
The field equation is derived when the energy equation is applied to one-dimensional flows. Assuming no friction losses and
that no pump or turbine exists between sections 1 and 2 in the system:
P2 v 22 P1 v12

2g z 2 2g z1
or
P2 v 22 P1 v12
z 2 g 2 z1 g
2
where

P1, P2 = pressure at sections 1 and 2

v1, v2 = average velocity of the fluid at the sections

z1, z2 = vertical distance from a datum to the sections (the potential energy)

γ = specific weight of the fluid (ρg)

g = acceleration of gravity

ρ = fluid density

Conservation Equation
V 2
pT p gZ
2
where

pT = total pressure (psi)

p = normal pressure (psi)

r = fluid density (lb/ft3)

V = fluid velocity (ft/sec)

g = gravitational constant (32.2 ft/s2)

Z = vertical distance from an arbitrary elevation (ft)

Hydraulic Gradient (Grade Line)

Hydraulic grade line is the line connecting the sum of pressure and elevation heads at different points in conveyance
systems. If piezometers were placed at intervals along the pipe, the grade line would join the water levels in the piezometer
water columns.

Energy Line (Bernoulli Equation)

The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation heads is constant. The energy line is this
sum or the "total head line" above a horizontal datum. The difference between the hydraulic grade line and the energy line is
the v2/2g term.

4.1.4 Fluid Flow Characterization

Reynolds Number
vD vD
Re = = o

v(2 – n)Dn
Re' = n
( )
K 3n + 1 8(n – 1)
4n

where

v = fluid velocity (m/s)

ρ = mass density (kg/m3)

D = diameter of the pipe, dimension of the fluid streamline, or characteristic length (m)

µ = dynamic viscosity (kg/m●s)

o = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

Re = Reynolds number (Newtonian fluid)

Re′ = Reynolds number (Power law fluid)

K = consistency index (dimensionless)

n = power law index (dimensionless)

The critical Reynolds number, Rec, is defined to be the minimum Reynolds number at which a flow will turn turbulent.

Flow through a pipe is generally characterized as laminar for Re < 2,100, fully turbulent for Re > 10,000, and transitional
flow for 2,100 < Re < 10,000.

The velocity distribution for laminar flow in circular tubes or between planes is

v ^ r h vmax =1 c R m G
2
r

where

r = distance from the centerline (m)

R = radius of the tube or half the distance between the parallel planes (m)

v = local velocity at r (m/s)

vmax = velocity at the centerline of the duct (m/s)

vmax = 1.18 v , for fully turbulent flow

vmax = 2 v , for circular tubes in laminar flow

vmax = 1.5 v , for parallel planes in laminar flow

where v = average velocity in the duct (m/s)

The shear stress distribution is

τ r
τw = R
where τ and τw are the shear stresses at radii r and R, respectively

4.1.5 Consequences of Fluid Flow

Drag Force
The drag force FD on objects immersed in a large body of flowing fluid or objects moving through a stagnant fluid is
C v 2 A
FD = D 2

where

CD = drag coefficient (dimensionless)

v = velocity of the flowing fluid or moving object (m/s)

A = projected area of blunt objects such as spheres, ellipsoids, disks, and plates, cylinders, ellipses, and
air foils with axes perpendicular to the flow (m2)

ρ = fluid density (kg/m3)

For flat plates placed parallel with the flow:

1.33
CD = (10 4 1 Re 1 5 # 10 5)
Re 0.5
0.031
CD = (10 6 1 Re 1 10 9)
Re1/7
The characteristic length in the Reynolds number (Re) is the length of the plate parallel with the flow. For blunt objects, the
characteristic length is the largest linear dimension (diameter of cylinder, sphere, disk, etc.) that is perpendicular to the flow.

4.2 General Water Flow

Orifice discharging freely into the atmosphere:
Atm

h1 h
h2

A0 A2

Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.

in which h is measured from liquid surface to centroid of orifice opening

where

Q = volumetric flow (gpm)

A0 = cross-sectional area of flow (ft2)

g = acceleration of gravity (ft/sec2)

h = height of fluid above orifice (ft)

4.2.1 Multipath Pipeline Problems

L P
v
v v

Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.

LA vA L v
2 2
h L fA D A 2g
fB B B
D B 2g

d D n v e D A o v A e D B o v B
2 2 2

4 4 4
where

f = Darcy-Weisbach friction loss factor (dimensionless)

L = length of pipe (ft)

D = pipe diameter (ft)

v = average stream velocity (ft/sec)

g = gravitational acceleration constant (ft/sec2)

hL = head loss (psi)

4.2.2 Pitot Tube

From the stagnation pressure equation for an incompressible fluid,

where
V2
v = velocity of the fluid (ft/sec)
2g
P0 = stagnation pressure (psi)

PS = static pressure of the fluid at the elevation

Ps
where the measurement is taken (psi)

γ = specific weight of the fluid (ρg)

V, ps
Po

Vennard, J.K., Elementary Fluid Mechanics, 6th ed., J.K. Vennard, 1954.

For a compressible fluid, use the above incompressible fluid equation if the Mach number #0.3.

4.3 Fire Hydrants

4.3.1 Hydrant Flow Test
_S R2i
0.54
Q 2 Q1
_ S R1 i
0.54

where

Q = flow (gpm)

S = static pressure (psi)

R = residual pressure (psi): R1 = test residual; R2 = desired residual

where

c = constant based upon hydrant outlet (0.9, 0.8, 0.7)

d = diameter of opening (in.)

pitot = velocity pressure of water exiting hydrant (psi)

OUTLET SMOOTH OUTLET SQUARE OUTLET SQUARE AND

AND WELL-ROUNDED AND SHARP PROJECTING INTO BARREL
COEF. 0.90 COEF. 0.80 COEF. 0.70

NFPA Standard 291, Recommended Practice for Fire Flow Testing and Marking of Hydrants, Section 4.10.1.2.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.

Pressure available at water supply (P):

Q 1.85
P _ PR PS i d Q n PS
R

where

PS = static pressure from test (psi)

PR = res. pressure from test (psi)

Q = flow at which you want to know pressure (gpm)

QR = flow at PR (gpm)

4.4 Fire Sprinkler Systems

The area of sprinkler coverage is taken as twice the maximum coverage in one direction times twice the maximum coverage
in the other direction.

The area of coverage for each sprinkler is determined by the following steps:

1. Consider the distance to the next sprinkler or twice the distance to the wall in one direction. Whichever is greater is
given the dimension S.

2. Consider the distance to the next sprinkler or twice the distance to the wall in the perpendicular direction to step 1.
Whichever distance is greater is given the dimension L.

3. The area of coverage for a sprinkler is determined by multiplying S × L.

4.4.1 Sprinkler Flow Using Sprinkler K-Factor

where

k = nominal orifice coefficient with different k-factors available in traditional U.S. and Metric units

Q = system flow (gpm or Lpm)

p = system pressure (psi or bar)

4.4.2 Sprinkler Flow Normal Pressure

Pn = Pt – Pv

where

Pn = normal pressure (psi)

Pt = total pressure (psi)

Pv = velocity pressure (psi)

4.4.3 Sprinkler Flow Velocity Pressure

0.001123Q 2
Pv =
d4
where

Pv = velocity pressure (psi)

Q = flow prior to orifice (gpm)

d = inside diameter of pipe prior to orifice (in.)

4.4.4 Dry Pipe Valve Trip Time

Time to trip a dry pipe sprinkler system, per FM Global Research:
VT p
t = 0.0352 c a0 m
1/2 ln p
An T 0 a

where

t = time (sec)

VT = dry volume of sprinkler system (ft3)

T0 = air temperature (°R)

An = flow area of open sprinklers (ft2)

pa0 = initial air pressure (absolute)

pa = trip pressure (absolute)

4.5 Hydraulic Calculations

4.5.1 Pressure Due to Elevation
P = 0.433H

where

P = pressure (psi)

H = height (ft)

4.5.2 Hazen-Williams Pressure Loss

USCS Units

4.52Q1.85
p=
C1.85 d i4.87
where

p = pressure loss per foot of pipe (psi/ft)

Q = flow rate (gpm)

C = pipe roughness coefficient (dimensionless)

di = internal pipe diameter (in.)

SI Units
6.05Q1.85
P= ×10 5
C1.85 D 4.87
where

P = pressure loss per meter of pipe (bars)

Q = flow (L/min)

D = pipe diameter (mm)

C = pipe roughness coefficient (dimensionless)

Values of Hazen-Williams Coefficient C for Underground Pipe

Pipe Material C
Asbestos – Cement 140
Brick Sewers 100
Cast Iron (Lined) 140
Cast iron (Unlined)—new 130
Cast iron (Unlined)—5 yr old 120
Cast iron (Unlined)—20 yr old 100
Concrete 130
Copper 150
Ductile Iron (Lined) 140
Ductile Iron (Unlined) 100
Plastic 150
Steel—galvanized or black—dry pipe system with air in piping 100
Steel—galvanized or black—dry pipe system with nitrogen in piping 120
Steel—galvanized or black—deluge system 120
Steel—galvanized or black—preaction system with air in piping 100
Steel—galvanized or black—preaction system with nitrogen in piping 120
Steel—galvanized or black—wet-pipe system 120
Steel—riveted 110
Wood stave 120

4.5.3 Equivalent Pipe Lengths of Valves and Fittings

Source: NFPA Standard 13, Standard for the Installation of Sprinkler Systems, Section 27.2.3.1.1. Reproduced with permission of NFPA,
which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is
represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org

Equivalent Schedule 40 Steel Pipe Length Chart

The following table must be used to determine the equivalent length of pipe for fittings and devices unless the
manufacturer's test data indicate that other factors are appropriate.

*Due to the variation in design of swing check valves, the pipe equivalents indicated in this table are considered average.

Equivalent Length Modifier

For internal pipe diameters different from Schedule 40 steel pipe [Schedule 30 for pipe diameters 8 in. (200 mm) and
larger,] the equivalent length shown in the Equivalent Schedule 40 Steel Pipe Length Chart must be multiplied by a factor
derived from the following formula:

d n
4.87
Actual inside diameter = Factor
Schedule 40 steel pipe inside diamter

4.5.4 Pipe Schedule Correction Factor

d
Cqrrectiqn factor = d d actual n
4.87

sched40

where

dactual = pipe diameter for schedule pipe being used (in.)

dsched40 = pipe diameter for schedule 40 pipe (in.)

4.5.5 Darcy-Weisbach Friction Loss

Lv 2
h L = f 2Dg
where
hL = friction loss over a length of pipe (ft)

f = friction factor (dimensionless)

L = length of pipe (ft)

v = fluid velocity (ft/sec)

D = pipe diameter (ft)

g = gravitational constant (ft/sec2)

For laminar flow (Re < 2,000):

64
f = Re qr Moody Diagram

where Re = Reynolds number

For hydraulically smooth or turbulent smooth flow:

where
ε = absolute roughness (ft)

D = pipe diameter (ft)

f = friction factor (dimensionless)

A chart that gives f versus Re for various values of D , known as the Moody diagram, is available in this section.

Values of Absolute Roughness of Commercial Pipes

ε in ft × 10–6 Probable maximum variation
Type of pipe or tubing
Range Design of f from design (%)
New clean pipe
Asphalted cast iron 400 400 –5 to +5
Brass and copper 5 5 –5 to +5
Concrete 1,000–10,000 4,000 –35 to +50
Cast iron 850 850 –10 to +15
Galvanized iron 500 500 0 to +10
Wrought iron 150 150 –5 to +10
Steel 150 150 –5 to +10
Riveted steel 3,000–30,000 6,000 –25 to +75
Wood stave 600–3,000 2,000 –35 to +20
Aged pipe
Steel, dry system 1,250
Steel, wet system 333
Plastic 7
Copper 7
Notes:
For ε values in meters, multiply the above numbers by 0.3048. For ε values in inches, multiply the above
numbers by 12.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

De v
Re
where

De = equivalent flow diameter

ρ = density

μ = absolute (dynamic) viscosity

De = 4rh

where rh = hydraulic radius (area in flow divided by the wetted perimeter)

For fluids:
0.000216 f Q 2
h
D5
where

h = friction loss over a unit length of pipe

Q = flow rate

For water at 68°F:

0.0135 f lQ 2
h=
D5
where l = length of pipe

Alternate terms:
lQ 2 Q
P 0.000216f Re 50.6
d5 d
where

ΔP = friction loss (psi)

Q = flow (gpm)

d = internal diameter of the pipe (in.)

μ = viscosity (cP)

4.5.6 Piping Loops

x
A / =c 1.85Ldi 4.87 G fqr Leg 1 qf the loop
i1 i i
y
Lj
B /> 1.85 4.87 H fqr Leg 2 qf the loop
j1 c j d j

Q1 Q3 > H
B 0.54
_ A B 0.54 i
0.54

Q 2 Q3 Q1

where

L = length of pipe (ft)

d = pipe diameter (in.)

c = pipe C-factor

Q = pipe flow (gpm)

Equivalent pipe:

Series: FLCe = FLC1 + FLC2 + FLC3 + ....

Parallel: c FLC m c FLC m c FLC m c FLC m f.

1 0.54 1 0.54 1 0.54 1 0.54
e 1 2 3

4.52Le
FLCe =
Ce1.85 De 4.87
where

Le = equivalent length of pipe (ft)

De = equivalent pipe diameter (in.)

Ce = equivalent pipe C-factor

FLCe = equivalent pipe flow (gpm)

4.5.7 Moody, Darcy, or Stanton Friction Factor Diagram

VALUE OF vD FOR WATER AT 60°F (v = ft/sec, D = in.)
0.1 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 102 2 4 6 8 103 2 4 6 8 104

.08

LAMINAR CRITICAL .05

.07
FLOW ZONE
TRANS .04
ITION Z
ONE COMPLETE TURBULENCE, ROUGH PIPES
.06
.03

.05 .02

.015

RELATIVE ROUGHNESS (—)

D
.04
FRICTION FACTOR ( f )*

.010
.008
.006
LAMINAR
.03
FLOW CRITICAL Re .004
ff=64/Re
= 64/Re

.002

.02 SM .0010
OO .0008
TH
PIP .0006
ES
.0004

.0002

.00010
.00006
.0000
2 .00004
.01 .000
6 8 103 2 4 6 8 104 2 4 6 8 105 2 4 6 8 106 2 3 01 6 8 107 2 4 6 8 108
vD
REYNOLDS NUMBER (Re = — )

Flow in Closed Conduits

* The Fanning Friction is this factor divided by 4

4.5.8 Relative Roughness Chart

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,

with permission from SFPE.

4.6 Water Hammer

Water hammer in a pipeline is caused by a sudden stoppage of flow and is characterized by loud noise and vibration. The
formula expressing the relationship between pressure and volume for water hammer is
V
p E V
0

where

Δp = change in pressure (psi)

E = bulk modulus of elasticity

ΔV = change in volume

V0 = initial volume

Pressure shocks in fluids of infinite extent travel at a velocity given by

where

c * = celerity (velocity) of the shock wave

KE = kinetic energy of the fluid

ρ = fluid density

For a system composed of fluid and pipe:

1 1 D
Ec E E p w
where

Ec = modulus of elasticity of a system composed of fluid and pipe

Ep = modulus of elasticity of the pipe material

D = pipe diameter

w = thickness of pipe wall

Modulus of Elasticity Ep of Various Pipe Materials

Ep
Pipe Material
psi lb/ft2 kg/m2
Lead 0.045 × 106 6.48 × 106 31.64 × 106
Lucite (at 73°F) 0.4 × 106 57.6 × 106 281.23 × 106
Rubber (vulcanized) 2 × 106 288 × 106 1,406 × 106
Aluminum 10 × 106 1,440 × 106 7,030 × 106
Glass (silica) 10 × 106 1,440 × 106 7,030 × 106
Brass, bronze 13 × 106 1,872 × 106 8,489 × 106
Copper 14 × 106 2.016 × 106 9,842 × 106
Cast iron, gray 16 × 106 2,304 × 106 11,249 × 106
Cast iron, malleable 23 × 106 3,312 × 106 16,170 × 106
Steel 28 × 106 4,023 × 106 19,685 × 106
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Shock wave in a pipe system of finite extent:

Time for a shock to be absorbed into a larger energy field:

L
t= c
where

L = distance from the energy reservoir to shock-wave point of origin

t = time

t, L, and c can be any set of consistent units. For example, if c is in m/s, then L would be m and t would be s.

Time period that the initial shock acts on a valve:

2L
T= 2=
t c

Theoretical magnitude of the pressure shock at instantaneous valve closure:

p * cv

The pressure will oscillate in the pipe within the range p = p0 ! p * .

4.7 Pressures
4.7.1 Velocity Head
Q2
hV =
891d 4
where

hv = velocity head (psi)

Q = flow rate (gpm)

d = pipe inside diameter (in.)

4.7.2 Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH)

NPSH A Patm Pstatic f Pvapor
where

NPSHA = net positive suction head available (psi)

Patm = atmospheric pressure (psi)

Pstatic = pressure tank pressure – elevation pressure (psi)

f = friction loss in line (psi)

Pvapor = vapor pressure (psig) adjusted for temperature and altitude (0.256 psia represents water at 20°C)

4.8 Fire Pumps

4.8.1 Pump Affinity Laws
Law 1 – Constant Diameter

Q1 N1 H1 N12 P1 N13
= = =
Q2 N2 H 2 N 22 P2 N 23
Law 2 – Constant Speed

Q1 D1 H1 D12 P1 D13
= = =
Q2 D2 H 2 D 22 P2 D 23
where

Q = volumetric flow rate (gpm or L/min)

N = rotational speed (rpm)

H = developed head (ft, psi, or m)

P = power (hp or kW)

D = impeller diameter (in., cm, or mm)

4.8.2 Fire Pump Total Head

H hd h Vd hs h Vs

where

H = total head (ft)

hd = discharge head (ft)

hVd = discharge velocity head (ft)

V2
= d
2g
V = velocity discharge or suction velocity (ft/sec)
Q 3
= = gpm # 1ft # 160
min # 1
A 7.48 gal s A

g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)

hs = suction head (ft)

hVs = suction velocity head (ft)

V2
= s
2g

4.8.3 Pump Power Equation

Qh Qgh
Wo
t t

where

Wo = power (ft-lbf/sec or kg•m2/s3)

Q = volumetric flow (cfs or m3/s)

h = head the fluid has to be lifted (ft or m)

ηt = total efficiency (ηpump × ηmotor)

4.8.4 Water Horsepower

Qh
WHP = 3, 960

where

WHP = water horsepower

Q = flow (gpm)

h = total dynamic head (ft)

using the specific weight, g, for water at 68°F (20°C)

4.8.5 Pump Brake Horsepower

P # 600 # E
H= Q
where

P = brake horsepower (kW)

Q = pump discharge (L/min)

H = pump discharge head (bar)

E = combined efficiency of the motor and gear drives `hd # hm j

QP
bhp = 1, 710E

where

bhp = brake horsepower

hp = hydraulic horsepower = QP/1,710

Q = flow (gpm)

P = total pressure (psi) = total head × 0.433

E = pump efficiency (decimal); usually 60 to 75%

Deratings for altitude and temperature:

Altitude: 3% for every 1,000 ft above 300 ft

Temperature: 1% for every 10°F above 77°F

4.8.6 Diesel Fuel Tank Capacity

When a diesel fuel tank is needed to support the fire pump, the tank must be able to accommodate 1 gal/bhp plus 5% for
expansion and 5% for sump.

4.9 Water-Mist Fire Suppression Systems

Water-mist fire protection systems refer to water sprays with no drops larger than 1.0 mm, or 1,000 μm (micrometers or
microns). Extinguishing mechanisms apply to extinguishment of Class B liquid-fuel fires as well as Class A solid fuels.
Water-mist systems can control or extinguish a fire by reducing the oxygen concentration below the limiting oxygen
concentration (LOC), wetting/cooling the fuel surface, or reducing radiant-heat flux through radiation attenuation.

Water-mist systems can be categorized based on several distinguishing factors. From a systems engineering perspective, the
four most important are

1. Mode of application of the mist

2. Method of spray generation
3. Pressure regime
4. Means of providing the necessary system flow and pressure
There are several subcategories of systems, each with its own specific technical features, such as single-fluid and twin-fluid
systems, and constant-pressure versus decaying-pressure discharges. The mode of application refers to how the system is
intended to develop and deploy the mist within a given space or environment and includes total compartment application
(TCA), local application (LA), and zoned application (ZA) systems.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

4.9.1 Water-Mist System Definitions

Engineered Water-Mist System
This system is designed in the same manner as a traditional sprinkler or water-spray system, based on criteria in the
manufacturer's design installation, operation, and maintenance manual. The designer applies these guidelines and performs
necessary calculations, such as hydraulic calculations, for the system.

High-Pressure System
This system operates at pressures above 500 psi (34.5 bar).

Intermediate-Pressure System
This system operates at pressures between 175 psi (12.1 bar) and 500 psi (34.5 bar).

Low-Pressure System
This system operates at pressures below 175 psi (12.1 bar).

NanoMist System
This system has an ultrafine mist with very uniform drop size distribution with a volumetric mean droplet diameter in the
10 μm range.

Pre-engineered Water Mist System

This system has been developed for a hazard of a limited size and consistent features defining the compartment. It is
installed per the manufacturer specifications and does not require engineering calculations.

Single-Fluid Nozzles
These nozzles discharge water only.

Twin-Fluid Nozzles
These nozzles combine two independent streams of fluid, one of water and one of compressed gas, at a nozzle to generate
finely atomized spray.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

4.9.1.1 Spray Heat Absorption Ratio (SHAR)

Qw
SHAR =
Qf
where

Qw = evaporation of a given mass of water (kW)

Qf = heat given off by the fire (kW)

4.9.1.2 Required Extinguishing Medium Portion (REMP)

mle
REMP =
mlg
where

mle = mass application rate of extinguishing agent required (kg/s)

mlg = mass rate of fuel consumed (kg/s)

4.9.1.3 Spray Characteristics

To fully characterize a spray requires information about the following elements:

• Drop size distribution (DSD)

• Cone angle
• Velocity of the discharge jet(s)
• Mass flow rate
• Spray momentum (product of velocity and mass)

4.10 Pipe Diameters

4.10.1 Ductile Iron
Ductile Iron Pipe Inner Diameters (I.D.)
Nominal Unlined Pipe Cement-Lined
Size Class
Thickness (in.) I.D. (in.) I.D. (in.)
6" 350 0.25 6.40 6.28
8" 350 0.25 8.55 8.43
10" 350 0.26 10.58 10.46
12" 350 0.28 12.64 12.52
250 0.28 14.74 14.55
14" 300 0.30 14.70 14.51
350 0.31 14.68 14.49
250 0.30 16.80 16.61
16" 300 0.32 16.76 16.57
350 0.34 16.72 16.53
250 0.31 18.88 18.69
18" 300 0.34 18.82 18.63
350 0.36 18.78 18.59

4.10.2 Steel Pipe—Common Schedules

Nominal
1" 1 1/4" 1 1/2" 2" 2 1/2" 3" 4" 6" 8"
Pipe Size
I.D. (in.) 1.097 1.442 1.682 2.157 2.635 3.260 4.260 6.357 8.249
Water-
Schedule 10 Filled
1.800 2.518 3.053 4.223 5.893 7.957 11.796 23.038 40.086
Weight
(lbf/ft)
I.D. (in.) 1.049 1.380 1.610 2.067 2.469 3.068 4.026
Water-
Schedule 40 Filled
2.055 2.918 3.602 5.114 7.875 10.783 16.316
Weight
(lbf/ft)

©2020 NCEES 81
5 SPECIAL HAZARD EXTINGUISHING SYSTEMS
5.1 Foam Agents
Test Average Effective Absorptivity for AFFF
at Different Expansion Ratios
Expansion Ratio (ER) Effective Absorptivity, a Foam
3 0.34 ! 0.09
6 0.42 ! 0.06
10 0.41 ! 0.04
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE

Surface Tension of Hydrocarbon Liquids and Fuels

Hydrocarbon
Grade Surface Tension at 25°C (dyn/cm)
Liquid
Cyclohexane Certified A.C.S. 24.2
n-Heptane Certified spectroanalyzed 19.8
n-Heptane Commercial 20.9
Isooctane Certified A.C.S. 18.3
19.4a
Avgas 115/145
19.5b
22.4a
JP-4 Navy specification
22.8b
25.6a
JP-5 Navy specification
25.8b
20.5a
Motor fuel Regular
21.5b
Naphtha Stove and lighting 20.6
a Sample 1 b Sample 2
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Interfacial Tensions, Spreading Coefficients, and Film Formation Observations for Various
Surfactant Solution-Hydrocarbon Liquid Combinations

Interfacial Spreading
Surfactant Solution Hydrocarbon Liquid Tension Coefficient Film Formed
(dyn/cm) (dyn/cm)

FC-194 (lot 107) (solution surface Cyclohexane 4.3 4.4 Yes

tension of 15.5 dyn/cm at 25°C) n-Heptane, certified 5.5 –1.2 No
n-Heptane, commercial 4.3 1.1 Yes (very slow spread)
Avgasa 4.6 –0.7 No
JP-4a 3.6 3.3 Yes
JP-5a 4.9 5.2 Yes
Motor fuela 3.7 1.3 Yes
FC-195 (lot 9) (solution surface Cyclohexane 3.2 5.4 Yes
tension of 15.6 dyn/cm at 25°C) n-Heptane, certified 4.2 0.0 Yes (slow spread)
Isooctane 2.5 0.2 Yes (slow spread)
Avgasa 0.5 3.3 Yes
JP-4b 3.6 3.6 Yes
JP-5b 4.9 5.3 Yes
Motor fuela 2.6 2.3 Yes
Naphtha 2.8 2.2 Yes
FC-195 (lot 10) (solution surface Cyclohexane 1.5 6.3 Yes
tension of 16.4 dyn/cm at 25°C) n-Heptane, certified 3.2 0.6 Yes
Isooctane 2.8 –1.3 No
Avgasa 2.1 1.0 Yes
JP-4a 2.7 3.3 Yes
JP-5a 4.2 5.0 Yes
Motor fuela 1.2 2.9 Yes
Naphtha 0.8 3.4 Yes (slow spread)
a Sample 1 b Sample 2

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparison of Design Criteria for Low-Expansion and High-Expansion Foam Systems

Design/Hydraulic Step
Low-Expansion Foam System—Top Chamber High-Expansion Foam System—Top Generator
Function
Starting point Foam chamber(s) Foam generator(s)
Second determination Foam solution requirement per chamber (gpm) Expanded foam requirement per chamber (cfm)
Foam solution delivery rate between foam
Third determination Same determination
maker and foam house
Fourth determination Size pipe from foam maker(s) to foam house Size pipe from foam generator(s) to foam house
Fifth determination Determine type and size of foam proportioner Same determination
Determine hydraulic requirements in foam
Sixth determination Same determination
house
Evaluate water supply/demand requirement at
Seventh determination Same determination
foam house
Assess requirement for pump in foam house; re-
Eighth determination Same requirement
calculate hydraulic requirements in foam house
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.2 Low-Expansion Foam Systems

Q D # T # % HoseStream

where

Q = primary foam concentrate (gal) (system + hose)

D = foam discharge rate (gpm)

T = discharge time (min)

% = concentrate percent of foam (decimal)

5.2.1 Foam Discharge Rate

D = A#R

where

D = foam discharge rate (gpm)

A = surface area (ft2)

For tanks = 0.785d 2

d = diameter (ft)

R = rate of application (gpm/ft2)

5.2.2 Foam Concentration Calibration Curve

n −n
AFFF%sample = n foam −water
concentrate nwater

5.3 High-Expansion Foam Systems

R c T RS m C N # C L
V

where

R = rate of discharge (cfm)

V = submergence volume (ft3)

(volume of combustible + 10% or 2 ft, whichever is greater)

CN = 1.15 (dimensionless)

CL = foam leakage coefficient (between 1.0 and 1.2) (dimensionless)

RS = S # Q

where

S = sprinkler breakdown rate (10 cfm/gpm)

Q = estimated sprinkler discharge (gpm)

5.4 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Systems

Reference Properties of Carbon Dioxide
Chemical name Carbon dioxide
Carbon anhydride, carbonic acid gas, car-
Synonyms
bonic anhydride, dry ice
CAS Registry No.a 124-38-9
Chemical formula CO2
Property S.I. units
Molecular weight 44.01 g/mol
Vapor pressure at 2°F (–16.7 °C) 2,181.4 kPa
Specific gravity of gas at 70°F (21.1°C) and 1 atm 1.522
Solid to gas expansion ratio at 70°F (21.1°C) and 1 atm 0.5457 m3/kg
Gas density at 70°F (21.1°C) and 1 atm 1.833 kg/m3
Density of solid (dry ice) at –109.3°F (–78.5°C) 1,563 kg/m3
Sublimation temperature at 1 atm –78.5°C
Critical temperature 31.1°C
Critical pressure 7,381.8 kPa
Critical density 468 kg/m3
Triple point –56.6°C at 518 kPa
Latent heat of vaporization at –16.7°C, 2.18 MPa 276.8 kJ/kg
Latent heat of fusion at 518 kPa, at –93.8°C 547 kJ/kg
Latent heat of sublimation at –78.5°C, 101.3 kPa 571.0 kJ/kg
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp, gas at 25°C 0.850 kJ/kg●°C
Specific heat at constant volume, CV, gas at 25°C 0.657 kJ/kg●°C
Ratio of gas specific heats, Cp/CV, at 15°C 1.304
Solubility in water at 20°C 0.90 vol/vol
Viscosity of saturated liquid at –16.7°C 0.000119 kg/m●s
a CAS numbers are unique numerical identifiers assigned by the Chemical Abstracts Service to every chemical described in
the open scientific literature.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Carbon Dioxide Specific Heat, Thermal Conductivity, Viscosity

Cp, liquid Thermal cond., Viscosity, liquid CV, vapor Thermal cond., Viscosity, vapor
Temp (K)
(J/kg●K) liquid (W/m●K) (μPa●s) (J/kg●K) vapor (W/m●K) (μPa●s)
220 1,962 0.1762 242.0 639 0.01130 11.14
225 1,977 0.1697 222.2 654 0.01175 11.41
230 1,997 0.1633 204.2 670 0.01222 11.69
235 2,021 0.1570 187.9 687 0.01274 11.98
240 2,051 0.1508 173.0 705 0.01330 12.27
245 2,087 0.1446 159.3 725 0.01392 12.58
250 2,132 0.1385 146.7 746 0.01461 12.90
255 2,187 0.1324 135.1 769 0.01540 13.25
260 2,255 0.1264 124.4 794 0.01631 13.61
265 2,342 0.1203 114.4 822 0.01738 14.02
270 2,454 0.1143 105.0 852 0.01869 14.47
275 2,603 0.1082 96.2 885 0.02033 14.99
280 2,814 0.1020 87.7 923 0.02247 15.60
285 3,133 0.0958 79.5 969 0.02542 16.36
290 3,676 0.0895 71.4 1,026 0.02982 17.36
295 4,794 0.0836 62.9 1,106 0.03722 18.79
300 8,698 0.0806 53.1 1,248 0.05369 21.31
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Material Compatibility of Carbon Dioxide

Material Compatibility
Metals
Aluminium Satisfactory
Brass Satisfactory
Copper Satisfactory
Satisfactory but risk of corrosion in presence of CO and/or
Ferritic steels (e.g., carbon steels)
moisture; cold brittleness
Stainless steel Satisfactory
Plastics
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) Satisfactory
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (PCTFE) Satisfactory
Vinylidene polyfluoride (PVDF) (KYNAR™) Satisfactory
Polyamide (PA) (NYLON™) Satisfactory
Polypropylene (PP) Satisfactory
Elastomers
Buthyl (isobutene - isoprene) rubber (IIR) Not recommended, significant swelling
Not recommended, significant swelling and significant
Nitrile rubber (NBR)
loss of mass by extraction or chemical reaction
Not recommended, significant swelling and significant
Chloroprene (CR)
loss of mass by extraction or chemical reaction
Not recommended, significant swelling and significant
Chlorofluorocarbons (FKM) (VITON™)
loss of mass by extraction or chemical reaction
Silicon (Q) Acceptable but strong rate of permeation
Acceptable but important swelling and significant loss of
Ethylene-propylene (EPDM)
mass by extraction or chemical reaction
Lubricants
Hydrocarbon-based lubricant Satisfactory
Fluorocarbon-based lubricant Satisfactory
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Acute Health Effects of High Concentrations of Carbon Dioxide

U.S. EPA Examining
Source Air Products (2004) Rice (2004)
CO2 Conc. the Risks (2004)
Vol. % Exposure
Effects Effects Effects
Time
1 Slight increase in breathing rate. Respiratory rate increased by about 37%.
Breathing rate increases to 50% above Ventilation rate raised by about 100%.
Several Headache, dyspnea upon
2 normal level. Prolonged exposure can Respiratory rate raised by about 50%;
hours mild exertion
cause headache, tiredness. increased brain blood flow.
Breathing increases to twice normal rate
Exercise tolerance reduced in workers
Mild headache, sweating, and becomes laboured. Weak narcotic
3 1 hr when breathing against inspiratory and
and dyspnea at rest effect. Impaired hearing, headache, in-
expiratory resistance.
crease in blood pressure and pulse rate.
Breathing increases to approximately
Headache, dizziness, Increase in ventilation rate by ~200%. Re-
Within a few four times normal rate; symptoms of
4–5 increased blood pressure, spiratory rate doubled, dizziness, headache,
minutes intoxication become evident and slight
uncomfortable dyspnea confusion, dyspnea.
choking may be felt.
Characteristic sharp odor noticeable.
Very labored breathing, headache, visual
Within
5–10 impairment, and ringing in the ears.
minutes
Judgment may be impaired, followed
within minutes by loss of consciousness.
Hearing and visual distur-
1–2 min
bances
6
< 16 min Headache, dyspnea
Several hr Tremors
Unconsciousness, near
Few minutes At 8–10%, severe headache, dizziness,
unconsciousness
confusion, dyspnea, sweating, dim vision.
7–10 Headache, increased heart At 10%, unbearable dyspnea, followed by
1.5 min to rate, shortness of breath, vomiting, disorientation, hypertension, and
1 hr dizziness, sweating, rapid loss of consciousness.
breathing
Dizziness, drowsiness,
1 to several
10–15 severe muscle twitching,
minutes
unconsciousness
Loss of controlled and
purposeful activity,
17–30 < 1 min
unconsciousness, convul-
sions, coma, death
Unconsciousness occurs more rapidly
above 10% level. Prolonged exposure to
50–100 < 1 min
high concentrations may eventually result
in death from asphyxiation.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Permissible Exposure Limits—U.S. Standards

Time-Weighted Average Short-Term Exposure Immediately Dangerous to
Standard
(8 hr day/40 hr week) Limit (15 min) Life and Health
OSHA permissible exposure limita 5,000 ppm (0.5%)
NIOSH permissible exposure limitb 5,000 ppm (0.5%) 30,000 ppm (3%) 40,000 ppm (4%)
ACGIH permissible exposure limitc 5,000 ppm (0.5%)
a OSHA: U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (1986)
b NIOSH: U.S. National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (1997)
c ACGIH: American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.4.1 CO2 Total Flooding

In a total flooding system, a specific design concentration of carbon dioxide is needed to promptly extinguish surface fires
under anticipated conditions. As such, the quantity of carbon dioxide required to achieve concentration C in an enclosure
can be calculated as follows:

m Vs ln c 100
100 m
C
where

m = quantity of CO2 (kg)

V = enclosure volume (m3)

s = specific volume of CO2 vapor at the enclosure temperature (m3/kg)

C = CO2 concentration (vol %)

Minimum Extinguishing and Design Concentrations

for Selected Flammable Liquids
Material MEC (Vol. %) DC (Vol. %)
Acetone 27* 34
Acetylene 55 66
Carbon disulfide 60 72
Ethyl alcohol 36 43
Hexane 29 35
Methyl alcohol 33 40
Propane 30 36
MEC: minimum extinguishing concentration
DC: design concentration
* Calculated from accepted residual oxygen values

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Flooding Factors vs. Hazard Volume

Protected Volume
Flooding Factor (kg/m3) Minimum Quantity (kg)
(Vp) (m3)
#3.96 1.15 --
3.97–14.15 1.07 4.5
14.16–45.28 1.01 15.1
45.29–127.35 0.9 45.4
127.35–1,415 0.8 113.5
>1,415 0.74 1,135
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Material Conversion Factor

The material conversion factor, MCF, is used to increase the base design quantity (mBD) for design concentrations
exceeding 34% carbon dioxide. The MCF is used to find the corrected design quantity (mcf) of carbon dioxide.
mBD Vp # FF
mcf mBD # MCF

MCF 2.41 ln c 100 C m

100

where

mcf = mBD × MCF

Vp = protected volume (m3)

FF = flooding factor (kg/m3)

C = CO2 concentration (vol%)

Unclosable Openings
In some cases, the enclosure surrounding the protected volume has openings that cannot be closed. The total quantity of
carbon dioxide lost due to leakage from unclosable openings in a time period, t, can be found using the following equations,
using SI and USCS units respectively:

where

mlo = quantity of CO2 leaked through openings (kg)

A = area of opening (m2)

h = height, center of opening to top of protected space (m)

ρ1 = density of carbon dioxide-air atmosphere (kg/m3)

ρA = density of air external to enclosure (kg/m3)

t = time duration of leakage (min)

At 1 atm pressure and 21°C:

ρA = 1.202 kg/m3

ρ1 = 0.006220C + 1.202 kg/m3

where

mlo = quantity of CO2 leaked through openings (lb)

C = CO2 concentration (vol. %)

A = area of opening (ft2)

g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)

h = height, center of opening to top of protected space (ft)

ρCO2 = density of carbon dioxide vapor (lb/ft3)

ρ1 = density of carbon dioxide-air atmosphere (lb/ft3)

ρA = density of air external to enclosure (lb/ft3)

t = time duration of leakage (min)

At 1 atm pressure and 70°F:

CO 2 0.114 lb/ft3

ρA = 0.0751 lb/ft3

ρ1 = 0.000388C + 0.0750 lb/ft3

Ventilation Systems
Generally, mechanical ventilation of a protected volume should be arranged to shut down prior to discharge of a carbon
dioxide extinguishment system. Where this is not possible, the quantity of carbon dioxide lost due to ventilation must
be found. The amount lost is equal to the volume of fresh air introduced into the protected volume by the mechanical
ventilation system over a time period (t) times the flooding factor.

m lv = Q v # t # FF

where

mlv = CO2 added to compensate for forced ventilation (kg)

Qv = ventilation rate (kg/m3)

t = duration of discharge (s)

FF = flooding factor (kg/m3)

Temperature Extremes
The quantity of agent must also be adjusted to account for extreme temperatures in the protected volume whenever present.
Extremes temperatures are defined as those above 93°C (200°F) and those below –18°C (0°F). For protected volumes that
experience both high and low extreme temperatures, the high and low extreme temperature factors must be calculated and
the one with the highest value is chosen.

tH = 0.0036 (TH – 93) tH = 0.002 (TH – 200)

tL = –0.018 (TL + 18) tL = 0.01 (0 – TL )

where where

tH = extreme high temperature factor (SI units) tH = extreme high temperature factor (USCS units)

TH = high temperature value (°C) TH = high temperature value (°F)

tL = extreme low temperature factor (SI units) tL = extreme low temperature factor (USCS units)

TL = low temperature value (°C) TL = low temperature value (°F)

m T (mcf m lo m lv)

where

mT = additional carbon dioxide quantity for extreme temperature

t = extreme high or low temperature factor, whichever is greater

mcf = base quantity of carbon dioxide after applying MCF

mlo = additional carbon dioxide quantity for leakage through openings

mlv = additional carbon dioxide quantity for mechanical ventilation

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Design Parameters for Specific Deep-Seated Fire Hazards

Min. Design Conc. Flooding Factor
Hazard Type Remarks
(Vol. %) (kg/m3)
Dry electrical hazards in general, V < 56.6 m3 50 1.6
Dry electrical hazards in general, V > 56.6 m3 50 1.33 Minimum quantity, 91 kg
Record (bulk paper) storage, ducts, covered trenches 65 2.0
Fur storage vaults, dust collectors 75 2.66

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.4.2 CO2 Pressure Relief Venting

In some cases, the pressure rise in an enclosure due to carbon dioxide discharge is capable of damaging the enclosure
construction. The risk of enclosure damage can be greatly reduced by designing and installing a means of pressure
relief. The size of the minimum pressure relief area required is based on the maximum flow rate of carbon dioxide and is
calculated using

where

Av = vent area (mm2)

w = carbon dioxide flow rate (kg/min)

P = allowable enclosure pressure limit (kPa)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

where

X = free venting area (in2)

Q = calculated CO2 flow rate (lb/min)

P = allowable strength of enclosure (lb/ft2)

Allowable Pressure for Average Enclosures

Construction Type P, kPa Note
Light building 1.2 Venting sash remains open
Normal building 2.4 Venting sash designed to open freely
Vault building 4.8
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.5 Clean Agents

Commercialized Halon Replacement Nomenclature
Chemical Name Trade Name ASHRAE Designation Chemical Formula
Heptafluoropropane FM-200 HFC-227ea CF3CHFCF3
Trifluoromethane FE-13 HFC-23 CHF3
Chlorotetrafluoroethane FE-24 HCFC-124 CHClFCF3
Pentafluoroethane FE-25 HFC-125 CHF2CF3
Dodecafluoro-2-methylpentan-3-one Novec 1230 FK-5-1-12mmy2 CF3CF2C(O)(CF(CF3))2
Hexafluoropropane FE-36 HFC-236fa CF3CH2CF3
Trifluoroiodide Triodide FIC-1311 CF3I
N2 (52%)
N2/Ar/CO2 Inergen IG-541 Ar (40%)
CO2 (8%)
N2 (50%)
N2/Ar Argonite IG-55
Ar (50%)
Argon Argon IG-01 Ar (100%)
Nitrogen Nitrogen IG-100 N2
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparisons of Systems in 500–5,000 m3 Range of Volumes

Percentage Additional Weight When Compared to a Halon 1301 System
Halon 1301 CO2 FE-13 FM-200 Novec 1230 Inergen Water Mist
Weight Comparison
500 m3 0 150 200 50 50 400 625
1,000 m3 0 163 188 38 50 450 613
3,000 m3 0 200 219 48 71 529 671
5,000 m3 0 186 211 36 58 497 522
Footprint Comparison
500 m3 0 84 105 20 20 327 1,119
1,000 m3 0 82 94 20 20 365 889
3,000 m3 0 118 122 19 43 459 1,030
5,000 m3 0 99 107 6 19 404 636
Percentage Cost Comparison
500 m3 0 108 315 202 259 277 1,032
1,000 m3 0 140 406 267 368 330 723
3,000 m3 0 200 553 351 513 449 478
5,000 m3 0 204 585 361 515 460 376
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Summary of Class A and Class B Extinguishing Concentrations for Various Agents and Equipment Manufacturers
UL (NFPA 2001) ISO 14520
Equip-
Class B Class A Class B Class A
ment
Agent Trade Name Min
Manu-
facturer Test Design Test Design Test Design (95% of Test Design
Class B)
HFC-227ea FM-200, FE-227 A 6.7 8.7
B 6.7 8.7
C 6.7 8.7
D 6.7 8.7 5.2 6.2
E 6.7 8.7 5.4 6.5
F 6.6 8.6 6.9 9.0 8.5 6.1 (4.9 WdCrib) 7.9
HFC-125 FE-25 A 6.7 8.0
B 8.6 (6.7 WdCrib) 11.2
-- 8.7 11.3 9.3 12.1 11.5
NAF-S-125 C 8.7 11.3 6.7 8.0 6.7 8.7
HFC-23 FE-13 A 18 18
B 12.9 16.8 12.6 16.4 15.6 12.5 (10.5 WdCrib) 16.3
FK-5-1-12 Novec 1230
A 4.5 5.9 3.5 4.2
B 4.5 5.9 4.5 5.9 5.6 4.1 (3.4 WdCrib) 5.3
IG-541 Inergen 28.9 37.6 28.5 34.2 31.7 41.2 39.1 30.7 (28.2 WdCrib) 36.5
IG-55 Argonite 36.5 47.5 45.1 31 (28.7 WdCrib) 40.3
IG-01 Argon 39.2 51.0 48.4 32.2 (30.7 WdCrib) 41.9
IG-100 Nitrogen 33.6 43.7 41.5 31.0 (30 WdCrib) 40.3
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Cup Burner Minimum Extinguishing Concentrations

Cup Burner Extinguishment Concentration (vol%)
Fuel HCFC
HFC-227eab FC-3-1-10 HFC-23 N2
Blend A
Acetone 6.8 5.5e
Acetonitrile 3.7
AV gas 6.7
n-Butanol 7.1
n-Butyl acetate 6.6
Cyclopentanone 6.7
Diesel no. 2 6.7
Ethanol 8.1 6.8e
Ethyl acetate 5.6
Ethylene glycol 7.8
Gasoline (unleaded) 6.5
Hydraulic fluid 5.8 4.3–4.5a 22–26a
JP-4 6.6
JP-5 6.0a 4.8a 27a
6.6c
Methane 6.2
Methanol 10.0 9.4e
Methyl ethyl ketone 6.7
Methyl isobutyl ketone 6.6
Morpholine 7.3
Propane 6.3 6.0a 32.5a
i-Propanol 7.3
Pyrrolidine 7.0
Tetrahydrofuran 7.2
Toluene 5.8
Turbo hydraulic oil 2380 5.1
Xylene 5.3
Note: For n-Heptane refer to NFPA 2001.
afrom Hamins et al.
bfrom Robin
cfrom Sheinson et al.
dfrom Moore et al.
efrom Ferreira et al.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Comparison of Design Concentrations for Class A Fires

Ratio Class A Ratio Class A
Heptane MEC Class A Design Ratio Class A Class A Design
Design Conc. Design NFPA
Agent (NFPA 2001, Conc. NFPA Design to MEC Conc. (ISO
to MEC (ISO 2001 to ISO
2008) (%) 2001/UL (%) (NFPA) 14520) (%)
14520) 14520
Halon 1301 3.4a 5b 1.47 -- -- --
CO2 23a >34c 1.48 -- -- --
HFC-227ea 6.7 6.25–7.0 0.93–1.04 7.9 1.2 0.79–0.88
HFC-125 8.7 8.0 0.92 11.2 1.3 0.71
HFC-23 12.9 16.8–18 1.3–1.4 16.3 1.26 1.03–1.1
FK-5-1-12 4.5 4.2 0.93 5.3 1.17 0.79
IG-541 31 34.2 1.1 36.5 1.17 0.94
IG-55 35 37.9 1.08 40.3 1.15 0.94
IG-01 42 -- -- 41.9 1.0 --
IG-100 31 -- -- 40.3 1.3 --
a From NFPA handbook (mid-range value) b From NFPA 12A c From NFPA 12

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.5.1 Clean Agent Hold Time and Leakage

In order to measure leakage in quiescent environments, the clean agent-air mixture density must be estimated using the
following formula:
_100 C i
m Vd 100 = a G
C
100
where

ρm = clean agent-air mixture density (kg/m3)

ra = air density, 1.202 kg/m3

C = clean agent concentration (%)

Vd = agent vapor density (kg/m3), shown below

Vapor Density (Vd)

Agent
kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
FC-3-10 9.85 (0.615)
HBFC-22B1 5.54 (0.346)
HCFC-Blend A 3.84 (0.240)
HFC-124 5.83 (0.364)
HFC-125 5.06 (0.316)
HFC-227ea 7.26 (0.453)
HFC-23 2.915 (0.182)
IG-541 1.43 (0.089)
Halon 1301 6.283 (0.392)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.5.2 Atmospheric Lifetimes

Greenhouse gases break down in the atmosphere according to the following equation, which describes e-folding lifetimes
instead of the more common half-lifetimes used in the nuclear field. This means that after a lifetime L there will be 1/e of
the specimen left (0.368) instead of 1/2 of the specimen (0.5).

C = C0 e – kt

where

C = concentration at time t

C0 = initial concentration at time t

k = an experimentally determined rate constant, in units = 1/time

C = C0 e – t/L
1
where L = the time it takes for the ratio of C:C0 to be equal to e

Environmental Factors for Halocarbon Clean Agents

Designation ODP GWP (100 Years) Atmospheric Lifetime (Years)
Halon 1301 12.000 7,030 65
HFC-227ea 0.000 2,900 34.2
HFC-23 0.000 14,310 270
HFC-125 0.000 3,450 29
NAFK-5-1-12 0.000 1 0.038
Inert gas 0.000 0 NA
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

5.5.3 Halocarbon Total Flooding

Toxicity Data for Halocarbon Clean Agent Fire Suppressants
Agent Trade Name LC50 and ALC (%) NOAEL (%) LOAEL (%)
FIC-1311 Triodide >12.8 0.2 0.4
FK-5-1-12 Novec 1230 >10 10 >10
HCFC Blend A NAFS-III 64 10 >10
HCFC-124 FE-24 23–29 1 2.5
HFC-125 FE-25 >70 7.5 10.0
HFC-227ea FM-200 >80 9 10.5
HFC-23 FE-13 >65 30 >30
HFC-236fa FE-36 >45.7 10 15
HFC Blend B Halotron II 56.7a 5.0a 7.5a
1. LC50 is the concentration lethal to 50% of a rat population during a 4-hr exposure. ALC is the approx. lethal concen-
tration.
2. Cardiac sensitization levels are based on the observance or nonobservance of serious heart arrhythmias in a dog. The
usual protocol is a 5-min exposure followed by a challenge with epinephrine.
3. High concentration values are determined with the addition of oxygen to prevent asphyxiation.
a These values are for the largest component of the blend, HFC Blend B (HFC-134A).

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE

Physical Properties of Clean Halocarbon Agents (Metric Units)

HFC
FK-5- HDFC HFC- HFC-
Physical Property Units FIC-1311 Blend A HCFC- HFC-125 HFC-23
1-12 Blend B 227ea 236fa
124
Molecular weight NA 195.91 316.04 92.90 99.4 136.5 120 170 70.01 152
Boiling point at 760 mmHg °C –22.5 49 –38.3 –26.1 –12.0 –48.1 –16.4 –82.1 –1.4
Freezing point °C –110 –108 <107.2 –103 –198.9 –102.8 –131 –155.2 –103
Critical temperature °C 122 168.66 124.4 101.1 122.6 66 101.7 26.1 124.9
Critical pressure kPa 4,041 1,865 6,647 4,060 3,620 3,618 2,912 4,828 3,200
Critical volume cc/mole 225 494.5 162 198 243 210 274 133 276
Critical density kg/m3 871 639.1 577 515.3 560 574 621 527 551.3
4.130 at
Specific heat, liquid at 25°C kJ/kg °C 0.592 1.103 1.256 1.44 1.153 1.407 1.184 1.264
20°C
Specific heat, vapor at constant 0.730 at
kJ/k 0.3618 0.891 0.67 0.848 0.742 0.797 0.808 0.840
pressure (1 atm) and 25°C 20°C
Heat of vaporization at boiling
kJ/kg 112.4 88 225.6 217.2 165.9 164.1 132.6 239.3 160.4
point
Thermal conductivity of liquid
W/m °C 0.07 0.059 0.09 0.082 0.0684 0.0592 0.069 0.0634 0.0729
at 25°C
Viscosity, liquid at 25°C cP 0.196 0.524 0.21 0.202 0.257 0.14 0.184 0.044 0.286
Relative dielectric strength at
0.955 at
1 atm at 734 mm Hg, 25°C NA 1.41 2.3 1.32 1.014 1.55 2 1.04 1.0166
21°C
(N 2 = 1.0)

1.0062% 0.12% 0.11% 700 at 700 at 0.06% 500 at 740 at

Solubility of water in agent ppm <0.001
by weight by weight by weight 25°C 25°C by weight 10°C 20°C

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Specific Volume Constants

k1 k2 k1 k2
Generic Name Trade Name
USCS USCS Metric Metric
Halocarbons
Halon 1301 Halon 1301 2.2062 0.005046 0.1478 0.00057
HFC-23 FE-13 4.7302 0.010699 0.3168 0.0011942
HFC-125 FM-25 2.722 0.006376 0.1828 0.0007085
HFC-227ea FM-200 1.879775 0.0046625 0.1268 0.0005133
HFC-236fa FE-36 2.0978 0.00514 0.1413 0.00058
FK-5-1-12 Novec 1230 0.9856 0.002441 0.0664 0.0002743
Inert Gases
IG-01 Argon 8.40299 0.018281 0.5612 0.002054
IG-55 Argonite 9.8809 0.0214956 0.65979 0.0024134
IG-100 NN-100 11.976 0.02606 0.7997 0.002927
IG-541 Inergen 9.858 0.02143 0.659 0.00241
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

©2020 NCEES 100

Chapter 5: Special Hazard Extinguishing Systems

Quantity of Halocarbon Agent

The quantity of halocarbon agent necessary to achieve an established design concentration is

w S c 100 C m
V C

where

V = net volume of protected space (ft3 or m3)

C = design concentration (%)

w = weight of agent required (lb or kg)

S = specific volume (ft3 or m3)

S = k1 + k2(T)

where
T = minimum ambient temperature of the protected space (°F or °C)

k1 and k2 = constants in Specific Volume Constants table above

Ah, altitude correction factor, must be applied to the weight (w) of the agent required.

For –3,000 ft to 5,500 ft of equivalent altitude: Ah = (–0.000036 × X) + 1

For 5,501 ft to 10,000 ft of equivalent altitude: Ah = (–0.00003 × X) + 0.96

where
Ah = correction factor

X = altitude (ft)

Potential Human Health Effects of Hydrogen Fluoride in Healthy Individuals

Exposure Hydrogen Fluoride Reaction
Time (ppm)
2 min <50 Slight eye and nasal irritation
50–100 Mild eye and upper respiratory tract irritation
100–200 Moderate eye and upper respiratory tract irritation, slight skin irritation
>200 Moderate irritation of all body surfaces, increasing concentration may impair escape
5 min <50 Mild eye and nasal irritation
50–100 Increasing eye and nasal irritation, slight skin irritation
100–200 Moderate irritation of skin, eyes, and respiratory tract
>200 Definite irritation of tissue surfaces, will impair escape at increased concentrations
10 min <50 Definite eye, skin, and upper respiratory tract irritation
50–100 Moderate irritation of all body surfaces
100–200 Moderate irritation of all body surfaces, escape-impairing effects likely
Escape-impairing effects will occur, increasing concentrations can be lethal without
>200
medical intervention
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

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Chapter 5: Special Hazard Extinguishing Systems

5.5.4 Inert Gas Total Flooding

Physical Properties of Clean Inert Gas Agents (Metric Units)

Physical Property Units IG-01 IG-100 IG-541 IG-55
Molecular weight NA 39.9 28.0 34.0 33.95
Boiling point at 760 mmHg °C –189.85 –195.8 –196 –190.1
Freezing point °C –189.35 –210.0 –78.5 –199.7
Critical temperature °C –122.3 –146.9 NA –134.7
Critical pressure kPa 4,903 3,399 NA 4,150
Specific heat, vapor at constant
kJ/kg °C 0.519 1.04 0.574 0.782
pressure (1 atm) and 25°C
Heat of vaporization at boiling point kJ/kg 163 199 220 181
Relative dielectric strength at 1 atm at
NA 1.01 1.0 1.03 1.01
734 mm Hg, 25°C (N 2 = 1.0)
Solubility of water in agent at 25°C NA 0.006% 0.0013% 0.015% 0.006%
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

For inert gases, the following formula is used:

X 2.303 S log c 100 C m Vs

V 100

where

X = volume of inert gas required at 70°F or 21°C (ft3 or m3)

Vs = specific volume at 70°F or 21°C (ft3 or m3)

V = net protected hazard volume (ft3)

S = specific volume (ft3 or m3)

S = k1 + k2(T)

where
T = minimum ambient temperature of the protected space (°F or °C)

k1 and k2 = constants in Specific Volume Constants table above

Altitude correction factor, Y, shall be applied.

For –3,000 ft to 5,500 ft of equivalent altitude: Y = (–0.000036 × X) + 1

For 5,501 ft to 10,000 ft of equivalent altitude: Y = (–0.00003 × X) + 0.96

where

Y = correction factor

X = altitude (ft)

©2020 NCEES 102

6 FIRE ALARM AND DETECTION
6.1 General Information
Fire alarm and detection systems rely heavily on the information contained in installation standards such as NFPA 72,
National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code.

6.2 Heat Detector RTI

The use of RTI as a heat-transfer function is a simplification and incorporates both conductive and convective heat-transfer
mechanisms.

where

RTI = response time index (ft1/2sec1/2 or m1/2s1/2)

τ0 = detector time constant (sec)

u0 = gas velocity (5.0 ft/sec or 1.5 m/s, typ.)

The sensitivity of a detector can be expressed in terms of RTI as related to the flow of hot gases as
t r u 10/2
RTI
T T
ln f g a p
Tg Tr

where

RTI = response time index (ft1/2sec1/2 or m1/2s1/2)

Ta = ambient temperature (°F or °C)

Tg = temperature of fire gases (°F or °C)

tr = response time (sec)

u0 = velocity at which τ0 was measured (ft/sec or m/s)

Tr = Ts = rated operating temperature of a detector or sprinkler (°F or °C)

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Chapter 6: Fire Alarm and Detection

6.3 Rate of Heat Release

See Sections 3.2.6 to 3.2.10.

6.4 Heat Detector Spacing

6.4.1 Radial Distance from Fire Axis to Detector

where

S = spacing of detectors (ft or m)

r = radial distance from fire plume axis (ft or m)

6.5 Smoke Detector Response

6.5.1 Obscuration
Percent obscuration: Percent obscuration per unit distance, Ou:

O 100 c1 I m O u 100 <1 c I m F

I I 1/I
0 0

where

I = intensity of light beam in presence of smoke (cd)

I0 = initial intensity of light beam (cd)

Optical density: Optical density per unit distance, Du (ft–1 or m–1):

D log10 c I0 m log10 c I m D u l l log10 d 0 n log10 d I n

I I D 1 I I
0 I 0

where l = distance between source and photocell (ft or m)

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Chapter 6: Fire Alarm and Detection

6.5.2 Radiant Energy Detection

During the combustion process, electromagnetic radiation is emitted over a broad range of the spectrum. Currently, how-
ever, fire detection devices operate only in one of three bands: ultraviolet (UV), visible, or infrared (IR), where the wave-
lengths are defined within the following ranges:

Ultraviolet 0.1–0.35 mm
Visible 0.35–0.75 mm
Infrared 0.75–220 mm
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Radiant power to detector:

kPe d
S
d2
where
S = radiant power reaching detector (W)

k = proportionality constant for detector (m–2)

P = radiant power emitted by fire (W)

z = extinction coefficient of air (m–1)

d = distance between fire and detector (m)

6.5.3 Sensitivity Level

D m (m) m
=Du = ta m
Vc br

where
Du = upper sensitivity level (m–1)

Dm = mass optical density (m2/g)

m = mass (g)

Vc = volume of enclosure (m3)

ta = activation time (s)

mbr = mass burning rate (g/s)

6.6 Audibility Design

6.6.1 Sound Pressure Level
LP = LW + C1 + C2

where
LP = sound pressure level (dBA)

LW = sound power level (dB)

C1 = adjustment for mounting position of sounder (dimensionless)

C2 = adjustment for distance from sounder (dimensionless)

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Chapter 6: Fire Alarm and Detection

Adjustment for Mounting Position of Sounder (C1)

Sounder Position C1
Wall/ceiling mounted (more than 1 m from any other major surface) +5
Wall/ceiling mounted (closer than 1 m to one other major surface) +7
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Adjustment for Distance (C2) with

Distance from Source (m)
Distance from
C2
Source (m)
1 –11
2 –17
3 –21
6 –27
12 –33
15 –35
20 –37
25 –39
30 –41
40 –43
50 –45
60 –47
80 –49
100 –51
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

6.6.2 Sound Power Level

L W L 20 log10 r 11

where

LW = sound power level of sounder (dBA)

L = manufacturer's stated output (dBA)

r = distance (m)

6.7 Illumination Design

6.7.1 Illumination
I
E=
d2
where

E = illumination (lumens per unit area or footcandle)

I = intensity of light source (cd)

d = distance from light source to object (ft)

6.7.2 Effective Intensity

c #t Idt m
t2

Ie
1

_a t 2 t1 i
where

Ie = effective intensity

I = instantaneous intensity

t1 = time (s) of beginning of that part of the flash where I exceeds Ie

t2 = time (s) of end of that part of the flash where I exceeds Ie

In the United States, the value of 0.2 is usually used for the constant a.

6.8 Voltage Drop Calculation

Vload Vter min als _ Iload Rconductors i

where

Vload = 16 volts minimum operating voltage of appliance (unless otherwise specified)

Vterminals = 20.4 volts (unless otherwise specified)

Iload = total current draw of appliance (A)

Rconductors = conductor resistance (Ω)

©2020 NCEES 107

7 SMOKE CONTROL
7.1 Fundamentals
7.1.1 Door Opening Forces
kd WAP
F FD C
2 _W d i
where

F = total door opening force (lb or N)

FDC = force to overcome door closer (lb or N)

W = door width (ft or m)

A = door area (ft2 or m2)

DP = pressure difference across door (in. H2O or Pa)

d = distance from doorknob to edge of knob side of door (ft or m)

kd = coefficient, 5.20 or 1.00

7.1.2 Wind Pressure

PW = C W K W V 2

where

PW = wind pressure (in. H2O)

CW = dimensionless pressure coefficient ranging from –0.8 to 0.8, with positive values for windward walls
and negative values for leeward walls

KW = coefficient, 4.82 × 10–4

V = wind velocity (mph)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

Local Design Wind

a met a
met
U H U met e o cH m
H met
where

UH = wind velocity at wall height H (mph or m/s)

Umet = measured velocity (mph or m/s)

Hmet = height of wind measurement (ft or m)

dmet = boundary layer height in vicinity of wind anemometer (ft or m)

amet = wind exponent in vicinity of wind anemometer (dimensionless)

H = height of wall (ft or m)

d = boundary layer height at wall (ft or m)

a = wind exponent at wall (dimensionless)

Wind Pressure on a Wall

p w 0.00645 C w U H2
1
p w 2 C w U H2 fr SI units

where

pw = wind pressure (in. H2O or Pa)

Cw = pressure coefficient (dimensionless)

ρo = outside air density (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

UH = wind velocity at wall height H (mph or m/s)

7.1.3 Height of Flame Tip (zl)

z l = 0.533Qo c2/5

where

zl = limiting elevation (ft)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

7.1.4 Fuel Mass Consumed

Steady Fires
Qo t
mo f = H
c

where

mo f = mass burning rate (kg/s)

Qo t = total heat-release rate for steady fires (kW)

Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

Unsteady t2 fires
t3
mo f = 333
Hc t g2
where

mo f = mass burning rate (kg/s)

t = time (s)

Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

tg = growth time (s)

7.1.5 Flow Paths

Effective Area for Flow Paths in Parallel
n
Ae = / Ai
i=1
where

Ae = effective flow area (ft2 or m2)

Ai = flow area of path i (ft2 or m2)

Effective Area for Flow Paths in Series

n 1/2

Ae f / p
1
i1 A i2
where

Ae = effective flow area (ft2 or m2)

Ai = flow area of path i (ft2 or m2)

7.1.6 Stack Effect/Buoyancy

P KS d T T n h
1 1
O I

where

DP = pressure difference (in. H2O or Pa)

KS = coefficient (7.64 or 3,460)

TO = absolute temperature of outside air (°R or K)

TI = absolute temperature of inside air (°R or K)

h = distance above neutral plane (ft or m)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

Pressure difference for normal/reverse stack effect:

pSO 7.63 d T 460 T 460 n z

1 1
O S

pSO 3, 460 d T 273 T 273 n z fr SI units

1 1
O S
where

∆pSO = pressure difference from a shaft to the outside (in. H2O or Pa)

TO = temperature of outside air (°F or °C)

TS = temperature of the shaft (°F or °C)

z = distance above neutral plane (ft or m)

7.1.7 Pressure Difference

p FS 7.63 d T 460 T 460 n z
1 1
O F

p FS 3, 460 d T 273 T 273 n z fr SI units

1 1
O F
where

DpFS = pressure difference from fire space to surroundings (in. H2O or Pa)

TO = temperature of surroundings (°F or °C)

TF = temperature of fire space (°F or °C)

z = distance above neutral plane (ft or m)

7.1.8 Untreated Pressurization Air

Stairwell Temperature
TS = TO + h(TB – TO)

where

TS = temperature in stairwell (°F or °C)

TO = temperature of outside air (°F or °C)

TB = temperature in building (°F or °C)

η = heat-transfer factor (dimensionless)

7.1.9 Scaling Relationships

Quintiere's review of scaling relationships based on preserving the Froude number, Fr (defined as v/gl):

For the relationships in this section the following apply:

• Subscript m identifies value for small-scale model

• Subscript F identifies value for full-scale building
• l = characteristic length
Temperature
T m = TF

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

Geometric Position
l
x m = x F d lm n
F

where x = geometric position

Pressure
l
Dp m = Dp F d lm n
F

where Δp = pressure difference

Velocity
l 1/2
v m = v F d lm n
F

where v = velocity

Time
l 1/2
t m = t F d lm n
F

where t = time

Convective Heat Release

lm
5/2
Qo c, m = Qo c, F e o
lF
where Qo c = convective portion of heat-release rate of fire

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

Volumetric Flow Rate

5/2
l
Vfan, m = Vfan, F f lm p
F

where

Vfan, m = volumetric flow rate for small-scale model (m3/s)

Vfan, F = volumetric flow rate for full-scale building (m3/s)

lm = length for small-scale model (m)

lf = length for full-scale building (m)

7.1.10 Equivalent Width

Balcony spill plume:

L =w+b

where

L = width of balcony spill plume (m)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

w = width of balcony opening from area of origin (m)

b = distance from store opening to balcony edge (m)

7.1.11 Gas Species Concentration

MWair
ppm i = MW Yi # 10 6
i

where

ppmi = concentration (parts per million)

MWair = molecular weight of air (kg)

MWi = molecular weight of species i (kg)

Yi = mass fraction of gas species

7.1.12 Exposure to Toxic Gases

Approximate effects of exposure to toxic gases:

/ in 1 Ci ti
FED
LCt50
where

FED = fractional effective dose (dimensionless)

Ci = mass concentration of material burned at end of time interval i (lb/ft3 or g/m3)

Δti = time interval i (min)

LCt50 = lethal exposure dose from test data (lb-min/ft 3 of g-min/m3)

n = number of discrete concentration time pairs

7.1.13 Heat Exposure for Hyperthermia

n
/ t
FIth =
i1 exp _5.67 0.0152Ti i
n
/ t
FIth =
exp _5.185 0.0273Ti i
for SI units
i1

where

FIth = total cumulative dose (dimensionless)

Δt = time interval (min)

Ti = temperature of air in interval i (°F or °C)

7.2 Smoke
Where makeup air could come into contact with the plume, the maximum air velocity is 200 ft/min (1.02 m/s). A higher
makeup air velocity is permitted when supported by an engineering analysis.

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.1 Expansion Ratio

Vout Tqut 460

Vin Tin 460

Note: For SI Units, use 273 instead of 460

where

Vout = volumetric flow of smoke out of fire compartment (cfm or m3/s)

Vin = volumetric flow of air into fire compartment (cfm or m3/s)

Tout = temperature of smoke leaving fire compartment (°F or °C)

Tin = temperature of air entering fire compartment (°F or °C)

7.2.2 Optical Densities

Smoke-Filling
D m Qo
D
| a Hc A_ H z i
where

D = optical density per unit path length (m–1)

Dm = mass optical density (m2/kg)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

ca = combustion efficiency (dimensionless)

Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

A = cross-sectional area of atrium (m2)

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

Vented
D m Qo
D
c Hc d m
n
o

where

D = optical density per unit path length (m–1)

Dm = mass optical density (m2/kg)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

cc = combustion efficiency (dimensionless)

Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

mo = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)

ρ = density (kg/m3)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.3 Height of First Indication of Smoke for Steady Fires

JK : 1/3 NO
KK f 4/3 p OOO
KK tQ O
z KK H OO

H 0.67 0.28 ln KK A OO
KK d 2 n OO
H
L P
Note: For SI Units, use 1.11 instead of 0.67

where

z = height of first indication of smoke above base of fire (ft or m)

H = ceiling height above fire surface (ft or m)

t = time (sec)

Qo = heat-release rate from steady fire (Btu/sec or kW)

A = cross-sectional area (length × width) of space being filled with smoke (ft2 or m2)
A
= aspect ratio
H2
Steady Fire Smoke Layer Position
RS o 1/3 WVW 3/2
z SS 2k v tQ WW
H SSS1 A 4/3 W
SS 3 d H 2 n H WWW
T X
where

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

kv = volumetric entrainment constant (0.065 m4/3kW–1/3s–1)

t = time (s)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

A = cross-sectional area of atrium (m2)

t2 Fire Smoke Layer Position

RS 2/3 V 3/2
SS
d t n WWW
S 4k v t tg WW
z SS WW
H SS1 A
SS d 2 n H WW
4/3 W
S H W
T X
where

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

kv = volumetric entrainment constant (0.065 m4/3kW–1/3s–1)

t = time (s)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

tg = growth time (s)

A = cross-sectional area of the atrium (m2)

Functional Relationship of the Mass Entrainment Rate

mo = f `Qo 1c/3 z 5/3 j
where

mo = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)

Qo c = convective portion of heat-release rate of fire (kW)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

The limiting height (zf) may be estimated as

zf = 0.166Qo c2/5

For clear heights less than the limiting height (z < zf), the entrainment rate is

mo = 0.032Qo c3/5 z

For clear heights greater than or equal to the limiting height (z ≥ zf), the entrainment rate is

mo 0.071Qo 1c/3 z 5/3 0.0018Qo c

The validity of neglecting z0 in the above equation is based on the observation that z0 is typically small compared to z.

See Section 3.1.11 for calculation of virtual origin.

7.2.4 Height of First Indication of Smoke for Unsteady (or Growing) Fires

Note: For SI Units, use 0.91 instead of 0.23

where

z = height of first indication of smoke above fire surface (ft or m)

H = ceiling height above the surface (ft or m)

t = time (sec)

tg = growth time (sec) (time for fire to reach 1,000 Btu/sec or 1,055 kW)

A = cross-sectional area of smoke filled space (ft2 or m2)

7.2.5 Transport Lag

Steady Fire Plume Transport Lag

t pl = 0.67 H 4/3 Qo 1/3

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

t2 Fire Plume Transport Lag

t pl = 0.1H 4/5 t g2/5

Steady Fire Ceiling Jet Transport Lag

r11/6
tcj =
1.2Qo 1/3 H1/2

t2 Fire Ceiling Jet Transport Lag

0.72rt g2/5
tcj =
H1/5
For all:

tpl = plume transport lag (s)

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel (m)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

tg = growth time (s)

r = horizontal distance from plume centerline (m)

tcj = ceiling jet transport lag (s)

7.2.6 Mass Flow Rate if H > zl (Axisymmetric Plume)

Use where ambient temperature rise is more than 4°F.

z l = 0.533Q c2/5

where

z $ z l, m `0.022Q 1c/3 z 5/3 j 0.0042Qc

when

z 1 z l, m = 0.0208Q c3/5 z

where

zl = limiting elevation (ft)

Qc = convective portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

z = distance above base of fire to smoke layer interface (ft)

m = mass flow rate in plume at height z (lb/sec)

z l = 0.166Q c2/5

when

z $ z l, m = `0.071Q1c/3 z5/3 j + 0.0018Qc

when

z 1 z l, m = 0.032Q c3/5 z

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

where

zl = limiting elevation (m)

Qc = convective portion of heat-release rate (kW)

z = distance above base of fire to smoke layer interface (m)

m = mass flow rate in plume at height z (kg/s)

The convective portion of the heat-release rate of the fire must be determined as follows:

Qc = χQ

where

Qc = convective portion of heat-release rate of the fire (Btu/sec or kW)

χ = convective fraction (dimensionless)

Q = heat-release rate of the fire (Btu/sec or kW)

A value of 0.7 must be used for the convective fraction unless another value is substantiated in accordance with test data.
Source: NFPA 92, Smoke Control Systems, Sections 5.5.1.1–5.5.1.4.

7.2.7 Average Mass Vent Flow Rate of Fire Plume

m p _g i A v d 1/2
2 1/2

where

mp = mass flow rate of the plume (lb/sec)

ro = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)

g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)

Av = aerodynamic vent area (ft2)

d = depth of the smoke layer (ft)

7.2.8 Volumetric Flow Rate

60m
V

where

V = volumetric flow rate (ft3/min)

m = mass flow rate of plume at height z (lb/sec)

ρ = density of fluid (lb/ft3)

Ratio of Volumetric Flows

Vout Tout 460

Vin Tin 460
Vout Tout 273
fqr SI units
Vin Tin 273
©2020 NCEES 118
Chapter 7: Smoke Control

where

Vout = volumetric flow of smoke out of fire compartment (cfm or m3/s)

Vin = volumetric flow of air into fire compartment (cfm or m3/s)

Tout = temperature of smoke leaving fire compartment (°F or °C)

Tin = temperature of air entering fire compartment (°F or °C)

Relationship for Volumetric Rate and Mass Rate

mo
Vo = t

7.2.9 Density of Smoke

528
s
460 T
where

r0 = density of ambient air at sea level (0.0765 lb/ft3)

rs = density of smoke at temperature T (lb/ft3)

T = temperature of smoke (°F)

144Patm
s
R _ 460 T i

where

Patm = atmospheric pressure (14.696 psi)

R = gas constant (53.34)

rs = density of smoke at temperature T (lb/ft3)

T = temperature of smoke (°F)

Density of Air and Smoke

144p

R T 460 i
_
p

R _T 273 i
for SI units

where

ρ = density (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

p = pressure (lb/in2 or Pa)

R = gas constant [53.34 ft-lbf/lbm-°R or 287 J/kg-K]

T = temperature (°F or °C)

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.10 Maximum Flow Rate to Avoid Plugholing

1 1
T 2 T 2
p e o
5 T
m max 0.354d 2 f s
Ts Ts
where

mmax = maximum mass rate of exhaust without plugholing (lb/sec or kg/s)

b = exhaust location (dimensionless)

d = depth of smoke layer below exhaust inlet (ft or m)

Ts = absolute temperature of smoke layer (°R or K)

To = absolute temperature of ambient layer (°R or K)

Volumetric Flow Rate

T T 1/2
Vmax 452cd 5/2 d s T o n
o

Note: For SI Units, use 4.16 instead of 452

where

Vmax = maximum volumetric flow rate without plugholing at Ts (ft3/min or m3/s)

g = exhaust location factor

= 1 for exhaust inlets centered no closer than twice the diameter from nearest wall
0.5 for exhaust inlets centered less than twice the diameter from nearest wall
0.5 for exhaust inlets on a wall

d = depth of smoke layer below lowest point of exhaust inlet (ft or m)

Ts = absolute temperature of smoke layer (°R or K)

To = absolute temperature of ambient layer (°R or K)

7.2.11 Plume Rise

3/8
z m 3.79F1/4 G

where

zm = maximum rise of plume (m)

gQo c g d o
F T c and G e o
o o p o dz

where

g = gravity = 9.81 m/s2

Qo c = convective portion of heat-release rate (kW)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

r0 = density of ambient air at sea level (kg/m3)

©2020 NCEES 120

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

To = ambient temperature (K)

cp = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

For standard conditions and ideal gas behaviors:

dT
F = 0.0277 Qo c and G = 0.0335 dzq

Using simplified F and G above:

3/8
o 1/4 d Tn

z m 5.54Q c H
where H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

Minimum fire size for smoke to reach atrium ceiling without stratifying:

Qo c 0.00118H 5/2 T o3/2

7.2.12 Plume Width

d = 2.4αz

where

d = plume diameter (m)

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

where
, 0.15
d 0.36z

Handa and Sugawa Empirical Correlation

d = do z1/2

where do = diameter of fire (m)

7.2.13 Plume Diameter

T 1/2
d = 0.48 d Tc n z
o
where

Tc = temperature of plume centerline (K)

To = ambient temperature (K)

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

©2020 NCEES 121

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.14 Balcony Spill Plume—Air Entrainment

Where the height of the smoke layer is less than 15 m

mo 0.36 `QW
o 2 j1/3 _ z 0.25H i
b

where

W = width of balcony opening from area of origin (m)

zb = position of smoke layer interface above top of balcony (m)

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

Qo = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

mo = mass flow rate in plume (kg/s)

Where the height of the smoke layer is less than 15 m and the width of the plume is less than 10 m

mo 0.59Qo 1/3 W1/5 _ z b 0.17Wo 7/15 H 10.35W 7/15 15 i

7.2.15 Average Temperature of Fire Plume

Qo
Tp To mcc
p

where

Tp = average plume temperature at elevation z (°F)

To = ambient temperature (°F)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

m = mass flow rate of plume at height z (lb/sec)

cp = specific heat of plume gases (0.24 Btu/lb-°F)

7.2.16 Plume Centerline Temperature

Tc 0.08To Qo c2/3 z 5/3 To

where

Tc = temperature of plume centerline (K)

To = ambient temperature (K)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (kW)

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

Volumetric venting rate for other heat-release rates/temperature rises:

Qc1 V1 Tad1 T2

Qc2 V2 Tad2 T1

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Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.17 Temperature During Filling Period

_1 l i Q
T To exp > H
Qo
where
cl = heat-loss fraction from smoke to enclosure (dimensionless)

To = ambient temperature (K)

Q = total heat release (kJ)

Qo = ρo cp To A (H – z) (kJ)

where A = cross-sectional area of atrium (m2)

r0 = density of ambient air (kg/m3)

cp = specific heat (kJ/kg-K)

To = ambient temperature (K)

A = cross sectional area of atrium (m)

H = height of atrium (m)

Z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

7.2.18 Temperature Rise of Smoke Layer

_1 l i Qo c
T
c p mo
where
cl = heat-loss fraction from smoke to enclosure (dimensionless)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (kW)

mo = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s)

7.2.19 Species of Smoke

Smoke-Filling
fi Q
ϒi =
o a Hc A_ H z i
where

Q = total heat release (kJ)

r0 = density of ambient air (kg/m3)

ϒi = mass fraction of gas species i, in kg of species i per kg of smoke

fi = yield fraction of species i, in kg of species i per kg of fuel consumed

| a = combustion efficiency (dimensionless)

Hc = heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

A = cross-sectional area of atrium (m2)

©2020 NCEES 123

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

H = height of ceiling above top of fuel surface (m)

z = clear height, position of smoke layer interface above top of fuel surface (m)

Vented
fi Q
ϒi =
mo | a Hc

Q = total heat release (kJ)

mo = mass entrainment rate in plume (kg/s) [all others per above]

7.2.20 Smoke Layer Temperature

ks Qo c
Ts To mc
p

where

Ts = smoke layer temperature (°C)

To = ambient temperature (°C)

ks = fraction of convective heat release contained in smoke layer; assume that

ks = 1.0 unless another value is given

Qo c = convective portion of heat-release rate (kW)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

m = mass flow rate of plume at elevation z, distance above base of fire (kg/s)

cp = specific heat of plume gases (1.0 kJ/kg●°C)

7.2.21 Vented Fire Smoke Layer Temperature Change

860 _1 x1 i Qo cB
T o c p V
where

DT = temperature rise in smoke layer (°F)

x1 = total heat-loss factor from smoke layer to atrium boundaries (assume maximum temperature rise
will occur, ` x1 = 0)

Qo c = convective heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

Qo c = convection portion of heat-release rate (Btu/sec)

= 70% of Qo total = 0.7Qo

ro = density of ambient air (0.075 lb/ft3)

cp = specific heat of plume gases (0.241 Btu/lb-°F)

V = volumetric vent rate (ft3/min)

©2020 NCEES 124

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.2.22 Smoke Flow Across an Opening/Pressurization

where

V = volumetric airflow rate (ft3/min)

C = flow coefficient (0.65)

A = flow area (also leakage area) (ft2)

DP = pressure difference across flow path (in. H2O)

r = density of air entering the flow path (lb/ft3)

where

V = volumetric airflow rate (m3/s)

C = flow coefficient (0.65)

A = flow area (also leakage area) (m2)

DP = pressure difference across flow path (Pa)

r = density of air entering the flow path (kg/m3)

7.2.23 Flow Rate of Smoke Through a Vent

1 gd
2 o
2

where

ρ = density of smoke (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

ρo = density of ambient air (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

Δρ (kg/m3) = ρo – ρ

mo = ρAvu

where

mo = mass flow rate through vent (lb/sec or kg/s)

Av = flow area of vent (ft2 or m2)

g = gravitational acceleration (32.2 ft/sec2 or 9.8 m/s2)

To T 1/2
mo `2o2 g j e o A v d1/2
1/2

©2020 NCEES 125

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

Flow rate increases with smoke temperature and depth:

where

To = ambient air temperature (°R or K)

T = gas temperature (°R or K)

d = depth of smoke layer (ft or m)

7.2.24 Vent Area

Effect of inlet pressure can replace Av with effective vent area A v* :
1 1 1 c To m
A v) 2 A v2 A i2 T

Ratio of actual vent area to effective vent area, K:

1/2

) =1 d n G
Av Av 2 T
K Ai To
Av

7.3 Airflow
7.3.1 Airflow Rate for Pressure Differences—Barrier Leakage

where

V = volumetric flow rate (ft3/min)

Kf = coefficient (2,610)

A = flow area (ft2)

ΔP = pressure difference across flow path (in. H2O)

7.3.2 Critical Airflow Velocity for Smoke Control

VK = K V d n
Q 1/3
W
where

VK = critical air velocity to prevent smoke backflow (ft/min or m/s)

Q = heat-release rate into corridor (Btu/sec or kW)

W = corridor width (ft or m)

KV = coefficient (86.9 or 0.292)

©2020 NCEES 126

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.3.3 Velocity Required for Opposed Airflow Above Smoke Layer Interface
1/2
Tf To
ve 38 >gH e oH
Tf
where

ve = limiting air velocity (ft/min)

g = acceleration of gravity (32.2 ft/sec2)

H = height of opening as measured from top of fuel surface (ft)

Tf = temperature of heated smoke (°R)

To = temperature of ambient air (°R)

1/2
Tf To
ve 0.64 >gH e Tf
oH

where

ve = limiting air velocity (m/sec)

g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2)

H = height of opening as measured from top of fuel surface (m)

Tf = temperature of heated smoke (K)

To = temperature of ambient air (K)

7.3.4 Velocity Required for Opposed Airflow Below Smoke Layer Interface

ve = 17 c z m
Q 1/3

where

ve = limiting average air velocity (ft/min)

Q = heat-release rate of the fire (Btu/sec)

z = distance above base of fire to bottom of opening (ft)

ve = 0.057 d n
Q 1/3
z
where

ve = limiting average air velocity (m/s)

Q = heat-release rate of fire (kW)

z = distance above base of fire to bottom of opening (m)

©2020 NCEES 127

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.3.5 Capacity Required for Opposed Airflow

Volumetric capacity of mechanical equipment required to deliver necessary velocity for opposed airflow

voa = Ao ve

where

voa = volumetric flow rate (m3/s)

Ao = cross-sectional area of opening (m2)

ve = limiting average air velocity (m/s)

7.3.6 Leakage Area

1 1 1 1/2
Ae d n
A sr2 A ir2 A io2
where

Asr = leakage area between shaft and lobby (ft2 or m2)

Air = leakage area between building and lobby (ft2 or m2)

Aio = leakage area between building and outside (ft2 or m2)

Flow Areas of Walls and Floors of Commercial Buildings

Area Ratio
Construction Element Leakage Leakage Area per Unit Wall Area
in2/ft2 ft2/ft2 m2/m2
Tight 7.2 × 10–3 5.0 × 10–5 5.0 × 10–5
Exterior Building Walls (includes construction Average 2.5 × 10–2 1.7 × 10–4 1.7 × 10–4
cracks, cracks around windows and doors) Loose 5.0 × 10–2 3.5 × 10–4 3.5 × 10–4
Very loose 1.7 × 10–1 1.2 × 10–3 1.2 × 10–3
Tight 2.0 × 10–3 1.4 × 10–5 1.4 × 10–5
Stairwell Walls (includes construction cracks but not
Average 1.6 × 10 –2 1.1 × 10 –4 1.1 × 10–4
cracks around windows or doors)
Loose 5.0 × 10–2 3.5 × 10–4 3.5 × 10–4
Tight 2.6 × 10–2 1.8 × 10–4 1.8 × 10–4
Elevator Shaft Walls (includes construction cracks
Average 1.2 × 10–1 8.4 × 10–4 8.4 × 10–4
but not cracks around doors)
Loose 2.6 × 10–1 1.8 × 10–3 1.8 × 10–3
Leakage Area per Unit Floor Area
in2/ft2 ft2/ft2 m2/m2
Tight 9.5 × 10–4 6.6 × 10–6 6.6 × 10–6
Floors (includes construction cracks and gaps
Average 7.5 × 10–3 5.2 × 10–5 5.2 × 10–5
around penetrations)
Loose 2.4 × 10–2 1.7 × 10–4 1.7 × 10–4
Note: The data in this table are for use with the orifice equation with a flow coefficient of C = 0.65.
Floor leakage does not account for gaps that sometimes exist between the floor and curtain walls.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

©2020 NCEES 128

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.3.7 Limiting Average Velocity Through Communicating Space

ve = 17 d n
Q 1/3
z
where

ve = limiting air velocity (ft/min)

Q = heat-release rate of fire (Btu/sec)

z = distance above the base of the fire to the bottom of the opening (ft)

7.3.8 Elevator Pressurization

Pressure Differences Criteria for Elevator Pressurization Simulations
Minimum Maximum
System
in. H2O Pa in. H2O Pa
Pressurized elevators 0.10 25 0.25 62
Pressurized stairwells 0.10 25 0.35 87
The above criteria are for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the Handbook
of Smoke Control Engineering, and some projects may have different criteria depending on
code requirements and requirements of specific applications.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Flow Areas and Flow Coefficients of Doors Used for Elevator Pressurization Simulations
Flow Area
Flow Path Path Name Flow Coefficient
ft2 m2
Single door (closed) DOOR-SC 0.65 0.25 0.023
Single door (opened) DOOR-SO 0.35 21 2.0
Double door (closed) DOOR-DC 0.65 0.48 0.045
Double door (opened) DOOR-DO 0.35 42 3.9
Elevator door (closed) DOOR-EC 0.65 0.65 0.06
Elevator door (opened) DOOR-EO 0.65 6 0.56
The values in this table were chosen for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the Handbook of
Smoke Control Engineering. The flow areas and flow coefficients appropriate for a design analysis of a specific
building may be different.
The path name is an identifier used in the CONTAM simulations.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

©2020 NCEES 129

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.3.8.1 Leakage Factors

Flow Areas and Flow Coefficients of Leakages Used for Elevator Pressurization Simulations
Flow Flow Area
Flow Path Leakage Path Name
Coefficient ft2 per ft2 of Wall m2 per m2 of Wall
Tight WALL-EXT 0.65 0.5 x 10–4 0.5 x 10–4
Average 0.17 x 10–3 0.17 x 10–3
Exterior walls
Loose 0.35 x 10–3 0.35 x 10–3
Very loose 0.12 x 10–2 0.12 x 10–2
Interior walls Loose WALL 0.65 0.35 x 10–3 0.35 x 10–3
Tight FLOOR 0.65 0.66 x 10–5 0.66 x 10–5
Floor (or roof) Average 0.52 x 10–4 0.52 x 10–4
Loose 0.17 x 10–3 0.17 x 10–3
ft2 per ft of wall m2 per m of wall
Tight FLOORW 0.65 0.002 0.00061
Curtain wall gap
Loose 0.02 0.0061
The values in this table were chosen for the elevator simulations discussed in Chapter 11 of the Handbook of Smoke Control
Engineering. The flow areas and flow coefficients appropriate for a design analysis of a specific building may be different.
The path name is an identifier used in the CONTAM simulations.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

7.3.9 Elevator Piston Effect for Elevators

1.66 # 10 6 As Ae U
2
p u, ir e o
2 Aa Air Cc
As A e U
2
p u, ir 2 e o for SI units
Aa Air Cc
where

Dpu,ir = upper limit pressure difference from shaft to building (in. H2O or Pa)

ρ = air density in hoistway (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

AS = cross-sectional area of shaft (ft2 or m2)

Air = leakage area between building and lobby (ft2 or m2)

Aa = free area around elevator car (ft2 or m2)

Ae = effective area (ft2 or m2)

U = elevator car velocity (ft/min or m/s)

Cc = flow coefficient for flow around car (dimensionless)

Cc was determined experimentally to be 0.94 for multiple car hoistways and 0.83 for a single car hoistway. The free area
around the elevator car is the cross-sectional area of the shaft minus the cross-sectional area of the car.

©2020 NCEES 130

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

7.3.10 Stairwell Pressurization

by
PSB PSBb
ASB 2
1 d n
A BO
where

DPSB = P = pressure difference between stairwell and building (in. H2O) (92A T5.2.1.1)

DPSBb = S = pressure difference between stairwell and building at bottom of stairwell (in. H2O)

ASB = A = flow area between stairwell and building (ft2)

ABO = O = flow area between building and outside (ft2)

y = Y = distance above stairwell bottom (ft)

b Ks c T T m
1 1
O S

where

b = B = temperature factor (in. H2O/ft)

Ks = K = 7.64

TO = T = absolute temperature of outside air (°R)

TS = S = absolute temperature of stairwell air (°R)

where

Q = flow rate of pressurization air (ft3/min)

N = number of floors

ASB = A = flow area between stairwell and building (ft2)

r = P = density of air (0.075 lb/ft3)

DPSBb = B = pressure difference at bottom of stairwell (in. H2O)

DPSBt = T = pressure difference at top of stairwell (in. H2O)

Kq = 475

Orifice equation for analysis of pressurization smoke control systems:

Orifice equation for standard atmospheric pressure and mass flow at 70°F (21°C):

©2020 NCEES 131

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

where

m = mass flow through the path (lb/sec or kg/s)

msv = mass flow through the path (scfm or standard m3/s)

C = flow coefficient (dimensionless)

A = flow area (or leakage area) (ft2 or m2)

Δp = pressure difference across path (in. H2O or Pa)

ρ = gas density in flow path (lb/ft3 or kg/m3)

Orifice equation in terms of volumetric flow:

where V = volumetric flow through the path (cfm or m3/s)

7.3.11 Stairwell Pressurization Height Limitation

p max p min A 2
Hm Km =1 d SB n G
A BO
dT T n
1 1
O B

where

Hm = height limit (ft)

Dpmax = maximum allowable pressure difference between stairwell and building (in. H2O)

Dpmin = minimum allowable pressure difference between stairwell and building (in. H2O)

TO = absolute temperature of outside air (°R)

TB = absolute temperature of building air (°R)

ASB = flow area between stairwell and building (ft2)

ABO = flow area between building and outside (ft2)

Km = 0.131

FR ` p max p min j
H m 0.131
1 1
To 460 Ts 460

FR ` p max p min j
H m 2.89 # 10 4 for SI units
1 1
To 273 Ts 273
where

Hm = height limit (ft or m)

FR = flow area factor (dimensionless)

©2020 NCEES 132

Chapter 7: Smoke Control

Dpmax = maximum design pressure difference (in. H2O or Pa)

Dpmin = minimum design pressure difference (in. H2O or Pa)

Flow Area Factor

A SB
2
_TB 460 i
FR 1
A BO _TS 460 i
2

A SB
2
_TB 273 i
FR 1 2
A BO _TS 273 i
for SI units

where

ASB = flow area between stairwell and building (ft2 or m2)

ABO = flow area per stairwell between building and outside (ft2 or m2)

TS = temperature in stairwell (°F or °C)

TB = temperature in building (°F or °C)

©2020 NCEES 133

8 HAZARDOUS MATERIALS
8.1 Flammability
Flammable describes any solid, liquid, vapor, or gas that will ignite easily and burn rapidly. A flammable liquid is defined
by NFPA and USDOT as a liquid with a flash point below 100°F (38°C). Flammability limits are given by volume % in air.

8.1.1 Lower Flammable Limit

VLFL
LFL = 0.147
where

LFL = lower flammable limit

VLFL = vapor pressure of liquid at its LFL (psia)

V
LFL = 1.LFL
01
where

LFL = lower flammable limit

VLFL = vapor pressure of liquid at its LFL (kPa)

100V
LFL = P
where

LFL = lower flammable limit

V = vapor pressure of liquid at its LFL at ambient pressure

P = ambient pressure

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.1.1.1 Lower Flammable Limit Concentration of a Fuel Mixture

100
LFL m = n
C
/ e fi o
i=1
LFL i
where

Cf = volume percent of fuel gas i in fuel gas mixture

LFLi = lower flammable limit of fuel gas i

8.1.2 Flammable Vapor Concentrations (Le Chatelier's Rule)

1
LFL mix

/ j 1 e LFLj o
j
where

χj = molar concentration of fuel gas j in fuel mixture

LFLj = lower flammable limit of gas or vapor j

8.1.3 Flammable Vapor Concentrations

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

8.1.4 Volume of Vapor Production from Liquid

(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed., Section 6, Ch 12, p. 6-202.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

To calculate the volume of vapor produced by solvent:

specific gravity of liquid
USCS units: Vapor equivalent of 1 gal = 111 # vapor density of vapor

specific gravity of liquid

SI units: Vapor equivalent of 1 liter = 0.83 # vapor density of vapor

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.1.5 Volume of Air Required to Maintain Lower Flammable Limit

(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed., Section 6, Ch 12, p. 6-202.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

ft 3 barely explosive mixture ft 3 mixture 100 − LELT

USCS units: Volume of air required = =e od n
gal of solvent gal solvent LELT
m 3 barely explosive mixture 100 − LELT
d m mixture nd n
3
SI units: Volume of air required = L qf solvent = L solvent LELT
where

LELT = lower explosive limit expressed in percent by volume in air, corrected for temperature other than STP

8.1.6 Aerosols
(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed., Section 6, Ch 16, p. 6-259. Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights
thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the
standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

Aerosol classification levels are based on the total chemical heat of combustion (ΔHc) and are

Level 1 = total chemical heat of combustion equal to or less than 8,600 Btu/lb or 20 kJ/g

Level 2 = total chemical heat of combustion greater than 8,600 Btu/lb or 20 kJ/g, and less than or equal to
13,000 Btu/lb or 30 kJ/g

Level 3 = total chemical heat of combustion greater than 13,000 Btu/lb or 30 kJ/g

Total heat of combustion is determined by summing the products of the component percentage and the component heat of
combustion:

Total ΔHc = / _Hc # % volume i

8.1.7 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Classifications

Class IA Closed-cup flash point < 73°F (23°C); boiling point < 100°F (38°C)

Class IB Closed-cup flash point < 73°F (23°C); boiling point ≥ 100°F (38°C)

Class IC Closed-cup flash point ≥ 73°F (23°C) and < 100°F (38°C)

Class II Closed-cup flash point ≥ 100°F (38°C) and < 140°F (60°C)

Class IIIA Closed-cup flash point ≥ 140°F (60°C) and < 200°F (93°C)

Class IIIB Closed-cup flash point ≥ 200°F (93°C)

8.2 Vapor Clouds

8.2.1 Spill Rate—Dispenser
A valve remaining unintentionally open would spill liquid on the ground at a rate determined by a pump or by the pipe
system upstream of the valve.

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.2.2 Spill Rate—Pressurized Liquid

Use the orifice-flow equation:

mo CA 2 _ Pl Pa gh i

where

mo = vapor source mass flow rate (kg/s)

ρ = liquid density (kg/m3)

Pl = pressure of liquid (Pa)

Pa = ambient pressure (Pa)

A = area of orifice opening (m2)

h = elevation of liquid above orifice (m)

C = discharge coefficient (assumed to be ~0.60)

g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)

8.2.3 Spill Area and Thickness

Assume the liquid spreads instantaneously either to cover the entire containment area or to reach the minimum pool thick-
ness (when the spill is uncontained). In most applications, the surface roughness of the concrete or soil where the liquid has
spilled dominates the surface tension effects. Examples of minimum pool heights are

Substrate Minimum Pool Height (hmin)

Dry soil 2 cm (0.8 in)
Wet soil 1 cm (0.4 in)
Concrete 0.5 cm (0.2 in)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

8.3 Explosions
Protection from explosions that produce shock waves (detonations, waves traveling at or above the speed of sound) must be
handled differently than explosions producing slower-pressure waves (deflagrations).

8.3.1 Pressure Damage Thresholds

Pressure Damage Thresholds for Buildings

Pressure (kPa) Damage Description
3.5–7 Small and large windows usually shattered
7–15 Wood and aluminum panel fasteners failed; panels buckled or blown out
15–20 Unreinforced concrete and cinderblock walls shattered
20 Steel frame buildings distorted and pulled away from foundations
20–28 Self-framing steel panel building demolished
35–50 Nearly complete destruction of houses
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

Blast Damage—Overpressure Correlation

Pressure (kPa) Type of Damage
0.1–0.3 Minimum damage to glass panels
1–1.5 Typical window glass breakage
3.5–7.5 Windows shattered, plaster cracked, minor damage to buildings
5 Brick walls – minor damage
7–10 Person knocked down
7–15 Wood and aluminum panels fasteners failed; panels buckled or blown out
7.5–12.5 Panels of sheet metal buckled
7.5–15 Failure of wooden siding in conventional homes
12.5–20 Failure of walls constructed of concrete blocks or cinder blocks
14 Brick walls – major damage
15–20 Unreinforced concrete and cinderblock walls shattered
20 Steel frame buildings distorted and pulled away from foundation
20–28 Self-framing steel panel building demolished
20–30 Oil storage tanks ruptured
20–31 Wood frame buildings collapsed
27 Cladding of light industrial buildings ruptured
30–50 Utility poles broken off
30–50 Serious damage to buildings with structural steel framework
35–50 Nearly complete destruction of houses
40–60 Reinforced concrete structures severely damaged
40–60 Railroad cars overturned
200–500 Probable total destruction of most buildings
205 Steel towers blown down
606 Crater damage
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

8.3.2 Blast Wave Energy

E Hc m F

where

E = blast wave energy (kJ)

α = yield fraction of available combustion energy participating in blast wave generation (conservative value
is 0.5)

DHc = theoretical net heat of combustion (kJ/kg)

mF = mass of flammable vapor released (kg)

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.3.3 TNT Mass Equivalent

E
WTNT = 4, 200

where

WTNT = equivalent weight of TNT (kg)

E = blast wave energy (kJ)

1 kg TNT has an explosive energy of 4,200 (kJ/kg)

8.3.4 Blast Wave Energy of a BLEVE

A boiling-liquid expanding-vapor explosion (BLEVE) is defined as

E m _u r ua i

where

E = blast wave energy (kJ)

m = mass of liquid in vessel (kg)

ur = internal energy (per unit mass) of liquid at rupture (kJ/kg)

ua = internal energy (per unit mass) of vapor after expansion (kJ/kg)

8.3.5 Fireball Size and Dynamics—Originating from a BLEVE

The maximum size of a fireball is governed primarily by the mass of the fuel released and vaporized. Although the fireballs
are rarely spherical, an equivalent spherical volume is widely used to characterize the size of a fireball. The maximum
diameter of the equivalent spherical fireball is given by

D = 5.8 m1/3

where

D = maximum diameter (m)

m = mass of fuel (kg)

The maximum ﬁreball diameter is independent of the initial pressure of the fuel, as long as the pressure and temperature are
sufﬁcient to vaporize the fuel.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

8.3.6 Burning Duration of a Fireball—Originating from a BLEVE

8.3.6.1 For Momentum-Dominated Fireballs
td = 0.45 m1/3

where

td = duration of burning (s)

m = mass of fuel (kg) (< 30,000 kg)

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.3.6.2 For Buoyancy-Dominated Fireballs

As would be expected, for atmospheric pressure releases:

td = 2.6 m1/6
where
td = duration of burning (s)

m = mass of fuel (kg) (> 30,000 kg)

8.3.7 Time to Fireball Liftoff

The time to ﬁreball liftoff is given by

te = 1.1 m1/6
where
te = time to liftoff (s)

m = mass of fuel (kg)

8.3.8 Fireball Exposure to Target (Point Source Method)

Z p = 12.73V va
1/3

828m 0.771
q max =
R2
where
Zp = rise of center of fireball above tank (m)

Vva = fuel vapor volume (m3)

qmax = peak thermal radiation from fireball (kW/m2)

m = mass of fuel (kg)

R = distance from center of fireball to target (m)

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.4 Explosion Venting

Equations in this section are based on the 2007 edition of NFPA 68 and do not reflect the transition to the more complicated
calculations that use modeling.

8.4.1 Minimum Pred for Nonrelieving Wall Construction

Minimum Pred = Pstat + 0.024 bar (or 50 psf or 0.35 psig)

Pstat = vent deployment pressure, in bar g, in response to slowly increasing (static) pressure

Pred = reduced pressure (less than Pmax) in enclosure because of venting (bar g)

8.4.2 Vent Area for Low-Strength Enclosures

Minimum recommended vent area for venting of low-strength enclosures from gases, gas mixtures, and mists:
C _ As i
Av =
_ Pred i
1/2

where

Av = minimum vent area (ft2 or m2)

C = fuel constant or venting parameter (psi1/2 or bar1/2) (found in NFPA 68, 7.2.2.1)

As = internal surface area of enclosure including floor, roof, and all walls (ft2 or m2)

Pred = maximum pressure to be attained during vented deflagration (psi or bar)(must be ≤ 1.5 psi or 0.1 bar)

C = venting equation constant, given as a function of laminar burning velocity for different gases (bar1/2 or psi1/2)

For psi1/2: C = (6.1 × 10–5) ` S u2 j + (6.1 × 10–4)(Su ) + 0.0416

For bar1/2: C = (1.57 × 10–5) ` S u2 j + (1.57 × 10–4)(Su ) + 0.0109

where Su = fuel fundamental burning velocity (cm/s) (must be less than 60 cm/s)

8.4.3 Vent Area for High-Strength Enclosures

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 6.4.3.6.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

D = 4e o
Aeff
p
where

D = equivalent diameter

Aeff = cross-sectional area, normal to the longest dimension

p = perimeter of cross-section

For L/D ratio

D = equivalent diameter (or actual diameter, for cylindrical enclosure)

L = longest dimension of the enclosure (measured to the center of the vent)

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

L
For D # 2 and volume # 1,000 m3:

A v 8_0.127 log10 KG 0.0567 i P red _ Pstat 0.1 iBV 2/3

0.582 0.572
0.175 P red

where

Av = vent area (m2)

KG = deflagration index of gas (bar●m/s) # 550

Pred # 2 bar and at least 0.05 bar greater than Psta

Pstat # 0.5 bar

V = enclosure volume (m3)

L
For 2 1 D 1 5 , and Pred # 2.0 bar, additional vent area must be added to Av:

A v KG ;a D k 2E
L 2

DA 750
Final Av = DA + Av

8.4.4 Vent Area Threshold Mass

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Equation 8.2.7.2.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

0.2 _ 0.3 i
M T = =6.67 _ P red i n d V
1.67
nG
K st0.5
where

MT = threshold mass (kg/m2)

Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)

n = number of panels

V = enclosure volume (m3)

Kst = deflagration index (bar●m/s)

8.4.5 Venting One End of Elongated Enclosure

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Sections 7.2.3.3 and 7.2.3.4.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)
A
L3 # 12 p

where

L3 = longest dimension of the enclosure

A = cross-sectional area through which burning mixture must vent

p = perimeter of that cross section

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

For highly turbulent gas mixtures, the length-to-diameter ratio should not exceed 2:
A
L3 # 8 p

8.4.6 Effects of Vent Ducts (Cubical Vessels)

P red A v 1.6 L
1 =17.3 d 0.753 n DG
"

Pred V
where

P red
"
= pressure during a vented deflagration with vent duct in place (bar)

Pred = pressure during a vented deflagration without vent duct (bar)

Av = vent area (m2)

V = enclosure volume (m3)

L = duct length (m)

D = equivalent diameter of vent duct (m)

8.4.7 Venting of Deflagrations of Dusts and Hybrid Mixtures

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 8.2.2.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

where

Av0 = vent area (m2)

Pstat = nominal static burst pressure of vent (bar)

Kst = deflagration index (bar●m/s)

V = enclosure volume (m3)

Pmax = maximum pressure of deflagration (bar)

Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)

Equation is valid for:

1. 5 bar # Pmax # 12 bar

2. 10 bar●m/s ≤ Kst ≤ 800 bar•m/s
3. 0.1 m3 # V # 10,000 m3
4. Pstat # 0.75 bar

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

L
See Section 8.4.3 for D ratio
L
When D # 2, Av1 shall be set equal to Av0.
L
For 2 # D # 6, Av1 shall be calculated as:

A v1 A v0 ;1 0.6 a D 2 k exp _ 0.95 P red iE

L 0.75
2

8.4.8 Partial Volume Deflagrations (PVDs)

(Source: NFPA 68, Standard on Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting, Section 8.3.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

KJK Pred ONO

1/2
e
K r PX o O
K max O
A vpv A v0 X r 1/3 KKK OO
KK e1 Pred o OOO
K Pmax O
L P
where

Avpv = required vent area for PVD (m2)

Av0 = required vent area for entire enclosure if filled with ignitable mixture (m2)

Xr = fill fraction at the time of PVD

Pmax = maximum pressure of deflagration (bar)

Pred = reduced pressure after deflagration (bar)

P
P = P red
max

8.4.9 Deflagration Index

The deflagration index, K, is computed from the maximum rate of pressure rise attained by combustion in a closed vessel
with volume, V, and is defined by

K = c dT m
dP # V1/3
max

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.5 Dusts
8.5.1 Flammability of Dusts
(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook 20th ed., p. 6-147.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

The flammability of dust can be defined with six classes:

Class 1: No self-sustained combustion

Class 2: Local combustion of a short duration

Class 3: Local sustained combustion but no propagation

Class 4: Propagating, smoldering combustion

Class 5: Propagating open flame

Class 6: Explosive combustion

The class is determined through testing. A sample of the dust (a ridge 2 cm wide × 4 cm long) is ignited at one end with a
1,000°C gas flame or platinum wire (glowing). The class number relates to a modified test procedure. With the modified test,
material may show flame propagation instead of melting due to the mixing of dust with diatomaceous earth (20% by weight).

8.5.2 Ignition Sensitivity

(Source: NFPA Fire Protection Handbook, 20th ed.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

The ignition sensitivity and explosion severity of a dust are defined as

(Ti # E m # C m) Pittsburgh coal dust
IS = (T # E # C )
i m m sample dust
(Pmax # R max) sample dust
ES = (P # R )
max max Pittsburgh coal dust

where

Ti = ignition temperature of dust cloud

Em = minimum ignition energy of dust cloud

Cm = minimum concentration for combustible dust cloud

Pmax = maximum explosion pressure

Rmax = maximum rate of pressure rise in test apparatus

Chapter 8: Hazardous Materials

8.5.3 Explosibility of Data Powders and Dusts

Min. cloud Min. layer
Median Min. explosive Minimum
ignition ignition Pmax Kst
Material particle concentration ignition energy
temperature temperature (bar●m) (bar●m/s)
size (μm) (g/m3) (mJ)
(°C) (°C)
Activated carbon 18 60 790 >450 - 8.8 44
Aluminum powder <10 60 560 430 - 11.2 515
Aluminum shavings 240 No ignition
Ascorbic acid 39 60 460 melts - 9.0 111
Calcium stearate <10 30 580 >450 16 9.2 99
Coal, bituminous 4 60 510 260 - 9.1 59
Corn starch <10 - 520 >450 300 10.2 128
Epoxy resin 26 30 510 melts - 7.9 129
Fructose 200 60 440 440 180 7.0 28
Iron from filter 12 500 580 >450 - 5.2 50
Magnesium 28 30 - - - 17.5 508
Methyl cellulose 37 30 410 450 29 10.1 209
Milk powder 165 60 460 330 75 8.1 90
Napthalene 95 15 660 >450 <1 8.5 178
Paper tissue dust 54 30 540 300 - 8.6 52
Phenolic resin <10 15 610 >450 - 9.3 129
Polyethylene, 1.d. <10 30 420 melts - 8.0 156
Polyethylene, 1.d. 150 125 480 melts - 7.4 54
Polyvinylchloride 25 125 750 >450 - 9.3 129
Rubber 80 30 500 230 13 8.5 138
Silicon <10 125 >850 >450 54 10.2 126
Sugar 10 60 440 melts 14 8.3 75
Sulfur 20 30 280 - 6.8 151
Toner 23 60 530 melts 8 8.8 145
Wood from chip board 43 60 490 320 - 9.2 102
Zinc <10 250 570 440 - 6.7 125
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

8.5.4 Fireball Hazard

D = K c Vn m
1/3

where

D = axial distance (front) from vent (ft or m) and diameter of fireball at that distance

K = flame length factor: 10 for metal dusts, 8 for agricultural dusts

V = volume of vented enclosure (ft3 or m3)

n = number of vents

9 PASSIVE BUILDING SYSTEMS
9.1 General
During the course of a fire, structures must maintain their integrity for a sufficient period of time to allow for evacuation
and firefighting operations. In performance-based codes, these goals are defined by estimated time for evacuation and
firefighting operations based on one or more selected design fires for the occupancy.

9.1.1 Fire Load

Fire load is a measure of the maximum heat release if all the combustibles in a defined area burn to completion. This load
is determined by multiplying the mass of each combustible with the heat of combustion. Fire load includes combustible
contents, interior finish, floor finish, and structural elements and is generally expressed in lb/ft2 or kg/m2.

9.1.2 Analytical Method for Fire Resistance

A broad-based analytical method for ﬁre resistance will consider three aspects:

1. Fire exposure
2. Heat transfer
3. Structural response
The two most important ﬁre effects that alter a structure's resistance from that at ambient are the high-temperature
degradation of its mechanical properties (strength and stiffness) and thermally induced strains. These cause softening,
weakening, and damage to even noncombustible construction materials and directly lead to a progressive reduction of load-
carrying resistance at higher temperatures. Meanwhile, ﬁre-induced thermal elongations can

1. Lead to displacements so large that they inﬂuence the effects of action (a term used to designate bending moments,
axial forces, or shear forces) in the structure, or
2. When restrained, generate additional effects of action, typically in the form of compressive forces
These dual responses demonstrate that ﬁre is clearly time-dependent with effects on both the load and the resistance sides
of the equation for strength limit. Similar to the real-time history response of a structure subjected to an earthquake, load-
resistance interactions exist that usually give rise to nonlinear structural behavior and permanent distortions/damage.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

Factors to be considered and evaluated in a structural analysis:

• Local member or frame instability

• Floor slab effects
• Thermal strains
• Tensile membrane action of composite floors
• Connection moment-rotation behavior
• Nonuniform heating
• Material strength limit states
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.1.3 Fire Endurance Rules—Harmathy's Ten Rules of Fire Endurance

In all figures t represents time in no particular units.

FIRE FIRE

t1 t2 t12 t1 t2 t1 t2 t1 t2
t12 > t1 + t2 t2 > t1 t2 > t1 t2 > t1
RULE 1 RULE 2 RULE 3 RULE 4
HIGH CONDUCTIVITY

HIGH CONDUCTIVITY
LOW CONDUCTIVITY

LOW CONDUCTIVITY

FIRE FIRE FIRE FIRE

MOIST

t1 t2 t1 t2 t1 t2 t1 DRY t2
t1 ≈ t2 t1 > t12 t1 ≠ t2 t1 > t2
RULE 5 RULE 6 RULE 7 RULE 8

BEAM TESTED AS BEAM TESTED FOR THE FLOOR FOR A BEAM WHEN
PART OF FLOOR SEPARATELY ASSEMBLY TESTED SEPARATELY

t1 t2

t1 t2 A B
t 1> t 2 BEAM A CAN BE REPLACED BY BEAM B IF t 2 > t 1
RULE 9 RULE 10

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.1.4 Time-Temperature Curve—General

2400

1200
2000 STANDARD
TIME-TEMPERATURE
1000
CURVE
1600
20 psf (98 kg/m²)

TEMPERATURE (°C)
800
TEMPERATURE (°F)

15 psf (73 kg/m²)

1200
600

FIRE LOAD = 10 psf

800
(49 kg/m²) 400

400 200

FORCED VENTILATION 4800 cfm (135.9 m³ per min.)

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
TIME (min)

ASTM E119 Standard Fire and Real Fire Time-Temperature Curves

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.1.5 ASTM E119

9.1.5.1 ASTM E119 Time-Temperature Curve
2400
1315.6

2200
1204.4

2000
1093.3

1800
982.2

1600
871.1
TEMPERATURE (°C)
TEMPERATURE (°F)

1400 760.0

1200 648.8

1000 537.8

800 426.7

600 315.6

400 204.4

200 93.3

0 17.8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TIME (hr)

ASTM E119 Standard Time-Temperature Curve

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.1.5.2 Key Points on the Standard Time-Temperature Curve

From the ASTM E119 standard time-temperature curve:

Time Temperature (°F)

5 minutes 1,000
10 minutes 1,300
30 minutes 1,550
1 hour 1,700
2 hours 1,850
4 hours 2,000
8 hours & over 2,300

9.1.5.3 ASTM E119 Test Endpoint Criteria

Maximum
Structural Member Location Temperature
°F (°C)
Walls/partitions (bearing and nonbearing) Unexposed side
Average 250 (139) a
Single point 325 (181) a
Steel columns Average 1,000 (538)
Single point 1,200 (649)
Floor/roof assemblies and loaded beams Unexposed side
Average 250 (139) a
Single point 325 (181) a
Steel beam
Average 1,100 (593)
Single point 1,300 (704)
Prestressing steel 800 (426)
Reinforcing steel 1,100 (593)
Open-web steel joists 1,100 (593)
Steel beams/girders (not loaded) Average 1,000 (538)
Single point 1,200 (649)
a Maximum temperature cited refers to maximum temperature rise about initial conditions.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.1.6 Flame Spread Index

Class A Class B Class C
Flame spread index 0–25 26–75 76–200
Smoke development index 0–450 0–450 0–450

Category Test 1 Test 2/Comments

Noncombustible ASTM E136 NR
Noncombustible ASTM E2652 Pass/fail criteria per ASTM E136
Structural base is NC, surfacing
Limited Combustible NFPA 259 potential heat <= 3500 Btu/lb
<= 1/8 in. and has FSI <= 50
Limited Combustible NFPA 259 potential heat <= 3500 Btu/lb FSI <= 25
ASTM E2652 a) PHRR <= 150 kW/m2 for
Limited Combustible NR
<= 10 seconds and b) THR <= 8 MJ/m2
NR – not required PHRR – peak heat-release rate
FSI – flame spread index THR – total heat released
NC – noncombustible
Source: NFPA 220, Standard on Types of Building Construction, Sections 4.1.5 and 4.1.6.

9.2 Steel
The following types of calculation methods are available to assess the ﬁre resistance of steel structural members:

1. Empirical correlations
2. Heat-transfer analyses
3. Structural analyses
The principal material properties of interest are yield strength, ultimate strength, modulus of elasticity, coefﬁcient of
thermal expansion, density, speciﬁc heat, and thermal conductivity.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.2.1 Yield Strength

For 0 < T ≤ 600°C:
T
yT 1 y0
900 ln c 1 750 m
T
,
T
ET 1 E0
2, 000 ln c 1 100 m
T
,
For T > 600°C:
340 0.34T
yT y0
T 240
690 0.69T
ET T
53.5 E0

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

For any temperature:

T (0.04T 12) # 10 6
where

σyT = yield strength temperature T (psi or MPa)

σy0 = yield strength at 68°F or 20°C (psi or MPa)

ET = modulus of elasticity at temperature T (psi or MPa)

E0 = modulus of elasticity at 68°F or 20°C (psi or MPa)

αT = coefficient of thermal expansion at temperature T (ft/ft °F or m/m °C)

T = steel temperature (°F or °C)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.2.2 Temperature Effects on Properties of ASTM A36 Steel

1.0

0.8
PROPORTION OF PROPERTY
AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

0.6

0.4

MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
0.2
YIELD STRENGTH

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
TEMPERATURE (°C)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.2.3 Insulation of Steel Members

Insulation of steel is achieved by surrounding the steel with materials that preferably have the following characteristics:

1. Noncombustibility and the added attribute of not producing smoke or toxic gases when subjected to elevated
temperatures
2. Thermal protective capability when subjected to elevated temperatures
3. Product reliability giving positive assurance of consistent, uniform protection characteristics
4. Availability in a form that permits efﬁcient and uniform application
5. Sufﬁcient bond strength and durability to prevent either dislodgement or surface damage during normal
construction operations
6. Resistance to weathering or erosion resulting from atmospheric conditions
In addition to the insulating qualities of the protection materials, chemical reactions may occur in the insulation,
further reducing the rate of heat transfer. The chemical reactions include calcination, ablation, intumescence, thermal
hydrogeneration, and sublimation. Insulating methods include the use of board products, spray-applied materials, and
concrete encasement.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.4 Heated Perimeter (D) for Steel Columns

b c b

a a

D = 2(a + b) D = 4a + 2b – 2c

b b

D = 2(a + b) D = 4b

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.5 Fire Endurance Equations for Steel Columns

Empirical Equations for Steel Columns
Member/Protection Solution Symbols
R = 10.3 (W/D)0.7, for W/D < 10 R = fire endurance time (min)
Column/unprotected R = 8.3 (W/D)0.8, for W/D ≥ 10 W = weight of steel section per linear foot (lb/ft)
(for critical temperature of 1,000°F) D = heated perimeter (in.)
Column/ R = fire endurance time (min)
R = 130 c
hW l /D m0.75
gypsum wallboard 2 h = thickness of protection (in.)
50hD
where W l W 144 W l = weight of steel section and gypsum wallboard
(lb/ft)

Column/spray-applied materi- R = fire endurance time (min)

als and some board products— R 8C1 _W D i C 2Bh C1 and C2 = constants for specific protection material
wide flange shapes
R = fire endurance time (min)
C1 and C2 = constants for specific protection material
The A/P ratio of a circular pipe is determined by
A t_d t i

P pipe d
where
Column/spray-applied materi- d = outer diameter of pipe (in.)
R C1 c P m h C 2
A t = wall thickness of pipe (in.)
als and some board products—
hollow sections The A/P ratio of a rectangular or square tube is
determined by
A t _ a b 2t i

P tube ab
where
a = outer width of tube (in.)
b = outer length of tube (in.)
t = wall thickness of tube (in.)
R0 = fire endurance at zero moisture content of
concrete (hr)
m = equilibrium moisture content of concrete
(% by volume)
bf = width of flange (in.)
R = R0(1 + 0.03m) d = depth of section (in.)
where kc = thermal conductivity of concrete at ambient
Column/concrete cover or temperature in (Btu/hr-ft-°F)
R0 0.17 c D m 0.28 f 0.2 p
W 0.7 h 1.6
encased kc H = thermal capacity of steel section at ambient
temperature (if covered, = 0.11 W Btu/ft-°F;
# *1 26 > H 4
H
0.8
if encased, = 0.11 W + [(rrcc)/144] (bf d – As)
r cc h _ L h i
cc = specific heat of concrete at ambient temperature
(Btu/lb-°F)
L = inside dimension of one side of square concrete
box protection (in.); if encased, L = (bf + d)/2
As = cross-sectional area of steel column (in2)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.6 Heated Perimeter (D) for Beams

a b

tw d d

bf bf

D = 3bf + 2d – 2tw D = 2d + bf

CONTOUR PROTECTION BOX PROTECTION

Heated Perimeter for Steel Beams

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.2.7 Beam or Column Substitution

JK W2 NO
KK 0.6 OO
D
h1 KKK W2 OO h
KK 1 0.6 OOO
2

D1
L P
where

h = thickness of spray-applied fire protection (in.)

W = weight of steel beam (lb/ft)

D = heated perimeter of steel beam (in.)

Subscripts:

1 = substitute beam and required protection thickness

2 = beam and protection thickness specified in referenced tested design or tested assembly

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.8 Heated Perimeter (D) of Steel Trusses

d
tw
d

bf bf

D = 3b f + 2d – 2t w D = b f + 2d

tw d b
t

a
bf c

D = 4b f + 2d – 2t w D = 4a + 2b + 2c

tw d d

bf bf
a a
D = 8b f + 2d + 2a – 4t w D = 4b f + 2d + 2a

Heated Perimeter for Steel Truss Shapes

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.2.9 Steel Truss Protection

Practical Guidelines for Thickness of Gypsum
Typical Fire Protection Methods for Steel Trusses Wallboard for Steel Truss Envelope Protection
Truss Fire Protection Method Fire Gypsum Wallboard
Type Membrane Envelope Individual Element Endurance (hr) X Type
Transfer — X X 1 5/8" (16 mm) 5/8" (16 mm)
Staggered — X X 2 1-1/4" (32 mm) —
Interstitial X X X 3 — 1-1/2" (38 mm)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.10 Unprotected Steel Member Temperature Rise

The equation for temperature rise during a short period, DT, is:

_Tf Ts i t

Ts
cs c D m
W

where

DTs = temperature rise in steel (°F or °C)

α = heat-transfer coefficient from exposure to steel member (Btu/sec-ft2-°R or W/m2●K)

D = heater perimeter (ft or m)

cs = steel specific heat (Btu/lb-°F or J/kg●°C)

W = steel weight per linear foot (lb/ft or kg/m)

Tf = fire temperature (°R or K)

Ts = steel temperature (°R or K)

∆t = time step (sec)

9.2.10.1 Heat-Transfer Coefficient

α = αr + αc

where

ac = convective heat-transfer coefficient = (9.8 × 10–4) to (1.2 × 10–3) Btu/sec-ft2-°R4, or 20 to 25 W/m2●K4

ar = radiative heat-transfer coefficient

C1 f
r T T _T f4 T s4 i
f s

where

C1 = 4.76 × 10–13 Btu/sec-ft2-°R4, or 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2●K4

εf = effective emissivity (see table below)

Effective Emissivity
Effective
Type of Construction
Emissivity
1. Column exposed to fire on all sides 0.7
2. Column outside facade 0.3
3. Floor girder with floor slab of concrete, only the underside of the bottom flange 0.5
being directly exposed to fire
4. Floor girder with floor slab on the top flange:
Girder of 1 section for which the width-depth ratio is not less than 0.5 0.5
Girder of 1 section for which the width-depth ratio is less than 0.5 0.7
Box girder and lattice girder 0.7
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.2.11 Protected Steel Member Temperature Rise

kc
Ts _Tf Ts i t
cs h c D m
W

where

DTs = temperature rise in steel (°F or °C)

D = heater perimeter (ft or m)

cs = steel specific heat (Btu/lb-°F or J/kg●°C)

ki = thermal conductivity of insulation material (Btu/ft-hr-°F or W/m●°C)

h = protection thickness (ft or m)

W = steel weight per linear foot (lb/ft or kg/m)

Tf = fire temperature (°R or K)

Ts = steel temperature (°R or K)

∆t = time step (sec)

9.3 Concrete/Masonry
9.3.1 Thermal Properties of Concrete at 70°F
Normal-Weight Concrete Structural Lightweight Concrete

Thermal Conductivity (k) 0.95 Btu/ft-hr-°F (1.64 W/m●K) 0.35 Btu/ft-hr-°F (0.61 W/m●K)

Specific Heat (c) 0.20 Btu/lb-°F (835 J/kg●K) 0.20 Btu/lb-°F (835 J/kg●K)

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.3.2 Fire Endurance of a Concrete Slab

SLAB THICKNESS (mm)

50 75 100 125 150 175

5
STRUCTURAL CONCRETES

4
LIGHTWEIGHT
FIRE ENDURANCE (hr)

3
SAND-LIGHTWEIGHT

2
AIR-COOLED SLAG

CARBONATE
1

SILICEOUS

0
2 3 4 5 6 7
SLAB THICKNESS (in.)

Effect of Thickness and Type of Aggregate, Based on Heat Transmission

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

THICKNESS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE BASE SLAB (mm)

0 25 50 75 100 125 0 25 50 75 100 125
5 125
CARBONATE SILICEOUS

OVERLAY THICKNESS (mm)

OVERLAY THICKNESS (in.)

4 OVERLAY OVERLAY 100

4 hr
3 3 4 hr 75
3
2
2 1 2 50
1
1 25

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
THICKNESS OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE BASE SLAB (in.)
NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE OVERLAY ON LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE SLAB

LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE

NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE

THICKNESS OF NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE BASE SLAB (mm)

0 25 50 75 100 125 0 25 50 75 100 125
125
5 CARBONATE SILICEOUS

OVERLAY THICKNESS (mm)

BASE SLAB
OVERLAY THICKNESS (in.)

BASE SLAB
4 100

4 hr 4 hr 75
3
3 3
2 2 2 50
1 1
1 25

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
THICKNESS OF NORMAL-WEIGHT CONCRETE BASE SLAB (in.)
LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE OVERLAY ON NORMAL WEIGHT CONCRETE SLAB

Fire Endurance of Base Slabs and Overlays of Normal-Weight or

Lightweight Concretes, Based on Heat Transmission
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.3.3 Concrete Column Fire Resistance

Minimum Column Dimension for Fire Resistance Rating, in inches (mm)
1 hr 1.5 hr 2 hr 3 hr 4 hr
Semi-lightweight 8 (200) 8.5 (216) 9 (225) 10.5 (270) 12 (305)
Siliceous 8 (200) 9 (225) 10 (255) 12 (305) 14 (356)
Carbonate 8 (200) 9 (225) 10 (255) 11 (280) 12 (305)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.4 Timber/Wood
9.4.1 Fire Resistance of Wood Frame and Protective Coverings
The addition of insulation to a wall assembly can increase its ﬁre resistance. Adding rock wool or slag mineral wool
insulation batts for additional protection to the wood-stud wall generally has an assigned time of 15 minutes.

Time Assigned to Protective Membranes

Description of Finish Time (min)
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 5
1/2 in. (13 mm) Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 10
5/8 in. (16 mm) Douglas fir plywood, phenolic bonded 15
3/8 in. (9.5 mm) gypsum board 10
1/2 in. (13 mm) gypsum board 15
5/8 in. (16 mm) gypsum board 20
1/2 in. (13 mm) Type X gypsum board 25
5/8 in. (16 mm) Type X gypsum board 40
2 layers of 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) gypsum board 25
1 layer of 3/8-in. (9.5-mm) and 1 layer of 1/2-in. (13-mm) gypsum board 35
2 layers of 1/2-in. (13-mm) gypsum board 40
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Time Assigned for Contribution of Wood Frame

Description of Frame Time (min)
Wood wall studs, 16 in. (406 mm) on center 20
Wood floor and roof joists, 16 in. (406 mm) on center 10
Wood floor and roof truss assemblies, 24 in. (610 mm) on center 5
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.
Minimum size for studs is nominal 2 in. × 4 in. (51 mm × 102 mm). Wood joists are not to be less than nominal 2 in.
(51 mm) in thickness. The spacing between studs on joists should not exceed 16 in. (406 mm) on center.

9.4.2 Char Depth

dchar t

where

dchar = char depth

β = charring rate, typically assumed to be 0.6 mm/min (1.5 in./hr) for all woods

t = time (min)

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.4.3 Char Rate – White and Nordheim

t = m x 1c.23

where

t = time (min)

m = char-rate coefficient

xc = char depth (mm)

The char-rate coefficients (m) range from 0.42 to 0.84 mm/min1.23 for the eight species. Average values for the char-rate
coefficients are 0.555 for southern pine, 0.554 for western red cedar, 0.598 for redwood, 0.734 for Engelmann spruce, 0.498
for basswood, 0.653 for hard maple, 0.747 for red oak, and 0.607 for yellow poplar. The char-rate coefficient is correlated
to density, moisture content, and a char contraction factor, defined as the thickness of the char layer at the end of the fire
exposure divided by the original thickness of the wood layer that was charred (char depth).
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.4.4 Thermal Conductivity of Wood

Many physical and mechanical properties of wood change with moisture content below the fiber saturation point. The
equilibrium moisture content is about 9%. Moisture generally reduces the strength of wood. Moisture also reduces the
charring rate.

For moisture content of 25% or less, densities greater than 300 kg/m3, and temperature of 24°C, the average thermal
conductivity of wood perpendicular to the grain is:

k = S (0.0001941 + 0.000004046M) + 0.01864

where

k = thermal conductivity (W/m●K)

S = density based on volume at current moisture content and over-dry mass (kg/m3)

M = moisture content (%)

Conductivity increases about 2–3% per 10°C.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

9.4.5 Heat Capacity of Dry Wood

cr = 0.1031 + 0.003867T

where

cr = heat capacity (kJ/kg●K) of dry wood

T = temperature (K)

Chapter 9: Passive Building Systems

9.5 Tied Fire Walls

Tied fire walls are fastened to and usually encase members of the structural frame of the building, according to NFPA 221,
Standard for High Challenge Fire Walls, Fire Walls, and Fire Barrier Walls. To remain stable, the pull of the collapsing
structural members on the fire side of the wall must be resisted by the strength of the structure on the other side.

If the wall is not located at the center of strength, the lateral resistance of the frame on either side of the wall should be
sufficient to resist the maximum horizontal component of the force that could result from collapsing structural framework
on the opposite side. The horizontal force at each tie should be computed using this formula:
wBL2
H = 8S

where

H = horizontal pull per tie (lb or kg)

w = dead load plus 25% of live load of the roof (lb/ft2 or kg/m2)

B = distance between ties (ft or m)

L = span of structural member running perpendicular to wall (ft or m)

S = sag (ft or m) that may be assumed as:

0.07L for open-web steel trusses

0.09L for solid-web steel beams

0.06L for wood trusses

10 EGRESS AND OCCUPANT MOVEMENT
10.1 General
Factors that may influence people's responses and behaviors during evacuations in fire situations:

• Occupant characteristics—including mobility limitations and cognitive abilities

• Human response to cues (recognition time)
• Decision making (response time)
• Movement—including susceptibility to effects from products of combustion
• Fire environment impact

10.1.1 Egress Timeline

tASET
tmarg
tRSET

tevac

tpre

ttrav
trec
twarn tres

tdet

IGNITION DETECTION ALARM/WARNING EVACUATION TENABILITY

COMPLETE LIMIT
AUTOMATIC MANUAL AUTOMATIC MANUAL

Engineering Timeline
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

where

tdet = detection time, the interval between fire ignition and the first detection of the fire by a device or individual

twarn = warning time, the interval between detection of the fire and the time at which an alarm signal is activated or
notification of occupants takes place

tpre = pre-evacuation time, the interval between the time at which a general alarm signal or warning is given and
the time at which the first deliberate evacuation movement is made (includes recognition time and response
time)

trec = recognition time, the interval between the time at which the alarm signal is perceived and the time at which
the occupant interprets this signal as indicating a fire/emergency event

tres = response time, the interval between recognition time and the time that the first move is made to evacuate the
building

ttrav = travel time, the time needed, once movement toward an exit has begun, for all occupants to reach a place of
safety

tevac = evacuation time, the time from the alarm signal to the time at which the occupants reach a place of safety

tRSET = required safe egress time, calculated time necessary between ignition of a fire and the time at which all
occupants can reach an area of safety

tASET = available safe egress time, calculated time available between ignition of a fire and the time at which
tenability criteria are exceeded in the means of egress

10.1.2 Limitations in the Hydraulic Model of Occupant Movement

The following are limitations of the hydraulic model of occupant movement calculations:

• Behaviors that detract from movement are not explicitly considered.

• The numbers of people in a structural component are considered rather than their identity and their individual attributes.
• Movement between egress components is considered (e.g., from room to room), rather than within them.
• The results are deterministic and will therefore remain the same unless changes are made to the scenario or the
assumptions employed.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.1.3 Required Safe Egress Time (RSET)

RSET = td + tn + tp-e + te

where

td = time from ﬁre ignition to detection; that is, the detection phase

tn = time from detection to notification of occupants of a fire emergency; that is, the notification phase

tp-e = time from notiﬁcation (or cue reception) until evacuation commences; that is, the pre-evacuation phase

te = time from the start of purposive evacuation movement until safety is reached; that is, the evacuation phase

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.1.4 Component Effective Widths

Component effective width = component width – boundary layer width
Boundary Layer Width
Exit Route Element
in. cm
Stairways—wall or side of tread 6 15
Railings, handrails a 3.5 9
Theater chairs, stadium benches 0 0
Corridors, ramp walls 8 20
Obstacles 4 10
Wide concourses, passageways <18 46
Doors, archways 6 15
a Where handrails are present, use the value of the actual handrail if it results in a
lesser effective width.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.2 Evacuation Movement

The following people-movement characteristics are needed to estimate the movement time:

• Speed
• Specific flow
• Calculated flow

10.2.1 Evacuation Speed

If the population density is less than approximately 0.05 persons/ft2 (0.54 persons/m2) of exit route, individuals will move
at their own pace, independent of the speed of others. If the population density exceeds about 0.35 persons/ft2 (3.8 persons/
m2), it is assumed that no movement will take place until enough of the crowd has passed from the crowded area to reduce
the population density. Between the population density limits of 0.05 and 0.35 persons/ft2 (0.54 and 3.8 persons/m2), the
relationship between speed and population density is assumed to be represented by a linear function. The equation of this
function is

S = k – akD

where

S = speed along the line of travel

D = population density, in persons per unit area

k = constant, as listed in the table of "Constants for Equations for Evacuation Speed"

= k1; and a = 2.86 for speed, in ft/min, and density is in persons/ft2

= k2; and a = 0.266 for speed, in m/s, and density is in persons/m2

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.2.2 Evacuation Speed Constants

Constants for Equations for Evacuation Speed

Exit Route Element k1 (ft/min) k2 (m/s)
Corridor, aisle, ramp, doorway: 275 1.40
Stairs:
Riser (in.) Tread (in.)
7.5 10 196 1.00
7.0 11 212 1.08
6.5 12 229 1.16
6.5 13 242 1.23
1 in. = 25.4 mm
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.2.3 Conversion Factors for Travel Along a Stair

Conversion Factors for Relating Line of Travel Distance

to Vertical Travel for Various Stair Configurations
Risers (in.) Tread (in.) Conversion Factor
7.5 10.0 1.66
7.0 11.0 1.85
6.5 12.0 2.08
6.5 13.0 2.22
1 in. = 25.4 mm
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.2.4 Unimpeded Travel Speed

Maximum (Unimpeded) Exit Flow Speeds

Speed Along Line of Travel
Exit Route Element
ft/min m/s
Corridor, aisle, ramp, doorway: 235 1.19
Stairs:
Riser (in.) Tread (in.)
7.5 10 167 0.85
7.0 11 187 0.95
6.5 12 196 1.00
6.5 13 207 1.05
1 in. = 25.4 mm
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.2.5 Specific Flow

Specific flow, Fs, is the flow of evacuating persons past a point in the exit route, per unit of time per unit of effective width,
We, of the route involved. The equation for specific flow is

Fs = S × D

where

Fs = specific flow (persons/ft/min or persons/m/s of effective width)

D = population density (persons/ft2 or persons/m2 of effective width)

S = speed of movement (ft/min or m/s)

10.2.6 Specific Flow Related to Population Density

Fs = (1 – a D) k D

where

Fs = specific flow (persons/ft/min or persons/m/s)

a = 2.86 for speed (ft/min) and density (persons/ft2)

= 0.266 for speed (m/s) and density (persons/m2)

D = population density (persons/ft2 or persons/m2)

k is as listed in the table of "Constants for Equations for Evacuation Speed"

10.2.7 Maximum Specific Flow

(This information is from the following source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering,
fifth edition, Chapter 59, pp. 2,126–2,127, Equation 59.8)
Occurs when the density is 0.175 persons/ft2 (1.9 persons/m2) of exit route space.

Maximum Specific Flow, Fsm

Maximum Specific Flow
Exit Route Element Persons/min/ft Persons/s/m
of effective width of effective width
Corridor, aisle, ramp, doorway: 24.0 1.3
Stairs:
Riser (in.) Tread (in.)
7.5 10 17.1 0.94
7.0 11 18.5 1.01
6.5 12 20.0 1.09
6.5 13 21.2 1.16
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.2.8 Calculated Flow

The calculated flow, Fc, is the predicted flow rate of persons passing a particular point in an exit route. The equation for
calculated flow is based on the assumption that the achievable flow rate through a component is directly proportional to its
width.

Fc = Fs × We

where

Fc = calculated ﬂow

Fs = speciﬁc ﬂow

We = effective width of the component being traversed

Fc = (1 – a D)k D We

where

Fc is in persons/min when k = k1 (see table in section 10.2.2), D is in persons/ft2, and We is in ft.

Fc is in persons/s when k = k2 (see table in section 10.2.2), D is persons/m2, and We is in m.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.2.9 Time for Passage

The time for passage, tp, is the time for a group of persons to pass a point in an exit route and is expressed as
P
tp = F
c
P
tp =
_1 − a D i kDWe
where

tp = time for passage: in min when Fc is in persons/min; in sec when Fc is in persons/sec

P = population size, in persons

UNASSISTED Movement Speeds on Stairs (m/s) for People with Disabilities/Elderly

Observational Conditions Configuration Sample Results
Source (L: Location, N: Nature, Mean (m/s)
Direction Collection Additional Information
(Author, Year) SC: Spatial Configuration, Slope Distance Description Size [Standard Devia-
P: Participants, V: Variable) (Up, Down) Method
tion, Range]
DESCENT
Jiang et al., 2012 L:China Down 17.7° 1 storey Video S1: 40 0.85 # Derived from
N:ET # Disability, [0.19, 0.32-1.34] information in paper
SC:2 floors, in subway no aid
station Measurements to 0.04-
P:[S1–3: mixed age/ S2: 20 0.43 sec precision. Instructed

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

gender] Single [0.14, 0.21-0.69] to move "at the highest
V:different mobility capa- crutch speed could maintain"
bilities (S1–3)
S3: 40 0.33 Results also presented by
Double [0.13, 0.12-0.68] gender and by varying
crutch passage widths
Kuligowski et al., L:USA Down 25.1° 13 Video S1: 83 0.41 # Derived from
2012 N:AE # storey Elderly, no [0.17, 0.11-0.91] information in paper.
169

SC:13 floors, assisted-liv- aid Low densities implied;

ing residential building however, speeds
P:[S1–2: mixed elderly] S2: 14 0.23 presented may not always
V:different mobility capa- Disability, [0.08, 0.11-0.33] be unimpeded movement
bilities (S1–2) using cane speeds.

Paper also presents

localized speeds between
various floor groupings
Sørensen and L:Denmark Down – – Video Visually 46 0.73 Paper also explores and
Dederichs, 2012 N:[ET1–4] impaired [0.09, 0.54-0.92] presents relationship
SC:ET1–2:2/ET3–4:3 between speed and
P:mixed gender, 10–69 density
years
V: –
©2020 NCEES

Observational Conditions Configuration Sample Results

Source (L: Location, N: Nature, Mean (m/s)
Direction Collection Additional Information
(Author, Year) SC: Spatial Configuration, Slope Distance Description Size [Standard Devia-
P: Participants, V: Variable) (Up, Down) Method
tion, Range]
Jiang et al., 2009 L:China Down 17.7° 1 storey Video S1: 9 0.81 # Derived from informa-
N:ET # Disability, [0.11, 0.68-1.06] tion in paper
In Chinese; data SC:[40 m, subway station] no aid
provided by P:[S1–3: mixed age/ Measurements to 0.04-sec
author in China. gender] S2: 6 0.28 precision
V:different mobility capa- Single [0.08, 0.18-0.40]
crutch Instructed to move "at
bilities (S1–3)
the highest speed could
S3: 10 0.31 maintain"
Double [0.13, 0.12-0.48]

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

crutch
Fujiyama and L:UK Down CS1: 3.5 m # Observer 18 CS1,ET1: 0.60 # Incline length derived
Tyler, 2004 N:[ET1–2]. ET1: normal 38.8° [0.16, –] from horizontal and verti-
movement; ET2: fast CS1,ET2:0.79 cal length given in paper
movement [0.22, –]
SC:[1, various geometries] Paper also explores cor-
P:[S1–8: age 60–81, relation between physical
CS2: 3.7 m # 18 CS2,ET1: 0.72 characteristics and walk-
mixed gender]
170

35° [0.20, –] ing speeds and between

V:Impact of component
slope (CS1–4), with the CS2,ET2; 0.86 speed on horizontal and
procedure employed [0.22, –] stairs
(ET1–2)
CS3,ET1:0.73 Asked to walk at both
CS3: 4.6 m # 18
[0.17, –] "normal" and "fast"
30.5°
CS3,ET2:0.96 speeds
[0.21, –]

CS4: 3.4 m # 18 CS4,ET1:0.91

Observational Conditions Configuration Sample Results

Source (L: Location, N: Nature, Mean (m/s)
Direction Collection Additional Information
(Author, Year) SC: Spatial Configuration, Slope Distance Description Size [Standard Devia-
P: Participants, V: Variable) (Up, Down) Method
tion, Range]
Boyce et al., L:UK Down 37°– 1 storey Observer, S1: 30 0.33 Measurements to 0.1-sec
1999a N:[ET/Unimp] 38° stop- Locomo- [0.16, 0.11–0.70] precision
SC:[1] watch tion disa-
P:[S1–5: mixed age/ bility (all) ª Rollator user, not used
gender] during descent. Instructed
V:different mobility capa- S2: 19 0.36 to move in "prompt
bilities (S1–5) Locomo- [0.14, 0.13–0.70] manner"
tion disa-
bility, no
aid

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

S3: 1 0.22
Crutches

S4: 9 0.32
Walking [0.12, 0.11–0.49]
stick
171

S5: 1 0.16
Rollator a
Proulx et al., L:Canada Down – 6–7 Video UE1, S1 – 0.88 ª ª Note – all speed calcu-
1995 N:[UE1–3] storey UE2, S1 – 0.61 lations include times at
S:[UE1–3 mid-rise apart- UE3, S1 – 0.57 rest/stop
ment]
P:[mixed age/gender + Speeds measured during
disability]. S1 included low density but may not
UE2, S2 – 0.57 necessarily be unimpeded
those with movement disa-
UE3, S2 – 0.58 speeds
bilities; S2 were over 65
years old.
V:different trials involving
populations with different
mobility levels (UE1–3)
and age attributes (S1–2)
©2020 NCEES

Observational Conditions Configuration Sample Results

Source (L: Location, N: Nature, Mean (m/s)
Direction Collection Additional Information
(Author, Year) SC: Spatial Configuration, Slope Distance Description Size [Standard Devia-
P: Participants, V: Variable) (Up, Down) Method
tion, Range]
ASCENT
Jiang et al., 2012 L:China Up 17.7° 1 storey Video S1: 40 0.76 # Derived from informa-
N:[ET/Unimp] # Disability, [0.18, 0.52–1.19] tion in paper
SC:[2 floors in subway no aid
station] Measurements to 0.04-
P:[S1–3: mixed age/ S2: 20 0.39 sec precision. Instructed
gender] Single [0.14, 0.18–0.67] to move "at the highest
V:different mobility capa- crutch speed could maintain"
bilities (S1–3)
S3: 40 0.27 Results also presented by

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

Double [0.14, 0.08–0.50] gender and by varying
crutch passage widths
Fujiyama and L:UK Up CS1:3 3.5 # Observer 18 CS1,ET1:0.56 # Incline length derived
Tyler, 2004 N:[ET1–2]:ET1, normal 8.8° [0.15, –] from paper
movement; ET2, fast CS2,ET2:0.77
movement [0.23, –] Paper also explores cor-
SC:[1, various geometries] relation between physical
CS2,ET1:0.64 characteristics and walk-
172

P:[S1–8: age 60–81,

CS2: 3.7 # 18 ing speeds and between
mixed gender] [0.15, –]
35°
V:impact of component CS2,ET2:0.85 speed on horizontal and
slope (CS1–4) given [0.25, –] stairs
the procedure employed
Instructed to walk at
(ET1–2)
CS3,ET1:0.68 both "normal" and "fast"
CS3: 4.6 # 18
[0.15, –] speeds
30.5°
CS3,ET2:0.91
[0.23, –]

CS4: 3.4 # 18 CS4,ET1:0.83

Observational Conditions Configuration Sample Results

Source (L: Location, N: Nature, Mean (m/s)
Direction Collection Additional Information
(Author, Year) SC: Spatial Configuration, Slope Distance Description Size [Standard Devia-
P: Participants, V: Variable) (Up, Down) Method
tion, Range]
Jiang et al., 2009 L:China Up 17.7° 1 storey Video S1: 9 0.77
N:[ET/Unimp] Disability, [0.13, 0.62–1.06]
In Chinese; data SC:[40 m, subway station] no aid
provided by P:[S1–3: mixed age/
author in China gender] S2: 6 0.32
V:different mobility capa- Single [0.09, 0.19–0.43]
bilities (S1–3) crutch

S3: 10 0.25
Double [0.11, 0.10–0.37]

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

crutch
Boyce et al., L:UK Up 37°– 1 storey Observer, S1: 30 0.38 a Rollator user, not used

1999a N:[ET/Unimp] 38° stop- Locomo- [0.14, 0.13–0.62] during descent

SC:[1] watch tion disa-
P:[S1–5: mixed age/ bility (all) Instructed to move in
gender] "prompt manner"
E:– S2: 19 0.43
V:different mobility capa- Locomo- [0.13, 0.14–0.62]
173

bilities (S1–5) tion disa-

bility, no
aid

S3: 1 0.22
Crutches [–, 0.13–0.31]

S4: 9 0.35
Walking [0.11, 0.18–0.49]
stick

S5: 1 0.14
Rollator a
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.
Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.3 Egress Behavior in Smoke

10.3.1 Smoke Density and Visibility—Jin
RS V
SS Lt WWW
V log e SS c aE WW
1
Cs SSd nW
S WW
T X
where

V = visibility of signs at the obscuration threshold (m)

Cs = smoke density expressed by the extinction coefficient (1/m) (hereafter, smoke density will be expressed by
the extinction coefficient in 1/m)

Lt = brightness of signs (cd/m2)

δc = contrast threshold of signs in smoke at the obscuration threshold (0.01~0.05)

a = σs/Cs (0.4~1.0) and Cs = σs + σab (σs: scattering coefficient; σab: absorption coefficient)

E = mean illuminance of illuminating light from all directions in smoke (1m/m2) or (1x)
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.1.1 Extinction Coefficient (Cs)

Note that the extinction coefficient Cs can be obtained by the following equation:

Cs = D log e d I n
1 I
o

where

Io = intensity of the incident light (cd)

I = intensity of light through smoke (cd)

D = light path length (m)

10.3.1.2 Visibility at 5–15 m

The visibility, V, at the obscuration threshold of signs is found to be
5 10
For a light-emitting sign:=V C= +V C
s s

= 2 4
For a reflecting sign: V C= +V C
s s

The visibility of other objects—such as walls, floors, doors, and stairways in an underground shopping mall or a long
corridor—varies depending on the interior and its contrast condition; however, the minimum value for reflecting signs may
be applicable.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.3.2 Walking Speeds in Smoke

NONIRRITANT
1.0 SMOKE

WALKING SPEED (m/s)

0.5

IRRITANT
SMOKE

0.0
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.2
EXTINCTION COEFFICIENT, CS (1/m)

Walking Speed in Fire Smoke

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.3 Occupant Exposure to Heat

Tolerance limit of 0.25 W/cm2 or 2.5 kW/m2 for radiant heat exposure, below which exposure can be tolerated for several
minutes.

5 kW/m2 for a person to get burned in 13 sec on bare skin; 40 sec for a second-degree burn.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.3.1 Skin Exposure to Radiant Heat

r
tI,rad = 1.33
oqm
where

tI,rad = exposure time, min

qo m = radiant heat flux (kW/m2)

r = radiant heat exposure dose [(kW●m–2)4/3 min]

A relationship for time (min) to the second-degree burning of skin due to radiant flux, q kW/m2, is
1.56
t I, rad 6.9q

10.3.3.2 Radiant Heat Endpoint for Exposed Skin

Radiant Heat Exposure Dose,
Endpoint
r [(kW●m–2)4/3 min]
Severe skin pain 1.33–1.67
2nd-degree burns 4.0–12.2
3rd-degree (full thickness) burns 16.7

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.3.4 Toxicity
In ﬁres, three major toxic effects are important:

1. The concentrations of irritant gases likely to impair escape efficiency or cause incapacitation (sensory irritation)
2. The exposure doses (Ct product doses) of asphyxiant gases likely to cause a) incapacitation through confusion and
loss of consciousness or b) death
3. The exposure doses of irritants likely to cause death through lung edema and inflammation after the fire
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.1 Fractional Irritant Concentration (FIC)

When FIC = 1, a tenability endpoint (escape impairment) is predicted. Incapacitation is predicted at higher concentrations
(FIC ~ 3–5).

FIC = FICHCl + FICHBr + FICHF + FIC SO 2 + FIC NO 2 + FIC CH 2 CHO + FIC CH 2 O + / FICx

where
/ FICx = FICs for any other irritants present

10.3.4.2 Irritant Concentrations of Common Fire Gases

Concentration Predicted to Impair Concentration Predicted to Cause
Gas Escape in Half the Population Incapacitation in Half the Population
(ppm) (ppm)
HCl 200 900
HBr 200 900
HF 200 900
SO2 24 120
NO2 70 350
CH2CHO
4 20
(acrolein) a
HCHO
6 30
(formaldehyde) a
a Where the concentrations of acrolein and formaldehyde (or other important irritants) are unknown, a term derived
from smoke density, 0.5 OD/m, may be used as an indication of irritancy likely to impair escape efficiency.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.3 Fractional Effective Dose (FED)

t2 n
Ci
FED # / t
t1 i 1 ^Ct hi
where

Ci = average concentration of a dose-related toxicant, such as an asphyxiant gas "I", over the chosen time
increment

∆t = chosen time increment (min)

(Ct)i = specific exposure dose (concentration × minutes) that would constitute an effective dose (i.e., an exposure
dose producing a defined endpoint, such as preventing an occupant's safe escape)

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.3.4.4 Fraction of an Incapacitating Dose for Single Species

conc. gas present # time

FIco = conc. # time for incapacitation

If the fractional doses per each minute are summed throughout the exposure, the dose and time to incapacitation can be
predicted.

10.3.4.5 Carbon Monoxide/Carboxyhemoglobin

Stewart Model
%COHb = (3.317 × 10–5)(ppmCO)1.036(VE)(t)

where

%COHB = approximate COHb concentration

ppmCO = CO concentration (ppm)

VE = volume of air breathed per minute (L/min)

t = exposure time (min)

Product and Fractional Incapacitating Dose

FIco 3.317 # 10
5
^CO h1.036 VDt

where

(CO) = carbon monoxide concentration (ppm v/v 20°C)

V = volume of air breathed each minute (L/min)

t = exposure time (min)

D = exposure dose percent (COHb) for incapacitation

The following values may be taken for V and D:

Activity Level of Subject V (L/min) D (percent COHb)

Resting or sleeping 8.5 40
Light work—i.e., walking to escape 25 30
Heavy work—i.e., slow running, walking up stairs 5 20
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.3.4.6 Average Concentration of Asphyxiant Gases—Single Armchair Room Burn

For each minute during the first 6 minutes of a single armchair room burn:

Asphyxiant Gas At 1 min At 2 min At 3 min At 4 min At 5 min At 6 min

CO (ppm) 0 0 500 2,000 3,500 6,000
HCN (ppm) 0 0 0 75 125 174
CO2 % 0 0 1.5 3.5 6 8
O2 % 20.9 20.9 19 17.5 15 12
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 10: Egress and Occupant Movement

10.3.4.7 Time to Incapacitation from Oxygen Depletion

t I o exp 98.13 0.54 _20.9 % O 2 iC

Dose to incapacitation = _20.9 − % O 2 i`t I o j

For a short exposure time, t, fraction of an incapacitating dose of hypoxia:

_20.9 % O 2 i_ t i
FI q
_20.9 % O 2 i_tI q i
1
F Ilq t for each minute of exposure
Iq

10.4 Emergency Lights

List of Test Emergency Lights
Light Source Area and Visibility
Max in Smoke Regression Linear Function
Purpose of Luminance Illuminance
No. Type Size
Utilization Appearance (cd/m2)a (tx)b Slope (k1) Intercept (k2)
(cm)
Ordinary Emergency light and
1. emergency exit sign used for 9.5 10,000 7 4.5 3.4
light ship

Hanging
2. Emergency light 13.0 1,000 3 9.2 2.1
lamp

Halogen lamp General purpose

3. #1 (unidirectional) 5.5 10,000 690 47.6 –6.1

Halogen lamp General purpose

4. 5.5 60,000 34 32.9 –3.9
#2 (wide-directional)
MIL standard Emergency light
5. emergency based on U.S. mili- 10.0 16,230 103 8.9 2.0
lamp tary specification
aMax luminance is the highest luminance of light source surface.
bIlluminance is the vertical illuminance from 1 m against the light source center.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

10.5 Remoteness of Exits

(Source: NFPA 101, Life Safety Code.
Reproduced with permission of NFPA®, which owns all rights thereto. This reprinted material is not the complete and official position of the
NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by the standard in its entirety. For a full copy, please go to www.nfpa.org.)

7.5.1.3.1. Where more than one exit, exit access, or exit discharge is required from a building or portion thereof, such exits,
exit accesses, or exit discharges shall be remotely located from each other and be arranged to minimize the possibility that
more than one has the potential to be blocked by any one fire or other emergency condition.

7.5.1.3.2. Where two exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges are required, they shall be located at a distance from one
another not less than one-half the length of the maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building or area to be served,
measured in a straight line between the nearest edge of the exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges, unless otherwise provided
in 7.5.1.3.3 through 7.5.1.3.5.

7.5.1.3.3. In buildings protected throughout by an approved, supervised automatic sprinkler system in accordance with
Section 9.7, the minimum separation distance between two exits, exit accesses, or exit discharges, measured in accordance
with 7.5.1.3.2, shall be not less than one-third the length of the maximum overall diagonal dimension of the building or area
to be served.

11 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
11.1 General
11.1.1 Hearing
Threshold of hearing = 0 dB = 0.00002 Pa = 1 × 10–12 W/m2

11.1.2 Properties of Air

Thermal Properties of Air at Ambient Temperatures

Air Properties at 10°C
Density ra 1.293 kg/m3
Thermal conductivity ka 0.02492 W/m●K
Dynamic viscosity ma 1.71 × 10–5 kg/m●s
Prandtl number Pra 0.71
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.1.3 Properties of Water

Property USCS Metric
Weight 8.34 lb/gal
Density at 70ºF or 21ºC 62.4 lb/ft3 1,000 kg/m3
Specific heat of water 1 Btu to raise 1 lb of water 1ºF 4.186 kJ/kg●K
Latent heat of vaporization for 1 lb or 0.45 kg of water 970.3 Btu 2,254.8 kJ/kg
Heat of fusion of ice to convert 1 lb or 0.45 kg of ice into water (32ºF) 143.4 Btu 151.3 kJ
Vapor pressure (absolute) at 70ºF or 21ºC 0.361 psia 2.49 kPa
Vapor pressure (head) at 70ºF or 21ºC 0.84 ft 0.26 m
Vapor pressure (absolute) at 90ºF or 32ºC 0.70 psia 4.83 kPa
Vapor pressure (head) at 90ºF or 32ºC 1.6 ft 0.78 m

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.1.4 Properties of Metals

Density Electrical Heat
Specific
Atomic ρ (kg/m3) Melting Melting Resistivity Conductivity
Metal Symbol Heat
Weight Water = Point (°C) Point (°F) (10–8 Ω●m) at λ (W/m●K) at
(J/kg●K)
1,000 0°C (273.2 K) 0°C (273.2 K)
Aluminum Al 26.98 2,698 660 1,220 895.9 2.5 236
Antimony Sb 121.75 6,692 630 1,166 209.3 39 25.5
Arsenic As 74.92 5,776 subl. 613 subl. 1,135 347.5 26 –
Barium Ba 137.33 3,594 710 1,310 284.7 36 –
Beryllium Be 9.012 1,846 1,285 2,345 2,051.5 2.8 218
Bismuth Bi 208.98 9,803 271 519 125.6 107 8.2
Cadmium Cd 112.41 8,647 321 609 234.5 6.8 97
Caesium Cs 132.91 1,900 29 84 217.7 18.8 36
Calcium Ca 40.08 1,530 840 1,544 636.4 3.2 –
Cerium Ce 140.12 6,711 800 1,472 188.4 7.3 11
Chromium Cr 52 7,194 1,860 3,380 406.5 12.7 96.5
Cobalt Co 58.93 8,800 1,494 2,721 431.2 5.6 105
Copper Cu 63.54 8,933 1,084 1,983 389.4 1.55 403
Gallium Ga 69.72 5,905 30 86 330.7 13.6 41
Gold Au 196.97 19,281 1,064 1,947 129.8 2.05 319
Indium In 114.82 7,290 156 312 238.6 8 84
Iridium Ir 192.22 22,550 2,447 4,436 138.2 4.7 147
Iron Fe 55.85 7,873 1,540 2,804 456.4 8.9 83.5
Lead Pb 207.2 11,343 327 620 129.8 19.2 36
Lithium Li 6.94 533 180 356 4,576.2 8.55 86
Magnesium Mg 24.31 1,738 650 1,202 1,046.7 3.94 157
Manganese Mn 54.94 7,473 1,250 2,282 502.4 138 8
Mercury Hg 200.59 13,547 –39 –38 142.3 94.1 7.8
Molybdenum Mo 95.94 10,222 2,620 4,748 272.1 5 139
Nickel Ni 58.69 8,907 1,455 2,651 439.6 6.2 94
Niobium Nb 92.91 8,578 2,425 4,397 267.9 15.2 53
Osmium Os 190.2 22,580 3,030 5,486 129.8 8.1 88
Palladium Pd 106.4 11,995 1,554 2,829 230.3 10 72
Platinum Pt 195.08 21,450 1,772 3,221 134 9.81 72
Potassium K 39.09 862 63 145 753.6 6.1 104
Rhodium Rh 102.91 12,420 1,963 3,565 242.8 4.3 151
Rubidium Rb 85.47 1,533 38.8 102 330.7 11 58
Ruthenium Ru 101.07 12,360 2,310 4,190 255.4 7.1 117
Silver Ag 107.87 10,500 961 1,760 234.5 1.47 428
Sodium Na 22.989 966 97.8 208 1,235.1 4.2 142
Strontium Sr 87.62 2,583 770 1,418 – 20 –
Tantalum Ta 180.95 16,670 3,000 5,432 150.7 12.3 57
Thallium Tl 204.38 11,871 304 579 138.2 10 10
Thorium Th 232.04 11,725 1,700 3,092 117.2 14.7 54

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Density Electrical Heat

Specific
Atomic ρ (kg/m3) Melting Melting Resistivity Conductivity
Metal Symbol Heat
Weight Water = Point (°C) Point (°F) (10–8 Ω●m) at λ (W/m●K) at
(J/kg●K)
1,000 0°C (273.2 K) 0°C (273.2 K)
Tin Sn 118.69 7,285 232 449 230.3 11.5 68
Titanium Ti 47.88 4,508 1,670 3,038 527.5 39 22
Tungsten W 183.85 19,254 3,387 6,128 142.8 4.9 177
Uranium U 238.03 19,050 1,135 2,075 117.2 28 27
Vanadium V 50.94 6,090 1,920 3,488 481.5 18.2 31
Zinc Zn 65.38 7,135 419 786 393.5 5.5 117
Zirconium Zr 91.22 6,507 1,850 3,362 284.7 40 23

11.1.5 Typical Material Properties

Typical Material Properties

(Use these values if the speciﬁc alloy and temper are not listed in Table 2 below)
Coefficient of
Modulus of Modulus of
Poisson's Thermal Density, ρ
Material Elasticity, E Rigidity, G
Ratio, v Expansion, α [lb/in3 (Mg/m3)]
[Mpsi (GPa)] [Mpsi (GPa)]
[10−6 °F (10−6 °C)]
Steel 29.0 (200.0) 11.5 (80.0) 0.30 6.5 (11.7) 0.282 (7.8)
Aluminum 10.0 (69.0) 3.8 (26.0) 0.33 13.1 (23.6) 0.098 (2.7)
0.246–0.282
Cast Iron 14.5 (100.0) 6.0 (41.4) 0.21 6.7 (12.1)
(6.8–7.8)
Wood (Fir) 1.6 (11.0) 0.6 (4.1) 0.33 1.7 (3.0) –
14.8–18.1 0.303–0.313
Brass 5.8 (40) 0.33 10.4 (18.7)
(102–125) (8.4–8.7)
Copper 17 (117) 6.5 (45) 0.36 9.3 (16.6) 0.322 (8.9)
13.9–17.4 0.278–0.314
Bronze 6.5 (45) 0.34 10.0 (18.0)
(96–120) (7.7–8.7)
Magnesium 6.5 (45) 2.4 (16.5) 0.35 14 (25) 0.061 (1.7)
Glass 10.2 (70) – 0.22 5.0 (9.0) 0.090 (2.5)
Polystyrene 0.3 (2) – 0.34 38.9 (70.0) 0.038 (1.05)
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) <0.6 (<4) – – 28.0 (50.4) 0.047 (1.3)
Alumina Fiber 58 (400) – – – 0.141 (3.9)
Aramide Fiber 18.1 (125) – – – 0.047 (1.3)
Boron Fiber 58 (400) – – – 0.083 (2.3)
Beryllium Fiber 43.5 (300) – – – 0.069 (1.9)
BeO Fiber 58 (400) – – – 0.108 (3.0)
Carbon Fiber 101.5 (700) – – – 0.083 (2.3)
Silicon Carbide Fiber 58 (400) – – – 0.116 (3.2)
Source: Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 4th ed., 2000. Pearson Education, Inc., New York, NY.

Average Mechanical Properties of Typical Engineering Materials (U.S. Customary Units)a

(Use these values for the speciﬁc alloys and temper listed. For all other materials refer to Table 1 above.)
Specific Modulus of Modulus of Yield Strength (ksi) sy Ultimate Strength (ksi) su Coeff. of Therm.
% Elongation in Poisson's
Materials Weight g Elasticity, Rigidity, Expansion a
Tens. Comp.b Shear Tens. Comp. b Shear 2 in. Specimen Ratio v
(lb/in3) E (103 ksi) G (103 ksi) 10–6/°F
Metallic

Aluminum Wrought 2014-T6 0.101 10.6 3.9 60 60 25 68 68 42 10 0.35 12.8

Alloys 6061-T6 0.098 10.0 3.7 37 37 19 42 42 27 12 0.35 13.1
Gray ASTM 20 0.260 10.0 3.9 – – – 26 97 – 0.6 0.28 6.70
Cast Iron Alloys
Malleable ASTM A-197 0.263 25.0 9.8 – – – 40 83 – 5 0.28 6.60
Red Brass C83400 0.316 14.6 5.4 11.4 11.4 – 35 35 – 35 0.35 9.80
Copper Alloys
Bronze C86100 0.319 15.0 5.6 50 50 – 95 95 – 20 0.34 9.60

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Magnesium Alloy [Am 1004-T611] 0.066 6.48 2.5 22 22 – 40 40 22 1 0.30 14.3
Structural A36 0.284 29.0 11.0 36 36 – 58 58 – 30 0.32 6.60
Steel Alloys Stainless 304 0.284 28.0 11.0 30 30 – 75 75 – 40 0.27 9.60
Tool L2 0.295 29.0 11.0 102 102 – 116 116 – 22 0.32 6.50
Titanium Alloy [Ti-6Al-4V] 0.160 17.4 6.4 134 134 – 145 145 – 16 0.36 5.20
Nonmetallic
182

Low Strength 0.086 3.20 – – – 1.8 – – – – 0.15 6.0

Concrete
High Strength 0.086 4.20 – – – 5.5 – – – – 0.15 6.0
Kevlar 49 0.0524 19.0 – – – – 104 70 10.2 2.8 0.34 –
Plastic Reinforced
30% Glass 0.0524 10.5 – – – – 13 19 – – 0.34 –

Wood Select Douglas Fir 0.017 1.90 – – – – 0.30c 3.78d 0.90d – 0.29c –
Structural Grade White Spruce 0.130 1.40 – – – – 0.36c 5.18d 0.97d – 0.31c –
a Specific values may vary for a particular material due to alloy or mineral composition, mechanical working of the specimen, or heat treatment. For a more exact value, consult reference books for the material.
b The yield and ultimate strengths for ductile materials can be assumed equal for both tension and compression.
c Measured perpendicular to the grain.
d Measured parallel to the grain.

Source: Hibbeler, R.C., Mechanics of Materials, 4 ed., Pearson Education, Inc., 2000, New York, NY.
Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.2 Thermodynamics
Thermal and Physical Properties of Gases at Room Temperature
cp cv R
Mol.
Substance k
Wt. kJ/kg●K Btu/lbm-°R kJ/kg●K Btu/lbm-°R kJ/kg●K ft-lbf/lbm-°R

Air 29 1.00 0.240 0.718 0.171 1.40 0.2870 53.34

Argon 40 0.520 0.125 0.312 0.0756 1.67 0.2081 38.68
Butane 58 1.72 0.415 1.57 0.381 1.09 0.1430 26.58
Carbon dioxide 44 0.846 0.203 0.657 0.158 1.29 0.1889 35.10
Carbon
28 1.04 0.249 0.744 0.178 1.40 0.2968 55.16
monoxide
Ethane 30 1.77 0.427 1.49 0.361 1.18 0.2765 51.38
Helium 4 5.19 1.25 3.12 0.753 1.67 2.0769 386.0
Hydrogen 2 14.3 3.43 10.2 2.44 1.40 4.1240 766.4
Methane 16 2.25 0.532 1.74 0.403 1.30 0.5182 96.35
Neon 20 1.03 0.246 0.618 0.148 1.67 0.4119 76.55
Nitrogen 28 1.04 0.248 0.743 0.177 1.40 0.2968 55.15
Octane vapor 114 1.71 0.409 1.64 0.392 1.04 0.0729 13.53
Oxygen 32 0.918 0.219 0.658 0.157 1.40 0.2598 48.28
Propane 44 1.68 0.407 1.49 0.362 1.12 0.1885 35.04
Steam 18 1.87 0.445 1.41 0.335 1.33 0.4615 85.76

Thermal and Physical Properties of Selected Liquids and Solids

at Room Temperature
cp Density
Substance
kJ/kg●K Btu/lbm-°R kg/m3 lbm/ft3

Liquids
Ammonia 4.80 1.146 602 38
Mercury 0.139 0.033 13,560 847
Water 4.18 1.000 997 62.4
Solids
Aluminum 0.900 0.215 2,700 170
Copper 0.386 0.092 8,900 555
Ice (0°C; 32°F) 2.11 0.502 917 57.2
Iron 0.450 0.107 7,840 490
Lead 0.128 0.030 11,310 705
Source: Howell, John, R. and Richard O. Bukins, Fundamentals of Engineering Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill, 1992, p. 896.

Flammability Spont. Fuel for Max.

Flame Ignition Quenching
Heat Heat of Stoichiometry Limits Max. Temp. at Energy Dist.
Mol. Spec. TBoil Ign. Flame
Fuel of Vap. Comb. (% stoichio.) Temp. Flame Max. Fl.
Wt. Grav. (°C) Speed
(kJ/kg) (MJ/kg) Speed (% Speed Stoich. Min. Stoich. Min.
(°C) b (cm/s)
% Vol. fa Lean Rich stoichio.) (K) (10–5 cal.) (mm)
Acetaldehyde 44.1 0.783 –56.7 569.4 – 0.0772 0.1280 – – – – – – 8.99 – 2.29 –
Acetone 58.1 0.792 56.7 523.0 30.8 0.0497 0.1054 59 233 561.1 131 50.18 2,121 27.48 – 3.81 –
Acetylene 26.0 0.621 –83.9 – 48.2 0.0772 0.0755 31 – 305.0 133 155.25 – 0.72 – 0.76 –
Acrolein 56.1 0.841 52.8 – – 0.0564 0.1163 48 752 277.8 100 61.75 – 4.18 – 1.52 –
Acrylonitrile 53.1 0.797 78.3 – – 0.0528 0.1028 87 – 481.1 105 46.75 2,461 8.60 3.82 2.29 1.52
Ammonia 17.0 0.817 –33.3 1,373.6 – 0.2181 0.1645 – – 651.1 – – 2,600 – – – –
Aniline 93.1 1.022 184.4 432.6 – 0.0263 0.0872 – – 593.3 – – – – – – –
Benzene 78.1 0.885 80.0 431.8 39.9 0.0277 0.0755 43 336 591.7 108 44.60 2,365 13.15 5.38 2.79 1.78
Benzyl alcohol 108.1 1.050 205.0 – – 0.0240 0.0923 – – 427.8 – – – – – – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

1,2-Butadiene
54.1 0.658 11.1 – 45.5 0.0366 0.0714 – – – 117 63.90 2,419 5.60 – 1.30 –
(methylallene)
n-Butane 58.1 0.584 –0.5 385.8 45.7 0.0312 0.0649 54 330 430.6 113 41.60 2,256 18.16 6.21 3.05 1.78
Butanone (methyl- 72.1 0.805 79.4 – – 0.0366 0.0951 – – – 100 39.45 – 12.67 6.69 2.54 2.03
ethyl ketone)
184

1-Butene 56.1 0.601 –6.1 443.9 45.3 0.0377 0.0678 53 353 443.3 116 47.60 2,319 – – – –
d-Camphor 152.2 0.990 203.4 – – 0.0153 0.0818 – – 466.1 – – – – – – –
Carbon disulfide 76.1 1.263 46.1 351.0 – 0.0652 0.1841 18 1,120 120.0 102 54.46 – 0.36 – 0.51 –
Carbon monoxide 28.0 – –190.0 211.7 – 0.2950 0.4064 34 676 608.9 170 42.88 – – – – –
Cyclobutane 56.1 0.703 12.8 – – 0.0377 0.0678 – – – 115 62.18 2,308 – – – –
Cyclohexane 84.2 0.783 80.6 258.1 43.8 0.0227 0.0678 48 401 270.0 117 42.46 2,250 32.98 5.33 4.06 1.78
Cyclohexene 82.1 0.810 82.8 – – 0.0240 0.0701 – – – – 44.17 – 20.55 – 3.30 –
Cyclopentane 70.1 0.751 49.4 388.3 44.2 0.0271 0.0678 – – 385.0 117 41.17 2,264 19.84 – 3.30 –
Cyclopropane 42.1 0.720 –34.4 – – 0.0444 0.0678 58 276 497.8 113 52.32 2,328 5.74 5.50 1.78 1.78
trans-Decalin 138.2 0.874 187.2 – – 0.0142 0.0692 – – 271.7 109 33.88 2,222 – – – –
n-Decane 142.3 0.734 174.0 359.8 44.2 0.0133 0.0666 45 356 231.7 105 40.31 2,286 – – 2.06 –
Diethyl ether 74.1 0.714 34.4 351.6 – 0.0337 0.0896 55 2,640 185.6 115 43.74 2,253 11.71 6.69 2.54 2.03
Ethane 30.1 – –88.9 488.3 47.4 0.0564 0.0624 50 272 472.2 112 44.17 2,244 10.04 5.74 2.29 1.78
Ethyl acetate 88.1 0.901 77.2 – – 0.0402 0.1279 61 236 486.1 100 35.59 – 33.94 11.47 4.32 2.54
Ethanol 46.1 0.789 78.5 836.8 26.8 0.0652 0.1115 – – 392.2 – – – – – – –
Ethylamine 45.1 0.706 16.7 611.3 – 0.0528 0.0873 – – – – – – 57.36 – 5.33 –
Ethylene oxide 44.1 1.965 10.6 581.1 – 0.0772 0.1280 – – 428.9 125 11.35 2,411 2.51 1.48 1.27 1.02
Furan 68.1 0.936 32.2 400.0 – 0.0444 0.1098 – – – – – – 5.40 – 1.78 –
n-Heptane 100.2 0.688 98.5 364.9 44.4 0.0187 0.0661 53 450 247.2 122 42.46 2,214 27.49 5.74 3.81 1.78
©2020 NCEES

Flammability Spont. Fuel for Max.

Flame Ignition Quenching
Heat Heat of Stoichiometry Limits Max. Temp. at Energy Dist.
Mol. Spec. TBoil Ign. Flame
Fuel of Vap. Comb. (% stoichio.) Temp. Flame Max. Fl.
Wt. Grav. (°C) Speed
(kJ/kg) (MJ/kg) Speed (% Speed Stoich. Min. Stoich. Min.
(°C) b (cm/s)
% Vol. fa Lean Rich stoichio.) (K) (10–5 cal.) (mm)
n-Hexane 86.2 0.664 68.0 364.9 44.7 0.0216 0.0659 51 400 260.6 117 42.46 2,239 22.71 5.50 3.56 1.78
Hydrogen 2.0 – –252.7 451.0 119.9 0.2950 0.0290 – – 571.1 170 291.19 2,380 0.36 0.36 0.51 0.51
iso-Propanol 60.1 0.785 82.2 664.8 – 0.0444 0.0969 – – 455.6 100 38.16 – 15.54 – 2.79 –
Kerosene 154.0 0.825 250.0 290.8 43.1 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Methane 16.0 – –161.7 509.2 50.0 0.0947 0.0581 46 164 632.2 106 37.31 2,236 7.89 6.93 2.54 2.03
Methanol 32.0 0.793 64.5 1,100.9 19.8 0.1224 0.1548 48 408 470.0 101 52.32 – 5.14 3.35 1.78 1.52
Methyl formate 60.1 0.975 31.7 472.0 – 0.0947 0.2181 – – – – – – 14.82 – 2.79 –
n-Nonane 128.3 0.772 150.6 288.3 44.6 0.0147 0.0665 47 434 238.9 – – – – – – –
n-Octane 114.2 0.707 125.6 300.0 44.8 0.0165 0.0633 51 425 240.0 – – 2,251 – – – –
n-Pentane 72.1 0.631 36.0 364.4 45.3 0.0255 0.0654 54 359 284.4 115 42.46 2,250 19.60 5.26 3.30 1.78

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

1-Pentene 70.1 0.646 30.0 – 45.0 0.0271 0.0678 47 370 298.3 114 46.75 2,314 – – – –
Propane 44.1 0.508 –42.2 425.5 46.3 0.0402 0.0640 51 283 504.4 114 42.89 2,250 7.29 – 2.03 1.78
Propene 42.1 0.522 –47.7 437.2 45.8 0.0444 0.0678 48 272 557.8 114 48.03 2,339 6.74 – 2.03 –
n-Propanol 60.1 0.804 97.2 685.8 – 0.0444 0.0969 – – 433.3 – – – – – – –
Toluene 92.1 0.872 110.6 362.8 40.9 0.0227 0.0743 43 322 567.8 105 38.60 2,344 – – – –
185

Triethylamine 101.2 0.723 89.4 – – 0.0210 0.0753 – – – – – – 27.48 – 3.81 –

Turpentine – – – – – – – – – 252.2 – – – – – – –
Xylene 106.0 0.870 130.0 334.7 43.1 – – – – – – – – – – – –
Gasoline 120.0 0.720 155.0 338.9 44.1 – – – – 298.9 – – – – – – –
73 octane
Gasoline – – – – – – – – – 468.3 106 37.74 – – – – –
100 octane
Jet fuel JP1 150.0 0.810 – – 43.0 0.0130 0.0680 – – 248.9 107 36.88 – – – – –
JP3 112.0 0.760 – – 43.5 0.0170 0.0680 – – – – – – – – – –
JP4 126.0 0.780 – – 43.5 0.0150 0.0680 – – 261.1 107 38.17 – – – – –
JP5 170.0 0.830 – – 43.0 0.0110 0.0690 – – 242.2 – – –
a f is the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio; i.e., f = 1/r.
b For additional information, see Table C.5 and Chapter 18, “Ignition of Liquids,” in the SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.
Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.4 Heat of Combustion

11.4.1 Selected Fuels

Heat of Combustion for Selected Fuels at 25°C (298 K)

Fuela
DHc DHc DH cc DHc
kJ/mol kJ/g kJ/g (O2) kJ/g (air)
Carbon monoxide (CO) 283 10.10 17.69 4.10
Methane (CH4) 800 50.00 12.54 2.91
Ethane (C2H6) 1,423 47.45 11.21 2.96
Ethene (C2H4) 1,411 50.53 14.74 3.42
Ethyne (C2H2) 1,253 48.20 15.73 3.65
Propane (C3H8) 2,044 46.45 12.80 2.97
n-Butane (n-C4H10) 2,650 45.69 12.80 2.97
n-Pentane (n-C5H12) 3,259 45.27 12.80 2.97
n-Hexane 3,861 44.90
c-Hexane (c-C6H12) 3,680 43.81 12.80 2.97
n-Octane (n-C8H18) 5,104 44.77 12.80 2.97
Benzene (C6H6) 3,120 40.00 13.06 3.03
Methanol (CH3OH) 635 19.83 13.22 3.07
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 1,232 26.78 12.88 2.99
Acetone (CH3COCH3) 1,786 30.79 14.00 3.25
D-glucose (C6H12O6) 2,772 15.40 13.27 3.08
Cellulose b – 16.09 13.59 3.15
Polyethylene – 43.28 12.65 2.93
Polypropylene – 43.31 12.66 2.94
Polystyrene – 39.85 12.97 3.01
Polyvinylchloride – 16.43 12.84 2.98
Polymethylmethacrylate – 24.89 12.98 3.01
Polyacrylonitrile – 30.80 13.61 3.16
Polyoxymethylene – 15.46 14.50 3.36
Polyethyleneterephthalate – 22.00 13.21 3.06
Polycarbonate – 29.72 13.12 3.04
Nylon 6,6 – 29.58 12.67 2.94
Polyester – 23.8 – –
Wool – 20.5 – –
Wood (European Beech) – 19.5 – –
Wood volatiles (European Beech) – 16.6 – –
Wood char (European Beech) – 34.3 – –
Wood (Ponderosa Pine) – 19.4 – –
a Apartfrom the solids (D-glucose, etc.), the initial state of the fuel and of all the products is taken to be gaseous.
b Cotton and rayon are virtually pure cellulose and can be assumed to have the same heat of combustion.
c DH (O ) = 13.1 kJ/g is used in the oxygen consumption method for calculating rate of heat release.
c 2

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.4.2 Net Heats of Combustion Per Unit Mass of Fuela

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Normal Alkanes
Methane CH4 50.1 12.5 (18.2) (18.6)
Ethane C2H6 47.1 12.7 16.2 15.4
Propane C3H8 46.0 12.9 15.3 14.0
Butane C4H10 45.4 12.7 15.1 13.7
Pentane C5H12 45.0 12.6 14.7 13.2
Hexane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 12.9
Heptane C7H16 44.6 12.7 14.5 12.8
Octane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7
Nonane C9H20 44.3 12.7 14.3 12.5
Decane C10H22 44.4 12.7 14.3 12.4
Undecane C11H24 44.3 12.7 14.3 12.4
Dodecane C12H26 44.2 12.7 14.2 12.3
Tridecane C13H28 44.2 12.7 14.2 12.3
Kerosene C14H30 44.1 12.7 14.1 12.2
Hexadecane C16H34 44.1 12.7 14.2 12.3
Average 12.7 14.6 12.9
Substituted Alkanes
Methylbutane C5H12 45.0 12.6 14.7 13.1
Dimethylbutane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 13.0
Methylpentane C6H14 44.8 12.7 14.6 12.9
Dimethylpentane C7H16 44.6 12.7 14.5 12.9
Methylhexane C7H16 44.6 12.6 14.4 12.7
Isooctane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7
Methylethylpentane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7
Ethylhexane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7
Dimethylhexane C8H18 44.5 12.7 14.5 12.8
Methylheptane C8H18 44.5 12.6 14.4 12.7
Average 12.6 14.6 12.8
Cyclic Alkanes
Cyclopentane C5H10 44.3 12.8 13.9 11.9
Methylcyclopentane C6H12 43.8 12.7 13.9 11.9
Cyclohexane C6H12 43.8 12.7 13.8 11.7
Methylcyclohexane C7H14 43.4 12.7 13.8 11.7
Ethylcyclohexane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.8 11.7
Dimethylcyclohexane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.8 11.7
Cyclooctane C8H16 43.2 12.7 13.9 11.9
Decalin C10H18 42.8 12.7 13.4 11.0
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 42.6 12.6 13.3 11.0
Average 12.7 13.8 11.6

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Normal Alkenes
Ethylene C2H4 48.0 13.8 15.0 13.6
Propylene C3H6 46.4 13.4 14.6 12.9
Butylene C4H8 45.6 14.3 14.3 12.5
Pentene C5H10 45.2 14.3 14.3 12.5
Hexene C6H12 44.9 12.9 14.1 12.2
Heptene C7H14 44.6 12.9 14.1 12.2
Octene C8H16 44.5 12.9 14.1 12.1
Nonene C9H18 44.3 12.9 14.1 12.1
Decene C10H20 44.2 12.9 14.1 12.2
Dodecene C12H24 44.1 12.9 14.1 12.2
Tridecene C13H26 44.0 12.9 14.1 12.2
Tetradecene C14H28 44.0 12.9 14.1 12.2
Hexadecene C16H32 43.9 12.9 14.1 12.1
Octadecene C18H36 43.8 12.9 14.1 12.1
Average 13.2 14.2 12.4
Cyclic Alkenes
Cyclohexene C6H10 43.0 13.0 13.4 11.0
Methylcyclohexene C7H12 43.1 12.9 13.4 11.1
Average 13.0 13.4 11.1
Dienes
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 44.6 13.7 13.7 11.5
Cyclooctadiene C8H12 43.2 13.3 13.3 10.9
Average 13.5 13.5 11.2
Normal Alkynes
Acetylene C2H2 47.8 (15.6) 14.3 12.4
Heptyne C7H12 44.8 13.4 13.9 11.8
Octyne C8H14 44.7 13.3 14.0 11.9
Decyne C10H18 44.5 13.2 13.9 11.9
Dodecyne C12H22 44.3 13.2 14.0 12.0
Average 13.3 14.0 12.0
Arenes
Benzene C6H6 40.1 13.0 11.9 8.7
Toluene C7H8 39.7 12.9 12.1 9.0
Styrene C8H8 39.4 13.1 12.0 8.8
Ethylbenzene C8H10 39.4 12.9 12.3 9.4
Xylene C8H10 39.4 13.0 12.4 9.5
Propylbenzene C9H12 39.4 12.9 12.5 9.6
Trimethylbenzene C9H12 39.2 12.9 12.5 9.7
Cumene C9H12 39.2 12.9 12.9 9.6
Naphthalene C10H8 39.0 12.9 11.3 7.7

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Arenes (cont'd)
Tetralin C10H12 39.0 12.9 12.2 9.2
Butylbenzene C10H14 39.0 12.9 12.7 9.9
Diethylbenzene C10H14 39.0 13.7 13.5 11.1
p-Cymene C10H14 39.0 13.0 12.5 9.6
Methylnaphthalene C11H10 38.9 12.9 11.5 8.1
Pentylbenzene C11H16 38.8 13.0 12.8 10.2
Triethylbenzene C12H18 38.7 12.7 12.7 10.0
Average 13.0 12.4 9.4
Alcohols
Methyl alcohol CH4O 20.0 13.4 14.5 12.9
Ethyl alcohol C2H6O 27.7 13.2 14.5 12.7
n-Propyl alcohol C3H8O 31.8 13.3 14.5 12.7
Isopropyl alcohol C3H8O 31.8 13.3 14.5 12.7
Allyl alcohol C3H6O 31.4 14.2 13.8 11.7
n-Butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8
Isobutyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8
Sec-butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8
Ter-butyl alcohol C4H10O 34.4 13.3 14.5 12.8
n-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8
Isobutyl carbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8
Sec-butyl carbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8
Methylpropylcarbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8
Dimethylethylcarbinol C5H12O 36.2 13.3 14.5 12.8
n-Hexyl alcohol C6H14O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7
Dimethylbutylalcohol C6H14O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7
Ethylbutyl alcohol C6H12O 37.4 13.3 14.5 12.7
Cyclohexanol C6H12O 37.3 13.7 14.1 12.2
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 32.4 13.0 11.4 8.0
n-Heptyl alcohol C7H16O 39.8 13.7 15.0 13.6
n-Octyl alcohol C8H18O 40.6 13.7 15.0 13.6
n-Nonyl alcohol C9H20O 40.3 13.4 14.7 13.0
Average 13.3 14.5 12.8
Aldehydes
Formaldehyde CH2O 18.7 (17.5) 12.7 10.1
Acetaldehyde C2H4O 25.1 13.8 12.6 9.7
Butyraldehyde C4H8O 33.8 13.9 13.9 11.7
Crotonaldehyde C4H6O 34.8 15.2 13.8 11.8
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 32.4 13.4 11.2 7.5
Ethyl hexaldehyde C8H16O 39.4 13.7 12.7 9.9
Average 14.2 13.3 10.6

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Ketones
Acetone C3H6O 29.7 13.4 13.1 10.5
Methylethyl ketone C4H8O 32.7 13.4 13.4 11.0
Diethyl ketone C5H10O 33.7 12.9 13.2 10.7
Cyclohexanone C6H10O 35.9 13.8 13.3 11.0
Methyl butyl ketone C6H12O 35.2 12.9 13.3 11.0
Di-acetone alcohol C6H12O2 37.3 (16.9) (16.4) (15.7)
Dipropyl ketone C7H14O 38.6 13.8 14.3 12.5
Phenylbutyl ketone C11H14O 34.8 12.6 11.6 (8.4)
Average 13.2 13.2 11.1
Acids
Formic acid CH2O2 5.7 16.4 5.96 0
Acetic acid C2H4O2 14.6 13.7 9.95 5.65
Benzoic acid C7H6O2 24.4 12.4 9.66 5.18
Cresylic acid C8H802 34.0 (16.0) 13.1 10.6
Esters
Ethyl formate C2H6O2 20.2 13.3 11.3 7.8
n-Propyl formate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 8.8
n-Butyl formate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
Methyl acetate C3H6O2 20.2 13.3 11.3 7.8
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 8.8
n-Propyl acetate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
n-Butyl acetate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Amyl acetate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Cyclohexyl acetate C8H14O2 31.5 13.3 12.7 10.0
Octyl acetate C10H20O2 33.6 12.9 13.1 10.6
Ethylacetoacetate C6H10O3 30.3 (17.6) (14.9) (13.5)
Methyl propionate C4H8O2 23.9 13.2 12.0 7.4
Ethyl propionate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
n-Butyl propionate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Isobutyl propionate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
Amyl propionate C8H18O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
Methyl butyrate C5H10O2 26.6 13.0 12.3 9.4
Ethyl butyrate C6H12O2 28.7 13.0 12.6 9.8
Propyl butyrate C7H14O2 30.3 13.0 12.8 10.1
n-Butyl butyrate C8H16O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
Isobutyl butyrate C8H16O2 31.6 12.9 12.9 10.3
Ethyl laurate C14H28O2 37.2 13.3 13.8 11.6
Ethyl lactate C5H10O3 30.8 (18.9) (16.5) (16.0)
Butyl lactate C7H14O3 33.3 (16.8) (15.8) (14.8)

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Esters (cont'd)
Amyl lactate C8H16O3 34.3 (16.4) (15.6) (14.5)
Ethyl benzoate C9H10O2 34.5 (15.4) 13.1 10.5
Ethyl carbonate C5H10O3 30.8 (18.9) (16.5) (16.0)
Ethyl oxalate C6H10O4 28.7 (20.2) (16.6) (20.2)
Ethyl malonate C5H8O4 32.2 (17.9) (19.3) (20.4)
Average 13.0 12.5 9.7
Others
Camphor C10H16O 38.8 13.7 13.4 11.1
Cresol C7H8O 34.6 13.7 12.1 9.1
Resorcinol C6H6O2 26.0 13.7 10.8 5.9
Acrolein C3H4O 29.1 14.6 12.3 9.4
C-H-N Fuels
Acrylonitrile C3H3N 24.5 8.5 9.8 5.4
Diethylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8
n-Butylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8
sec-Butylamine C4H11N 38.0 11.2 15.8 14.8
Pyridine C5H9N 32.2 11.0 11.6 8.2
Aniline C6H7N 33.8 11.2 11.9 8.7
Picoline C6H7N 33.8 11.2 11.9 8.7
Triethylamine C6H15N 39.6 11.6 15.2 13.8
Toluidine C7H9N 34.9 11.3 12.1 9.1
Dimethylaniline C8H11N 35.7 11.5 12.3 9.3
Di-n-butylamine C8H19N 40.6 11.9 14.9 13.4
Quinoline C9H7N 36.1 12.4 11.8 8.5
Quinaldine C10H9N 36.7 12.4 11.9 8.7
Butylaniline C10H15N 37.0 11.7 12.5 9.7
Tri-n-butylamine C12H27N 41.6 12.1 14.6 12.9
Average 11.5 15.4 14.1
C-H-S Fuels
Carbon disulfide CS2 13.6 10.8 (23.5) (27.0)
Thiophene C4H4S 31.9 14.0 15.2 14.0
Methylthiophene C5H6S 33.2 13.6 14.8 13.2
Thiophenol C6H6S 34.1 13.8 14.2 12.3
Hexyl mercaptan C6H14S 33.0 11.6 14.8 13.2
Thiocresol C7H8S 34.9 13.5 14.1 12.1
Heptyl mercaptan C7H16S 33.7 11.6 14.4 12.7
Cresolmethylsulfide C8H11S 36.2 13.4 15.9 15.0
Decylmercaptan C10H22S 34.9 11.5 13.8 11.7
Dodecyl mercaptan C12H26S 35.5 11.5 13.6 11.4
Hexyl sulfide C12H26S 35.5 11.5 13.6 11.4

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc DH O* DHCO 2 *

DH CO
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
C-H-S Fuels (cont'd)
Heptyl sulfide C14H30S 35.9 11.5 13.4 11.1
Octyl sulfide C16H34S 36.3 11.5 13.3 10.9
Decyl sulfide C20H42S 36.8 11.4 13.1 10.7
Average 11.3 13.1 11.5
Carbon-Hydrogen Atoms in the Structure
Polyethylene CH2 43.6 12.8 13.9 11.8
Polypropylene CH 43.4 12.7 13.8 11.7
Polyisobutylene CH2 43.7 12.7 13.9 11.9
Polybutadiene CH1.5 42.8 13.1 13.1 10.7
Polystyrene CH 39.2 12.7 12.2 9.2
Expanded polystyrene:
GM47 CH1.1 38.1 12.4 11.3 7.7
GM49 CH1.1 38.1 12.4 11.3 7.7
GM51 CH 35.6 11.6 10.8 7.0
GM53 CH1.1 37.6 12.4 11.3 7.7
Average 12.5 12.4 9.5
Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Atoms in the Structure
Polyoxy-methylene CH2O 15.4 14.4 10.5 6.6
Polymethyl-methacrylate CH1.6O0.4 25.2 13.1 11.5 8.0
Polyester CH1.4O0.22 32.5 13.9 12.5 9.6
Epoxy CH1.3O0.20 28.8 12.1 10.8 6.9
Polycarbonate CH0.88O0.19 29.7 13.1 10.7 6.9
Cellulose triacetate CH1.3O0.67 17.6 13.3 9.6 5.1
Polyethylene-terephthalate CH0.80O0.40 22.0 13.2 9.6 5.1
Rigid phenolic foam CH1.1O0.24 36.4 (16.8) (14.0) (12.0)
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) CHN0.33 30.8 10.7 12.3 9.4
Red oak CH1.7O0.72N0.001 17.1 13.2 10.2 6.0
Douglas fir CH1.7O0.742N0.002 16.4 12.4 9.5 5.0
Nylon CH1.8O0.17N0.17 30.8 11.9 13.3 10.8
Flexible polyurethane foams:
GM21 CH1.8O0.30N0.05 26.2 12.1 11.5 8.0
GM23 CH1.8O0.35N0.06 27.2 13.7 12.5 9.7
GM25 CH1.7O0.32N0.07 24.6 12.0 11.1 7.5
GM27 CH1.7O0.03N0.08 23.2 11.2 10.4 6.2
Rigid polyurethane foams:
GM29 CH1.1O0.23N0.10 26.0 12.6 10.7 6.8
GM31 CH1.2O0.22N0.10 25.0 11.9 10.2 6.1
GM37 CH1.2O0.20N0.08 28.0 12.7 11.2 7.5

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel d Formula b DH Tc
DH O* DHCO 2 *
DH CO
(kJ/g)
(kJ/g) (kJ/g) (kJ/g)
Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Atoms in the Structure (cont'd)
Rigid polyisocyanurate foams:
GM41 CH1.0O0.19N0.11 26.2 12.5 10.4 6.4
GM43 CH0.93O0.20N0.11 22.2 10.8 8.9 (4.0)
Average 12.5 10.9 7.2
Carbon-Hydrogen-Chlorine Atoms in the Structure
Polyethylene with:
25% chlorine CH1.9Cl0.13 31.6 12.7 13.4 10.8
36% chlorine CH1.8Cl0.22 26.3 12.8 12.9 10.2
48% chlorine CH1.7Cl0.36 20.6 12.8 12.3 9.4
Polychloroprene CH1.3Cl0.30 25.3 13.3 12.7 9.5
Polyvinylchloride CH1.5Cl0.50 16.4 11.7 11.7 8.2
Polyvinyl-idenechloride CHCl 9.0 13.5 9.8 (5.5)
Average 12.8 12.1 9.6
Carbon-Hydrogen-Fluorine Atoms in the Structure
Teflon TFE CF2 6.2 9.7 (7.1) (1.1)
Teflon FEP CF1.8 4.8 (6.9) (5.0) (0)
Tefzel ETFE CHF 12.6 12.6 9.2 (4.4)
Teflon PFA CF1.7O0.01 5.0 (8.0) (5.3) (0)
Kel-F (CTFE) CF1.5Cl0.50 6.5 11.8 8.6 (3.5)
Halar (E-CTFE) CHF0.75Cl0.25 12.0 9.8 9.8 (5.4)
Kynar (PVF2) CHF 13.3 12.4 9.1 (4.2)
Tedlar (PVF) CH1.5F0.50 13.5 (6.5) (7.1) (1.1)
Carbon-Hydrogen-Oxygen-Silicone Atoms in the Structure
Silicone-1 CH1.3O0.25Si0.18 21.7 12.6 11.0 7.4
Silicone-2 CH1.5O0.30Si0.26 21.3 13.9 12.4 9.4
Silicone-3 CH3O0.50Si0.50 25.1 14.5 21.0 23.0
Note: Numbers in parentheses not used for averaging.
a From the data measured in the FM Global Research Flammability Laboratory.
b From the data for the elemental composition of the polymeric materials measured in the FM Global Research

Flammability Laboratory.
c From the data measured by the FM Global Research Flammability Laboratory in the oxygen bomb calorimeter

and corrected for water as a gas and for the residue.

d Trade names from Harper, C.A., Ed. Handbook of Plastics and Elastomers. 1975: McGraw-Hill Book Company,

New York.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.4.3 Pure Substances

Heat of Combustion and Related Properties of Pure Substances
Molecular h cl Oxygen Boiling Latent Heat of Liquid Heat Vapor Heat
Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl ro
Material Composition Weight, Fuel Mass Temp., Tb Vaporization, Capacity, Cpl Capacity, Cpv
(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
W (MJ/kg of O2) Ratio, ro (°C) Δhv (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg●°C) (kJ/kg●°C)

Acetaldehyde C2H4O 44.05 27.07 25.07 13.81 1.816 20.8 – 1.94 1.24
Acetic acid C2H4O2 60.05 14.56 13.09 12.28 1.066 118.1 395 1.11
Acetone C3H6O 58.08 30.83 28.56 12.96 2.204 56.5 501 2.12 1.29
Acetylene C2H2 26.04 49.91 48.22 15.70 3.072 –84.0 – – 1.69
Acrolein C3H4O 56.06 29.08 27.51 13.77 1.998 52.5 505 – 1.17
Acrylonitrile C3H3N 53.06 33.16 31.92 14.11 2.262 77.3 615 2.10 1.20
(Allene) → propadiene
Ammonium perchlorate* NH4ClO4 117.49 2.35 2.16 3.97 0.545 – – –
iso-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 88.15 37.48 34.49 12.67 2.723 132.0 501 2.90 1.50
Aniline C6H7N 93.12 36.44 34.79 13.06 2.663 184.4 478 2.08 1.16
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 106.12 33.25 32.01 13.27 2.412 179.2 385 1.61
Benzene C6H6 78.11 41.83 40.14 13.06 3.073 80.1 389 1.72 1.05
Benzoic acid* C7H6O2 122.12 26.43 25.35 12.90 1.965 250.8 415 – 0.85
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 108.13 34.56 32.93 13.09 2.515 205.7 467 2.00 1.19
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 166.30 45.35 42.44 12.61 3.367 236.0 263
1,2-Butadiene C4H6 54.09 47.95 45.51 13.99 3.254 10.8 – – 1.48
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 54.09 46.99 44.55 13.69 3.254 –4.4 – – 1.47
(1,3-Butadiyne) → diacetylene
n-Butane C4H10 58.12 49.50 45.72 12.77 3.579 –0.5 – 2.30 1.68
iso-Butane C4H10 58.12 48.95 45.17 12.62 3.579 –11.8 – – 1.67
1-Butene C4H8 56.10 48.44 45.31 13.24 3.422 –6.2 – – 1.53
n-Butylamine C4H11N 73.14 41.75 38.45 12.84 2.994 77.8 372 2.57 1.62
d-Camphor* C10H16O 152.23 38.75 36.44 12.84 2.838 203.4 – – 0.82
Carbon* C 12.01 32.80 32.80 12.31 2.664 4,200.0 – – 0.71
Carbon disulfide CS2 76.13 6.34 6.34 5.03 1.261 46.5 351 1.00 0.60
Carbon monoxide CO 28.01 10.10 10.10 17.69 0.571 –191.3 – – 1.04
Cellulose* C6H10O5 162.14 17.47 16.12 13.61 1.184 – – 1.16 –
(Chloroethylene) → vinyl chloride
(Chloroform) → trichloromethane
Chlorotrifluoroethylene C2F3Cl 116.47 2.00 2.00 3.64 0.549 –28.3 188 1.34 0.72
m-Cresol C7H8O 108.13 34.26 32.64 12.98 2.515 202.2 399 2.00 1.13
Cumene C9H12 120.19 43.40 41.20 12.90 3.195 152.3 312 1.77 1.26
Cyanogen C2N2 52.04 21.06 21.06 17.12 1.230 –21.2 – – 1.12
Cyclobutane C4H8 56.10 48.91 45.77 13.38 3.422 12.9 – – 1.29
Cyclohexane C6H12 84.16 46.58 43.45 12.70 3.422 80.7 357 1.84 1.26
Cyclohexene C6H10 82.14 45.67 42.99 12.99 3.311 82.8 371 1.80 1.28
Cyclohexylamine C6H13N 99.18 41.05 38.17 12.79 2.984 134.5
Cyclopentane C5H10 70.13 46.93 43.80 12.80 3.422 49.3 389 2.23 1.18
Cyclopropane C3H6 42.08 49.70 46.57 13.61 3.422 –32.9 – 1.92 1.33
(Decahydronaphthalene) → cis-decalin
cis-Decalin C10H18 138.24 45.49 42.63 12.70 3.356 195.8 309 1.67 1.21
n-Decane C10H22 142.28 47.64 44.24 12.69 3.486 174.1 276 2.19 1.85
Diacetylene C4H2 50.06 46.60 45.72 15.89 2.877 10.3 – – 1.47
(Diamine) → hydrazine
Diborane H6B2 27.69 79.80 79.80 23.02 3.467 –92.5 – – 1.75

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Molecular h cl Oxygen Boiling Latent Heat of Liquid Heat Vapor Heat
Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl ro
Material Composition Weight, Fuel Mass Temp., Tb Vaporization, Capacity, Cpl Capacity, Cpv
(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
W (MJ/kg of O2) Ratio, ro (°C) Δhv (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg●°C) (kJ/kg●°C)

Dichloromethane CH2Cl2 84.94 6.54 6.02 10.65 0.565 39.7 330 1.18 0.80
Diethyl cyclohexane C10H20 140.26 46.30 43.17 12.58 3.422 174.0 1.87
Diethyl ether C4H10O 74.12 36.75 33.79 13.04 2.590 34.6 360 2.34 1.52
(2,4 Diisocyanotoulene) → toluene diisocyanate
(Diisopropyl ether) → iso-propyl ether
Dimethylamine C2H7N 45.08 38.66 35.25 13.24 2.662 6.9 – – 1.80
(Dimethyl aniline) → xylidene
Dimethyldecalin C12H22 166.30 45.70 42.79 13.15 3.254 220.0 260
(Dimethyl ether) → methyl ether
1,1-Dimethyl-
C2H8N2 60.10 32.95 30.03 14.10 2.130 25.0 578 2.73
hydrazine (UDMH)
Dimethyl sulfoxide C2H6SO 78.13 29.88 28.19 15.30 1.843 189.0 677 1.89 1.14
1,3 Dioxane C4H8O2 88.10 26.57 24.58 9.66 2.543 105.0 404
1,4 Dioxane C4H8O2 88.10 26.83 24.84 9.77 2.543 101.1 406 1.74 1.07
Ethane C2H6 30.07 51.87 47.49 12.75 3.725 –88.6 – – 1.75
Ethanol C2H6O 46.07 29.67 26.81 12.87 2.084 78.5 837 2.43 1.42
(Ethene) → ethylene
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 88.10 25.41 23.41 12.89 1.816 77.2 367 1.94 1.29
Ethyl acrylate C5H8O2 100.12 27.44 25.69 13.39 1.918 100.0 290 1.14
Ethylamine C2H7N 45.08 38.63 35.22 13.23 2.662 16.5 – 2.89 1.61
Ethyl benzene C8H10 106.16 43.00 40.93 12.93 3.165 136.1 339 1.75 1.21
Ethylene C2H4 28.05 50.30 47.17 13.78 3.422 –103.9 – 2.38 1.56
Ethylene glycol C2H6O2 62.07 19.17 17.05 13.22 1.289 197.5 800 2.43 1.56
Ethylene oxide C2H4O 44.05 29.65 27.65 15.23 1.816 10.7 – 1.97 1.10
(Ethylene trichloride) → trichloroethylene
(Ethyl ether) → diethyl ether
Formaldehyde CH2O 30.03 18.76 17.30 16.23 1.066 –19.3 – – 1.18
Formic acid CH2O2 46.03 5.53 4.58 13.15 0.348 100.5 476 2.15 0.98
Furan C4H4O 68.07 30.61 29.32 13.86 2.115 31.4 398 1.69 0.96
a-D-glucose* C6H12O6 180.16 15.55 14.08 13.21 1.066 – – – –
(Glycerine) → glycerol
Glycerol C3H8O3 92.10 17.95 16.04 13.19 1.216 290.0 800 2.42 1.25
(Glycerol trinitrate) → nitroglycerin
n-Heptane C7H16 100.20 48.07 44.56 12.68 3.513 98.4 316 2.20 1.66
n-Heptene C7H14 98.18 47.44 44.31 12.95 3.422 93.6 317 2.17 1.58
Hexadecane C16H34 226.43 47.25 43.95 12.70 3.462 286.7 226 2.22 1.64
Hexamethyldisiloxane C6H18Si2O 162.38 38.30 35.80 15.16 2.364 100.1 192 2.01 –
(Hexamethylenetetramine) → methenamine
n-Hexane C6H14 86.17 48.31 44.74 12.68 3.528 68.7 335 2.24 1.66
n-Hexene C6H12 84.16 47.57 44.44 12.99 3.422 63.5 333 2.18 1.57
Hydrazine H4N2 32.05 52.08 49.34 49.40 0.998 113.5 1,180 3.08 1.65
Hydrazoic acid HN3 43.02 15.28 14.77 79.40 0.186 35.7 690 – 1.02
Hydrogen H2 2.00 141.79 130.80 16.35 8.000 –252.7 – – 14.42
(Hydrogen azide) → hydrazoic acid
Hydrogen cyanide HCN 27.03 13.86 13.05 8.82 1.480 25.7 933 2.61 1.33
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 34.08 48.54 47.25 16.77 2.817 –60.3 548 – 1.00
Maleic anhydride* C4H2O3 74.04 18.77 18.17 14.01 1.297 202.0 – – –
Melamine* C3H6N6 126.13 15.58 14.54 12.73 1.142 – – – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Methane CH4 16.04 55.50 50.03 12.51 4.000 –161.5 – – 2.23

Methanol CH4O 32.04 22.68 19.94 13.29 1.500 64.8 1,101 2.37 1.37
Methenamine* C6H12N4 140.19 29.97 28.08 13.67 2.054 – – – –
2-Methoxy-ethanol C3H8O2 76.09 24.23 21.92 13.03 1.682 124.4 583 2.23 –
Methylamine CH5N 31.06 34.16 30.62 13.21 2.318 –6.3 – – 1.61
(2-Methyl 1-butanol) → iso-amyl alcohol
(Methyl chloride) → dichloromethane
Methyl ether C2H6O 46.07 31.70 28.84 13.84 2.084 –24.9 – – 1.43
Methyl ethyl ketone C4H8O 72.10 33.90 31.46 12.89 2.441 79.6 434 2.30 1.43
1-Methylnaphthalene C11H10 142.19 40.88 39.33 12.95 3.038 244.7 323 1.58 1.12
Methyl meth-acrylate C5H8O2 100.11 27.37 25.61 12.33 2.078 101.0 360 1.91 –
Methyl nitrate CH3NO3 77.04 8.67 7.81 75.10 0.104 64.6 409 2.04 0.99
(2-Methyl propane) → iso-butane
Naphthalene* C10H8 128.16 40.21 38.84 12.96 2.996 217.9 – 1.18 1.03
Nitrobenzene C6H5NO2 123.11 25.11 24.22 14.90 1.625 210.7 330 1.52 –
Nitroglycerin C3H5N3O9 227.09 6.82 6.34 – – Unstable 462 1.49 –
Nitromethane CH3NO2 61.04 11.62 10.54 15.08 0.699 101.1 567 1.74 0.94

n-Nonane C9H20 128.25 47.76 44.33 12.69 3.493 150.6 295 2.10 1.65

Octamethyl-cyclotetrasi-
C8H24Si4O4 296.62 26.90 25.10 14.56 1.725 175.0 127 1.88 –
loxane
n-Octane C8H18 114.22 47.90 44.44 12.69 3.502 125.6 301 2.20 1.65
iso-Octane C8H18 114.22 47.77 44.31 12.65 3.502 117.7 272 2.15 1.65
1-Octene C8H10 112.21 47.33 44.20 12.92 3.422 121.3 301 2.19 1.59
(1-Octylene) → 1-octene
1,2-Pentadiene C5H8 68.11 47.31 44.71 13.60 3.288 44.9 405 2.21 1.55
n-Pentane C5H12 72.15 48.64 44.98 12.68 3.548 36.0 357 2.33 1.67
1-Pentene C5H10 70.13 47.77 44.64 13.04 3.422 30.0 359 2.16 1.56
Phenol* C6H6O 94.11 32.45 31.05 13.05 2.380 181.8 433 1.43 1.10
Phosgene COCl2 98.92 1.74 1.74 10.74 0.162 8.3 247 1.02 0.58
Propadiene C3H4 40.06 48.54 46.35 14.51 3.195 –34.6 – – 1.44
Propane C3H8 44.09 50.35 46.36 12.78 3.629 –42.2 – 2.23 1.67
n-Propanol C3H8O 60.09 33.61 30.68 12.81 2.396 97.2 686 2.50 1.45
iso-Propanol C3H8O 60.09 33.38 30.45 12.71 2.396 80.3 663 2.42 1.48
Propene C3H6 42.08 48.92 45.79 13.38 3.422 –47.7 – – 1.52
(iso-Propylbenzene) → cumene
(Propylene) → propene
iso-Propyl ether C6H14O 102.17 39.26 36.25 12.86 2.819 67.8 286 2.14 1.55
Propyne C3H4 40.06 48.36 46.17 14.45 3.195 –23.3 – – 1.51
Styrene C8H8 104.14 42.21 40.52 13.19 3.073 145.2 356 1.76 1.17
Sucrose* C12H22O11 342.30 16.49 15.08 13.44 1.122 – – 1.24 –
(1,2,3,4-Tetrahydronaphthalene) → tetralin
Tetralin C10H12 132.20 42.60 40.60 12.90 3.147 207.0 425 1.64 1.19
Tetranitro-methane CN4O8 196.04 2.20 2.20 – – 125.7 196 – –
Toluene C7H8 92.13 42.43 40.52 12.97 3.126 110.4 360 1.67 1.12
Toluene diisocyanate C9H6N2O2 174.16 24.32 23.56 13.50 1.746 120.0 – 1.65 –
Triethanolamine C6H15NO3 149.19 29.29 27.08 15.30 1.770 360.0 – – –
Triethylamine C6H15N 101.19 43.19 39.93 12.95 3.083 89.5 303 2.22 1.59
1,1,2-Trichloroethane C2H3Cl3 133.42 7.77 7.28 11.02 0.660 114.0 260 1.11 0.67

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Trichloro-ethylene C2HCl3 131.40 6.77 6.60 12.05 0.548 86.9 245 1.07 0.61
Trichloro-methane CHCl3 119.39 3.39 3.21 9.60 0.335 61.7 249 0.97 0.55
Trinitromethane CHN3O6 151.04 3.41 3.25 – – Unstable – – –
Trinitrotoluene* C7H5N3O6 227.13 15.12 14.64 19.80 0.740 240.0 322 1.40 –
Trioxane C3H6O3 90.08 16.57 15.11 14.17 1.066 114.5 450 – –
Urea* CH4ON2 60.06 10.52 9.06 11.34 0.799 – – – 1.55
Vinyl acetate C4H6O2 86.09 24.18 22.65 13.54 1.673 72.5 167 2.00 1.05
Vinyl acetylene C4H4 52.07 47.05 45.36 14.76 3.073 5.1 – – 1.41
Vinyl bromide C2H3Br 106.96 12.10 11.48 13.95 0.823 15.6 – 2.42 0.53
Vinyl chloride C2H3Cl 62.50 20.02 16.86 11.97 1.408 –13.8 – – 0.86
(Vinyl trichloride) → 1,1,2-trichlorolthane
Xylenes C8H10 106.16 42.89 40.82 12.90 3.165 138–144 343 1.72 1.21
Xylidene C8H11N 121.22 38.28 36.29 12.79 2.838 192.7 366 1.77 –

*Denotes substance in crystalline solid form; otherwise, liquid if Tb > 25°C, gaseous if Tb > 25°C.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.4.4 Plastics
Heats of Combustion and Related Properties of Plastics
Dh cl Oxygen Heat Capacity
Molecular Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl ro
Material Unit Composition Fuel Mass Solid, Cps
Weight, W (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
(MJ/kg of O2) Ratio, ro (kJ/kg●°C)

Acrylonitrile-butadiene styrene copolymer – – 35.25 33.75 1.41–1.59

Bisphenol A epoxy C11.85H20.37O2.83N0.3 212.10 33.53 31.42 13.41 2.343
Butadiene-acrylonitrile 37% copolymer – – 39.94
Butadiene/styrene 8.58% copolymer C4.18H6.09 56.30 44.84 42.49 13.11 3.241 1.94
Butadiene/styrene 25.5% copolymer C4.60H6.29 61.55 44.19 41.95 13.07 3.209 1.82
Cellulose acetate (triacetate) C12H16O8 288.14 18.88 17.66 13.25 1.333 1.34
Cellulose acetate-butyrate C12H18O7 274.27 23.70 22.30 14.67 1.517 1.70
Epoxy, unhardened C31H36O5.5 496.63 32.92 31.32 13.05 2.400
Epoxy, hardened C39H40O8.5 644.74 30.27 28.90 13.01 2.221
Melamine formaldehyde (Formica™) C6H6N6 162.08 19.33 18.52 12.51 1.481 1.46
Nylon 6 C6H11NO 113.08 30.1–31.7 28.0–29.6 12.30 2.335 1.52
Nylon 6,6 C12H22N2O2 226.16 31.6–31.7 29.5–29.6 12.30 2.405 1.70
Nylon 11 (Rilsan) C11H21NO 183.14 36.99 34.47 12.33 2.796 1.70–2.30
Phenol formaldehyde C15H12O2 224.17 27.9–31.6 26.7–30.4 11.80 2.427 1.70
foam 21.6–27.4 20.2–26.2
Polyacenaphthalene C12H8 152.14 39.23 38.14 12.95 2.945
Polyacrylonitrile C3H3N 53.04 32.22 30.98 13.70 2.262 1.50
Polyallylphthalate C14H14O 198.17 27.74 26.19 9.54 2.745
(Polyamides) → nylon
Poly-1,4-butadiene C4H6 54.05 45.19 42.75 13.13 3.256
Poly-1-butene C4H8 56.05 46.48 43.35 12.65 3.426 1.88
Polycarbonate C16H14O3 254.19 30.99 29.78 13.14 2.266 1.26
Polycarbon suboxide C3O2 68.03 13.78 13.78 14.64 0.941
Polychlorotrifluorethylene C2F3Cl 116.47 1.12 1.12 2.04 0.549 0.92
Polydiphenylbutadiene C16H10 202.18 39.30 38.20 13.05 2.928

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Dh cl Oxygen Heat Capacity

Molecular Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl ro
Material Unit Composition Fuel Mass Solid, Cps
Weight, W (MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
(MJ/kg of O2) Ratio, ro (kJ/kg●°C)

Polyester, unsaturated C5.77H6.25O1.63 101.60 21.6–29.8 20.3–28.5 11.90 2.053 1.20–2.30

Polyether, chlorinated C5H8OCl2 154.97 17.84 16.71 12.45 1.342
Polyethylene C2H4 28.03 46.2–46.5 43.1–43.4 12.63 3.425 1.83–2.30
Polyethylene oxide C2H4O 44.02 26.65 24.66 13.57 1.817
Polyethylene terephthalate C10H8O4 192.11 22.18 21.27 12.77 1.666 1.00
Polyformaldehyde CH2O 30.01 16.93 15.86 14.88 1.066 1.46
Poly-1-hexene sulfone C6H12SO2 148.13 29.78 28.00 14.40 1.944
Polyhydrocyanic acid HCN 27.02 23.26 22.45 15.17 1.480
(Polyisobutylene) → poly-1-butene
Polyisocyanurate foam – 26.30 22.2–26.2
Polyisoprene C5H8 68.06 44.90 42.30 12.90 3.291
Poly-3-methyl-1-butene C5H10 70.06 46.55 43.42 12.67 3.426
Polymethyl methacrylate C5H8O2 100.06 26.64 24.88 12.97 1.919 1.44
Poly-4-methyl-1-pentene C6H12 84.08 46.52 43.39 12.67 3.425 2.18
Poly-α-methylstyrene C9H10 118.11 42.31 40.45 13.00 3.116
Polynitroethylene C2H3O2N 73.03 15.96 15.06 19.64 0.767
Polyoxymethylene CH2O 30.01 16.93 15.65 14.68 1.066
Polyoxytrimethylene C3H6O 58.04 31.52 29.25 13.27 2.205
Poly-1-pentene C5H10 70.06 45.58 42.45 12.39 3.426
Polyphenylacetylene C8H6 102.09 40.00 38.70 13.00 2.978
Polyphenylene oxide C8H8O 120.09 34.59 33.13 13.09 2.531 1.34
Polypropene sulfone C3H6SO2 106.10 23.82 22.58 16.64 1.357
Poly-b-propiolactone C3H4O2 72.14 19.35 18.13 13.62 1.331
Polypropylene C3H6 42.04 46.37 43.23 12.62 3.824 2.10
Polypropylene oxide C3H6O 58.04 31.17 28.90 13.11 2.205
Polystyrene C8H8 104.10 41.4–42.5 39.7–39.8 12.93 3.074 1.40
Polystyrene-foam – 39.70 35.6–40.8
Polystyrene-foam, FR – 41.2–42.9
Polysulfones, butene C4H8SO2 120.11 24.04–26.47 22.25–25.01 14.79 1.598 1.30
Polysulfur S 32.06 9.72 9.72 9.74 0.998
Polytetrafluoroethylene C2F4 100.02 5.00 5.00 7.81 0.640 1.02
Polytetrahydrofuran C4H8O 72.05 34.39 31.85 13.04 2.443
Polyurea C15H18O4N4 318.20 24.91 23.67 13.45 1.760
Polyurethane C6.3H7.1NO2.1 130.30 23.90 22.70 13.16 1.725 1.75–1.84
Polyurethane-foam – 26.1–31.6 23.2–28.0
Polyurethane-foam, FR – 24.0–25.0
Polyvinyl acetate C4H6O2 86.05 23.04 21.51 12.86 1.673
Polyvinyl alcohol C2H4 44.03 25.00 23.01 12.66 1.817 1.70
Polyvinyl butyral C8H14O2 142.10 32.90 30.70 13.00 2.365
Polyvinyl chloride C2H3Cl 62.48 17.95 16.90 12.00 1.408 0.90–1.20
Polyvinyl-foam – 22.83 1.30–2.10
Polyvinyl fluoride C2H3F 46.02 21.70 20.27 10.60 1.912
Polyvinylidene chloride C2H2Cl2 96.93 10.52 10.07 12.21 0.825 1.34
Polyvinylidene fluoride C2H2F2 64.02 14.77 14.08 11.26 1.250 1.38
Urea formaldehyde C3H6O2N2 102.05 15.90 14.61 13.31 1.098 1.60–2.10
Urea formaldehyde-foam – – 14.80
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.4.5 Miscellaneous Materials

Heats of Combustion of Miscellaneous Materials

Material Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl

(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
Acetate (see cellulose acetate)
Acrylic fiber 30.6–30.8
Blasting powder 2.1–2.4
Butter 38.5
Celluloid (cellulose nitrate and camphor) 17.5–20.6 16.4–19.2
Cellulose acetate fiber, C8H12O6 17.8–18.4 16.4–17.0
Cellulose diacetate fiber, C10H14O7 18.7
Cellulose nitrate, C6H9N1O7/C6H8N2O9/C6H7N3O11 9.11–13.48
Cellulose triacetate fiber, C12H16O8 18.8 17.6
Charcoal 33.7–34.7 33.2–34.2
Coal–anthracite 30.9–34.6 30.5–34.2
–bituminous 24.7–36.3
Coke 28.0–31.0 23.6–35.2
Cork 26.1 28.0–31.0
Cotton 16.5–20.4
Dynamite 5.4
Epoxy, C11.9H20.4O2.8N0.3/C6.064H7.550O1.222 32.8–33.5 31.1–31.4
Fat, animal 39.8
Flint powder 3.0–3.1
Fuel oil–No. 1 46.1
–No. 6 42.5
Gasketing–chlorosulfonated polyethylene
(Hypalon) 28.5
–vinylidene fluoride/ hexafluoropro 14.0–15.1
pylene (Fluorel, Viton A)
Gasoline 46.8 43.7
Jet fuel–JP1 43.0
–JP3 43.5
–JP4 46.6 43.5
–JP5 45.9 43.0
Kerosene (jet fuel A) 46.4 43.3
Lanolin (wool fat) 40.8
Lard 40.1
Leather 18.2–19.8
Lignin, C2.6H3O 24.7–26.4 23.4–25.1
Lignite 22.4–33.3
Modacrylic fiber 24.7
Naphtha 43.0–47.1 40.9–43.9
Neoprene, C5H5Cl–gum 24.3
–foam 9.7–26.8

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Material Gross, Dh cu Net, Dh cl

(MJ/kg) (MJ/kg)
Nomex™ (polymethaphenylene isophthalamide) fiber,
27.0–28.7
C14H10O2N2
Oil–castor 37.1
–linseed 39.2–39.4
–mineral 45.8–46.0
–olive 39.6
–solar 41.8
Paper–brown 16.3–17.9
–magazine 12.7
–newsprint 19.7
–wax 21.5
Paraffin wax 46.2 43.1
Peat 16.7–21.6
Petroleum jelly, C7.118H12.957O0.091 45.9
Rayon fiber 13.6–19.5
Rubber–buna N 34.7–35.6
–butyl 45.8
–isoprene (natural), C5H8 44.9 42.3
–latex foam 33.9–40.6
–GRS 44.2
–tire, auto 32.6
Silicone rubber (SiC2H6O) 15.5–16.8
–foam 14.0–19.5
Sisal 15.9
Spandex fiber 31.4
Starch 17.6 16.2
Straw 15.6
Sulfur–rhombic 9.28
–monoclinic 9.29
Tobacco 15.8
Wheat 15.0
Wood–beech 20.0 18.7
–birch 20.0 18.7
–Douglas fir 21.0 19.6
–maple 19.1 17.8
–red oak 20.2 18.7
–spruce 21.8 20.4
–white pine 19.2 17.8
–hardboard 19.9
Woodflour 19.8
Wool 20.7–26.6
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.4.6 Selected Metals and Nonmetallic Elements

Heats of Combustion of Selected Metals and Nonmetallic Elements

Element Symbol Element Name Oxide Formed Dhc (MJ/kg)
Al Aluminum Al2O3 31.06
B Boron B2O3 58.83
Ba Barium BaO 4.03
Be Beryllium BeO 67.48
Ca Calcium CaO 15.58
Cd Cadmium CdO 2.30
Ce Cerium CeO2 7.77
Cr Chromium Cr2O3 10.78
Cu Copper CuO 2.48
Fe Iron FeO 4.87
Hf Hafnium HfO2 6.42
Li Lithium Li2O 43.08
Mg Magnesium MgO 24.73
Na Sodium Na2O 9.00
Sr Strontium SrO 6.76
Th Thorium ThO2 5.29
Ti Titanium TiO2 19.6
U Uranium UO2 4.56
W Tungsten WO3 4.59
Zn Zinc ZnO 5.37
Zr Zirconium ZrO2 12.03
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.5 Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids

Autoignition Temperatures for Liquids
Fuel Autoignition Temperature (°C)
Acetaldehyde 185.0
Acetone 537.8
Acetylene 305.0
Acrolein 233.9
Acrylonitrile (564) 481.1
Ammonia 651.1
Aniline 617.2
Benzene 562.2
Benzyl alcohol 436.1
1,2-Butadiene 428.9
Butanone (methyl ethyl ketone) 515.6
1-Butene 383.9
n-Butene 405.0

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Fuel Autoignition Temperature (°C)

d-Camphor 466.1
Carbon disulfide 90.0
Carbon monoxide 608.9
Cyclobutane 426.7
Cyclohexane 260.0
Cyclohexene 265.0
Cyclopentane 361.1
Cyclopropane 497.8
n-Decane 207.8
Diethyl ether 180.0
Ethane 515.0
Ethanol 422.8
Ethyl acetate 426.7
Ethylamine 383.9
Ethylene oxide 428.9
n-Heptane 222.8
n-Hexane 408.9
Hydrogen 400.0
iso-Propanol 398.9
Methane 600.0
Methanol 463.9
Methyl formate 456.1
n-Nonane 206.1
n-Octane 220.0
n-Pentane 260.0
1-Pentene 217.2
Propane 450.0
n-Propanol 371.1
Propene 455.0
Toluene 536.1
m-Xylene 527.8
o-Xylene 463.9
p-Xylene 528.9
For more information, see Table C.1 and Chapter 18, “Ignition of Liquids,” in the
SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition.
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition,
with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.6 Critical Heat Flux and Thermal Response Parameter of Materials

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)
Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Natural Materials
Flour 10 – 218 –
Sugar 10 – 255 –
Tissue paper 10 – 95 –
Newspaper 10 – 108 –
Wood (red oak) 10 – 134 –
Wood (Douglas fir) 10 – 138 –
Wood (Douglas fir)/fire retarded (FR) 10 – 251 –
Wood (hemlock) – – – 175
Corrugated paper (light) 10 – 152 –
Corrugated paper (heavy), with:
No coating 10 – 189 –
Coating (10% by weight) 15 – 435 –
Coating (15% by weight) 15 – 526 –
Coating (20% by weight) 15 – 714 –
Wool 100% – – – 252
Synthetics (Ordinary Polymers)
Acrylic fiber 100% – – – 180
Acrylic (modified)/FR – – – 526
Acrylonitrile-butadiene- styrene (ABS) – 9–15 – 317–365
ABS-FR – 13 – 330
Butyl rubber (BR, polyisobutylene) – 19 – 211
Epoxy (EP) 13 20 162 –
Isophthalic polyester – – – 296
Nitrile-butadiene (Buna-N, NBR) – 26 – 308
Polyamide (PA, Nylon) 6 15 15–20 154–270 379–461
PA 66 – 15–21 – 352
PA 11 – 15–21 – 352
PPO-PS – – – 455
Polyethylenephthalate (PEN) – 24 – 545
Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) 10 – 174 –
Polyethylene (PE) high density (HD) 15 15 321–454 343
PE (cross-linked) 15 – 224–301 442
PE (cross-linked)/nonhalogenated FR 15 – 652–700 581
Polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR) 10 17 174 294
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 10 6–23 274 274
Polymethylpentene (PMP) – – – –
Polyoxymethylene (POM) 13 – 250–269 –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Polypropylene (PP) 10–15 15 277–333 193–336
PP/FR panel 15 – 315 –
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) – – – 323
Polystyrene (PS) 13 – 162 –
PS-FR – – 221–667 –
Polyvinyl ester – – – 263
Polyvinyl ester panels 13–15 – 440–700 –
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) – 10–15 – 198
Unsaturated polyester (UPT) – – 343 –
Vinyl ester (VE) – – – 285
Vinyl thermoplastic elastomer – – 294 –
Foams (Wall, Ceiling Insulation Materials, etc.)
Polyurethanes 13–40 – 55–221 –
Polystyrenes 10–15 – 111–317 –
Latex 16 – 113–172 –
Phenolic 20 – 610 –
Synthetic High-Temperature Engineered Polymers
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) – 25 – 324
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) – 15–26 – 537
Polyamideimide (PAI, Torlon®) – 40–50 – 378
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) – ~60 – –
Polybenzoylphenylene (PX) – – – 626
Polycarbonate (PC) 15 15–20 357–455 455
PC panel 16 – 420 –
PC/ABS (70/30) – – – 344
PC/ABS-FR – – – 391
Polydimethylphenyleneoxide (PPO) – 19 – 342
Polyethylenephthalate (PEN) – – 545 –
Polyethersulfone (PESU, Radel-A®) – 19–30 – 360
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) 30 30–40 550 623
Polyetherimide (PEI) 25 25–40 435 435
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) – – – 323
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) – 35–38 – 395
Polyphenylsulfone (Radel-R® PPSU) – 32–35 512 512
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) – – – 323
Polysulfone (PSU) 30 26 469 424
Polydimethylsiloxane (SIR) – 34 – 429

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Halogenated
Polychloroprene (neoprene, CR) – 20–37 – 245
Polytetrafluoroethylene-perfluoroether (PFA) – – – 787
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 50 – 680 –
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) – – – 504
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) – – 609 –
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) – – – 303
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) – 30 – 460
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethyl-ene (ETFE, Tefzel )
® 25 17–27 481 478
Polyethylenechlorotrifluoro-ethylene (ECTFE) 38 38–74 450 410
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP, Teflon )
® 38–50 – 680 –
FEP fabric 50 – 299 –
FEP coated on metal 20 – 488 –
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) – – – 504
Polyvinylchloride (PVC, flexible) 10 21 215–263 194
PVC flexible (LOI = 0.20) – – – 285
PVC flexible (LOI = 0.25) – – – 401
PVC flexible, FR (alkyl aryl phosphate, LOI = 0.28) – – – 401
PVC flexible, FR (Sb2O3, LOI = 0.30) – – – 397
PVC flexible, FR (tertiary phosphate, LOI = 0.34) – – – 345
PVC flexible, FR – – – 222–263
PVC, rigid 15 15–28 357 357–418
PVC, rigid (LOI = 0.50) – – – 388
PVC sheets 15 – 446–590 –
PVC panel 17 – 321 –
PVC fabric 26 – 217 –
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) 40 40 435 590–1,111
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) – – – 303
Composite and Fiber Reinforced (Glass–Gl and Graphite–Gr):
Acrylic/Gl – – – 180
Bismaleimide (BMI)/Gr – – – 513–608
Cyanate ester/Gl – – – 302
Epoxy (EP)/Gl (thin sheet) 10 – 156 198
EP/Gl 10–15 – 388–540 288–665
EP/Gr 15 – 395–481 395–554
EP/Gr/intumescent coating (IC) – – 962 –
EP/Gr/ceramic coating (CC) – – 2,273 –
EP/Gr/CC/IC – – 1,786 –
EP/Kevlar (thin sheet) – – – 120

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Graphite composite 40 – 400 –
Isophthalic polyester/Gl (77%) – – – 426
Polyarylsulfone/Gr – – – 360
Polyamide (PA6)/Gl (10%) – – – 303
PA6/Gl (20%) – – – 315
PA6/Gl (30%) – – – 318
PA6/Gl (50%) – – – 359–371
Polybutyleneterephthalate (PBT)/Gl (10%) – – – 317
PBT/Gl (20%) – – – 308
PBT/Gl (30%) – – – 325
PBT/Gl (50%) – – – 381
Polycarbonate (PC)/Gl (10%) – – – 383
PC/Gl (20%) – – – 362
PC/Gl (30%) – – – 373
PC/Gl (50%) – – – 402
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK)/Gl (30%) – – – 301
PEEK/Gr – – – 514
Polyester (PEST)/Gl 10–15 – 275–406 –
Polyether ketoneketone (PEKK)/Gl – – – 710
Polyethersulfone (PESU)/Gl (30%) – – – 256
Polyethersulfone (PESU)/Gr – – – 352
Polyimide/Gl – – 844 –
Phenol formaldehyde (PF)/Gl 20 – – 610
Phenol/Gl (thin sheet) 33 – 105 172
Phenol/Gl (thick sheet) 20 – 610 –
Phenolic/Gl – – – 382–998
Phenolic/Gl (45%) – – – 683
Phenolic/Gr 20 – 333 398–982
Phenolic/PE fibers – – – 267
Phenolic/aramid fibers – – – 287
Phenolic/Kevlar (thin sheet) 20 – 185 258
Phenolic/Kevlar (thick sheet) 15 – 403 –
Phenolic/Gr/ceramic coating – – 807 –
Phenolic/Gr/intumescent coating – – 1,563 –
Phenolic laminate/Gl (45%) – – – 683
Polypropylene (PP)/Gl panel – – – 315–377
Polyvinylester/Gl – – 281 312–429
Polyvinylester/Gl (69%) – – – 444
Polyvinylester/Gl/ceramic coating (CC) – – 676 –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Polyvinylester/Gl/intumescent coating (IC) – – 1,471 –
Polyvinylester/Gl/IC/CC – – 1,923 –
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS)/Gl – – – 588–623
PPS/Gr – – – 330–510
Materials with Fiberweb, Netlike, and Multiplex Structures
Polypropylenes 8–15 – 108–417 –
Polyester-polypropylene 10 – 139 –
Wood pulp-polypropylene 8 – 90 –
Polyester 8–18 – 94–383 –
Rayon 14–17 – 161–227 –
Polyester-rayon 13–17 – 119–286 –
Wool-nylon 15 – 293 –
Nylon 13–16 – 149–217 –
Cellulose 15 – 264 –
Cellulose-polyester 13 – 159 –
Electrical Cables–Power
PVC/PVC 13–25 – 156–341 –
PE/PVC 15 – 221–244 –
PVC/PE 15 – 263 –
Silicone (Si)/PVC 19 – 212 –
Si/cross-linked Polyolefin (XLPO) 25–30 – 435–457 –
Ethylene-propylene rubber (EPR)/EPR 20–23 – 467–567 –
Cross-linked PE (XLPE)/XLPE 20–25 – 273–386 –
XLPE/ethyl-vinyl acetate (EVA) 12–22 – 442–503 –
XLPE/neoprene 15 – 291 –
XLPO/XLPO 16–25 – 461–535 –
XLPO/polyvinylidine fluoride (PVF)/XLPO 14–17 – 413–639 –
EPR/chlorosulfonated PE 14–19 – 283–416 –
EPR, FR 14–28 – 289–448 –
Electrical Cables–Communications
PVC/PVC 15 – 131 –
PE/PVC 20 – 183 –
XLPE/XLPO 20 – 461–535 –
Si/XLPO 20 – 457 –
EPR-FR 19 – 295 –
Chlorinated PE 12 – 217 –
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE)/EVA 22 – 454 –
PVC/PVF 30 – 264
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP)/FEP 36 – 638–652 –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

CHF (kW/m2) TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material ASTM ASTM ASTM ASTM
E2058 E1354 E2058 E1354
FPA Cone FPA Cone
Conveyor Belts
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) 10–15 – 336–429 –
Chloroprene rubber (CR) 20 – 760 –
CR/SBR 15 – 400 –
PVC 15–20 – 343–640 –
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.7 Thermal Properties and Thermal Response Properties of Polymers

Tig r cP k TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)
Material
(°C) (10–3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg●K) (10–3 kW/m●K)
Measured Calculated
Synthetic (Ordinary Polymers)
Acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) 394 1.05 1.50 0.26 317–365 212
Polybutadiene (BDR) 378 0.97 1.96 0.22 – 205
Butyl rubber (BR, polyisobutylene) 330 0.92 1.96 0.13 211 133
Cellulose acetate (CA) 348 1.25 1.67 0.25 – 210
Cellulose acetate butyrate (CAB) – 1.20 1.46 0.25 – –
Cellulose acetate propionate (CAP) – 1.21 1.46 0.25 – –
Cyanate ester (typical) (CE) 468 1.23 1.11 0.19 – 202
Cellulose nitrate (CN) – 1.38 1.46 0.23 – –
Cellulose propionate (CP) – 1.30 1.46 0.20 – –
Diallylphthalate (DAP) – 1.35 1.32 0.21 – –
DAP/glass fibers – 1.80 1.69 0.42 – –
Ethylene-acrylic acid salt (EAA ionomer) – 0.95 1.62 0.26 – –
Epoxy (EP) 427 1.20 1.70 0.19 162 225
EP/Gl – 1.80 1.60 0.42 – –
Epoxy novolac (EPN) – 1.21 1.26 0.19 – –
Ethylene-propylene diene (EPDM) – 0.93 2.00 0.20 – –
Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) – 0.93 1.37 0.34 – –
Nitrile-butadiene (Buna-N, NBR) – 1.35 1.33 0.25 308 –
Polyamide (PA, nylon) 6 432–497 1.13–1.20 1.55–2.19 0.24 154–461 236–336
PA 6/glass fibers 390 1.38 1.34 0.22 – –
PA 66 456 1.14 1.57 0.23 352 248
PA 11 – 1.12 1.74 0.28 352 –
PA 11/glass fibers – 1.35 1.76 0.37 – –
PA 12 – 1.04–1.01 1.69–1.79 0.18–0.25 – –
PA 610 – 1.10 1.51 0.23 – –
PA 612 – 1.08 1.59 0.22 – –
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) 460 1.15 1.30 0.26 – 243
Polyarylate (PAR) – 1.21 1.20 0.18 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Tig r cP k TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material
(°C) (10–3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg●K) (10–3 kW/m●K)
Measured Calculated
Polyamideimide (PAI) 526 1.42 1.00 0.24 – 262
Polybutene (PB) – 0.92 2.09 0.22 – –
Polybutyleneterephthalate (PBT) 382 1.35 1.61 0.22 – 222
Polyimide (PI) – 1.40 1.10 0.11 – –
Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) 407 1.35 1.15 0.20 174 191
PET/glass fibers – 1.70 1.20 0.29 – –
Polyethylene (PE) high density (HD) 380–443 0.94–0.96 2.00–2.15 0.42–0.43 321–454 283–353
PE low density 377 0.93 1.55 0.30–0.38 – 208–234
PE medium density – 0.93 1.70 0.40 – –
Polyethyleneoxide (PEO) – 1.13 2.01 0.21 – –
Polyisoprene (natural rubber, NR) 297 0.92 1.55 0.14 174–294 110
Polyethylmethacrylate (PEMA) – 1.13 1.47 0.18 – –
Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) 378–383 1.19 2.09 0.27 274 264
Polymethylpentene (PMP) – 0.83 1.73 0.17 – –
Polymethyl styrene (PMS) – 1.02 1.28 0.20 – –
Polyoxymethylene (POM) 374 1.42 1.92 0.27 250–269 269
Polypropylene (PP) 443 0.96 2.16 0.20 193–336 242
Polystyrene (PS) 356 1.05 1.25 0.14 162 128
PS/glass fibers – 1.29 1.05 0.13 – –
Polyisocyanurate (PU) rigid 378 1.27 1.67 0.21 – –
Polyurethane rubber (PUR) 356 1.10 1.76 0.19 – 181
Polyurethane thermoplastic (TPU) 271 1.27 1.67 0.21 – 149
Polyvinyl acetate (PVAC) – 1.19 1.33 0.16 – –
Polyvinylalcohol (PVOH) – 1.35 1.55 0.20 – –
Styrene-butadiene rubber (SBR) – 1.10 1.88 0.17 198 –
Styrene-acrylonitrile (SAN) 368 1.07 1.38 0.15 – 145
Unsaturated polyester (UPT) 380 1.23 1.30 0.17 343 166
UPT/glass fibers – 1.65 1.05 0.42 – –
Vinyl ester (VE) – 1.11 1.30 0.25 285 –
Synthetic High-Temperature Engineered Polymers
Melamine formaldehyde (MF) 350 1.25 1.67 0.25 324 211
MF/glass fibers – 1.75 1.67 0.44 – –
Phenol formaldehyde (PF) 429 1.30 1.42 0.25 537 246
PF/glass fibers 580 1.85 1.26 0.40 610 479
Polyamideimide (PAI, Torlon®) 526 1.42 1.00 0.24 378 262
Polybenzimidazole (PBI) – 1.30 0.93 0.41 – –
Polybenzoylphenylene (PX) – 1.22 1.30 0.32 626 –
Polycarbonate (PC) 500–580 1.20 1.20–1.22 0.20–0.21 357–455 228–296
PC/glass fibers – 1.43 1.10 0.21 402 –
Polyethersulfone (PESU, Radel-A®) 502 1.40 1.12 0.18 360 227

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Tig r cP k TRP (kW●s1/2/m2)

Material
(°C) (10–3 kg/m3) (kJ/kg●K) (10–3 kW/m●K)
Measured Calculated
Polyaryl ether ketone (PAEK) – 1.30 1.02 0.30 – –
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) 570–580 1.31–1.32 1.70–1.80 0.20–0.25 550 325–383
Polyetherketoneketone (PEKK) – 1.28 1.00 0.22 – –
Polyetherimide (PEI) 528–540 1.27 1.22–1.40 0.22–0.23 435 262–295
Polyphthalamide (PPA) – 1.17 1.40 0.15 – –
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) 426 1.10 1.19 0.23 323 198
Polydimethyleneoxide (PPO) 418 1.11 1.25 0.16 342 166
PPO/glass fibers – 1.32 1.31 0.17 – –
Polyphenylenesulfide (PPS) 575 1.30 1.02 0.29 395 305
Polyphenylsulfone (Radel-R® PPSU) 575 1.32 1.01 0.18 512 241
Polyphenyleneether (PPE) 426 1.10 1.19 0.23 323 –
Polysulfone (PSU) 510–580 1.24 1.11–1.30 0.26–0.28 424–469 259–334
Polydimethylsiloxane (SI) – 1.24 1.30 0.28 – –
Silicone/glass fibers (Si/G) – 1.90 1.17 0.30 – –
Silicone rubber (SIR) 407 0.97 1.59 0.23 429 204
Urea formaldehyde (UF) – 1.25 1.55 0.25 – –
Halogenated Polymers
Polychloroprene (neoprene, CR) 406 1.42 1.12 0.19 245 188
Polytetrafluoroethylene-perfluoroether (PFA) – 2.15 1.00 0.25 787 –
PFA/glass fibers – 1.85 1.26 0.40 – –
Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 630–700 2.15–2.18 1.00–1.05 0.25 680 396–456
Polytrifluoroethylene (P3FE) – 1.83 1.08 0.31 504 –
Polyvinylidenefluoride (PVDF) 643 1.76 1.30 0.13 609 301
Polyvinylfluoride (PVF) 476 1.48 1.30 0.13 303 202
Polychlorotrifluoroethylene (CTFE) 580 1.67–2.11 0.90–0.92 0.22–0.23 460 285–332
Polyethylene-tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE,
540 1.70 0.90–1.00 0.23–0.24 478–481 273–294
Tefzel®)
Polyethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene (ECTFE) 613 1.69 1.00–1.17 0.15–0.16 410–450 264–296
Fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP, 630–700 2.15 1.17–1.20 0.25 680 428–484
Teflon®)
Polyvinylchloride (PVC, flexible) 318–374 1.26–1.95 1.14–1.38 0.17–0.26 194–263 130–263
PVC, rigid 395 1.42 0.98 0.19 357–418 171
Chlorinated PVC (CPVC) 643 1.50 0.78 0.22 435 280
Polyvinylidenechloride (PVDC) 468 1.70 1.07 0.13 – 193
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.8 Yields of Fire Products and Heats of Combustion for Well-Ventilated Firesa
Yields of Fire Products and Chemical, Convective, and Radiative Heats of Combustion for Well-Ventilated Fires
DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad
Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Common Gases
Methane 50.1 2.72 – – – 49.6 42.6 7.0
Ethane 47.1 2.85 0.001 0.001 0.013 45.7 34.1 11.6
Propane 46.0 2.85 0.005 0.001 0.024 43.7 31.2 12.5
Butane 45.4 2.85 0.007 0.003 0.029 42.6 29.6 13.0
Ethylene 48.0 2.72 0.013 0.005 0.043 41.5 27.3 14.2
Propylene 46.4 2.74 0.017 0.006 0.095 40.5 25.6 14.9
1,3-Butadiene 44.6 2.46 0.048 0.014 0.125 33.6 15.4 18.2
Acetylene 47.8 2.60 0.042 0.013 0.096 36.7 18.7 18.0
Common Liquids
Methyl alcohol 20.0 1.31 0.001 – – 19.1 16.1 3.0
Ethyl alcohol 27.7 1.77 0.001 0.001 0.008 25.6 19.0 6.5
Isopropyl alcohol 31.8 2.01 0.003 0.001 0.015 29.0 20.6 8.5
Acetone 29.7 2.14 0.003 0.001 0.014 27.9 20.3 7.6
Methylethyl ketone 32.7 2.29 0.004 0.001 0.018 30.6 22.1 8.6
Heptane 44.6 2.85 0.010 0.004 0.037 41.2 27.6 13.6
Octane 44.5 2.84 0.011 0.004 0.038 41.0 27.3 13.7
Kerosene 44.1 2.83 0.012 0.004 0.042 40.3 26.2 14.1
Benzene 40.1 2.33 0.067 0.018 0.181 27.6 11.0 16.5
Toluene 39.7 2.34 0.066 0.018 0.178 27.7 11.2 16.5
Styrene 39.4 2.35 0.065 0.019 0.177 27.8 11.2 16.6
Hydrocarbon 43.9 2.64 0.019 0.007 0.059 36.9 24.5 12.4
Mineral oil 41.5 2.37 0.041 0.012 0.097 31.7 – –
Polydimethyl siloxane 25.1 0.93 0.004 0.032 0.232 19.6 – –
Silicone 25.1 0.72 0.006 0.008 – 15.2 12.7 2.5
Chemicals and Solvents
Tetrahydrofuran (C4H8O) 32.2 2.29 0.021 – – 30.3 – –
Phenol (C6H6O) 31.0 2.63 0.057 – 0.099 27.6 13.3 14.3
Acetonitrile (C2H3N) 29.6 2.04 0.025 – 0.026 29.0 23.0 6.0
Ethylisonicotate (C8H9O2N) 26.3 2.37 0.029 – 0.142 24.3 12.8 11.5
Adiponitrile (C6H8N2) 33.1 2.35 0.045 – 0.045 31.1 22.1 9.0
Hexamethylenediamine (C6H16N2) 35.3 2.28 0.029 – 0.045 32.6 15.7 16.9
Toluenediisocyanate (C9H6O2N2) 23.6 1.77 0.052 – 0.141 19.3 11.1 8.2
Diphenylmethanediisocyanate MDI
27.1 0.95 0.042 – 0.154 19.6 13.7 5.9
(C15H10O2N2)
Polymeric MDI (C23H19O3N3) 29.6 1.22 0.032 – 0.165 23.3 15.0 8.3
Isoproturon (C12H18ON2) 32.8 1.70 0.056 – 0.115 23.9 14.0 9.9
3-Chloropropene (C3H5Cl) 23.0 0.75 0.076 – 0.179 10.8 6.9 3.9
Monochlorobenzene (C6H5Cl) 26.4 0.86 0.083 – 0.232 11.2 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Dichloromethane (CH2Cl2) 6.0 0.11 0.088 – 0.081 2.0 – –
1,3-Dichloropropene (C3H4Cl2) 14.2 0.35 0.090 – 0.169 5.6 – –
Ethylmonochloroacetate (C4H7O2Cl) 15.7 1.24 0.019 – 0.138 14.1 10.1 4.0
Chloronitrobenzoic acid (C7H4O4NCl) 15.9 0.39 0.057 – – 4.4 – –
Aclonifen (C12H9O3N2Cl) 19.7 0.68 0.063 – 0.186 7.0 – –
2,6-Dichlorobenzonitrile (dichlobenil) 17.8 0.39 0.068 – – 4.3 – –
(C7H3NCl2)
Diuron (C9H10ON2Cl2) 20.3 0.76 0.080 – 0.159 10.2 7.7 2.5
Trifluoromethylbenzene (C6H5CF3) 18.7 1.19 0.069 – 0.185 10.8 5.1 5.7
Metatrifluoromethylphenylacetonitrile 16.0 0.89 0.058 – 0.168 7.3 4.0 3.3
(C9H6NF3)
Tetramethylthiurammonosulfide 22.6 1.06 0.041 – – 19.6 – –
(C6H12N2S3)
Methylthiopropionylaldehyde (C4H8OS) 25.0 1.62 0.001 – 0.005 23.8 18.8 5.0
Pesticides
2,4-D acid (herbicide, C8H6O3Cl2) 11.5 0.50 0.074 – 0.163 4.5 3.0 1.5
Mancozeb (C4H6N2S4Mn)iZn0,4) 14.0 0.50 – – – 9.5 – –
Folpel (C9H4O2NSCl3) 9.1 0.37 0.072 – 0.205 3.6 – –
Chlorfenvinphos (C12H24O4Cl3P) 18.0 0.43 0.011 – 0.288 7.7 – –
Chlormephos (C5H12O2S2CIP) 19.1 0.51 0.075 – 0.055 13.9 – –
Natural Materials
Tissue paper – – – – – 11.4 6.7 4.7
Newspaper – – – – – 14.4 – –
Wood (red oak) 17.1 1.27 0.004 0.001 0.015 12.4 7.8 4.6
Wood (Douglas fir) 16.4 1.31 0.004 0.001 – 13.0 8.1 4.9
Wood (pine) 17.9 1.33 0.005 0.001 – 12.4 8.7 3.7
Corrugated paper – – – – – 13.2 – –
Wood (hemlock) b – – – – 0.015 13.3 – –
Wool 100% b – – – – 0.008 19.5 – –
Synthetic Materials—Solids (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
ABS b – – – – 0.105 30.0 – –
POM 15.4 1.40 0.001 0.001 – 14.4 11.2 3.2
PMMA 25.2 2.12 0.010 0.001 0.022 24.2 16.6 7.6
PE 43.6 2.76 0.024 0.007 0.060 38.4 21.8 16.6
PP 43.4 2.79 0.024 0.006 0.059 38.6 22.6 0
PS 39.2 2.33 0.060 0.014 0.164 27.0 11.0 16.0
Silicone 21.7 0.96 0.021 0.006 0.065 10.6 7.3 3.3
Polyester-1 32.5 1.65 0.070 0.020 0.091 20.6 10.8 9.8
Polyester-2 32.5 1.56 0.080 0.029 0.089 19.5 – –
Epoxy-1 28.8 1.59 0.080 0.030 – 17.1 8.5 8.6
Epoxy-2 28.8 1.16 0.086 0.026 0.098 12.3 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Nylon 30.8 2.06 0.038 0.016 0.075 27.1 16.3 10.8
Polyamide-6 b – – – – 0.011 28.8 – –
IPST b – – – – 0.080 23.3 – –
PVEST b – – – – 0.076 22.0 – –
Silicone rubber 21.7 0.96 0.021 0.005 0.078 10.9 – –
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK-CH0.63O0.16) 31.3 1.6 0.029 – 0.008 17.5 – –
Polysulfone (PSO-CH0.81O0.15S0.04) 29.0 1.8 0.034 – 0.020 24.3 – –
Polyethersulfone (PES-CH0.67O0.21S0.08) 25.2 1.5 0.040 – 0.021 20.4 – –
Polyetherimide (PEI-CH0.68N0.05O0.14) 30.1 2.0 0.026 – 0.014 27.2 – –
Polycarbonate (PC-CH0.88O0.13) 31.6 1.5 0.054 – 0.112 18.4 – –
Polyurethane (Flexible) Foams
GM21 26.2 1.55 0.010 0.002 0.131 17.8 8.6 9.2
GM23 27.2 1.51 0.031 0.005 0.227 19.0 10.3 8.7
GM25 24.6 1.50 0.028 0.005 0.194 17.0 7.2 9.8
GM27 23.2 1.57 0.042 0.004 0.198 16.4 7.6 8.8
Polyurethane (Rigid) Foams
GM29 26.0 1.52 0.031 0.003 0.130 16.4 6.8 9.6
GM31 25.0 1.53 0.038 0.002 0.125 15.8 7.1 8.8
GM35 28.0 1.58 0.025 0.001 0.104 17.6 7.8 9.8
GM37 28.0 1.63 0.024 0.001 0.113 17.9 8.7 9.2
GM41 26.2 1.18 0.046 0.004 – 15.7 5.7 10.0
GM43 22.2 1.11 0.051 0.004 – 14.8 6.4 8.4
Polystyrene Foams
GM47 38.1 2.30 0.060 0.014 0.180 25.9 11.4 14.5
GM49 38.2 2.30 0.065 0.016 0.210 25.6 9.9 15.7
GM51 35.6 2.34 0.058 0.013 0.185 24.6 10.4 14.2
GM53 37.6 2.34 0.060 0.015 0.200 25.9 11.2 14.7
Polyethylene Foams
1 41.2 2.62 0.020 0.004 0.056 34.4 20.2 14.2
2 40.8 2.78 0.026 0.008 0.102 36.1 20.6 15.5
3 40.8 2.60 0.020 0.004 0.076 33.8 18.2 15.6
4 40.8 2.51 0.015 0.005 0.071 32.6 19.1 13.5
Phenolic Foams
1b – – – – 0.002 10.0 – –
2 b – – – – – 10.0 – –
Halogenated Materials (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
Polyethylene with:
25% chlorine 31.6 1.71 0.042 0.016 0.115 22.6 10.0 12.6
36% chlorine 26.3 0.83 0.051 0.017 0.139 10.6 6.4 4.2
48% chlorine 20.6 0.59 0.049 0.015 0.134 7.2 3.9 3.3
PVC 16.4 0.46 0.063 0.023 0.172 5.7 3.1 2.6

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
PVC-1b (LOI = 0.50) – – – – 0.098 7.7 – –
PVC-2b (LOI = 0.50) – – – – 0.076 8.3 – –
PVCb (LOI = 0.20) – – – – 9.099 11.3 – –
PVCb (LOI = 0.25) – – – – 0.078 9.8 – –
PVCb (LOI = 0.30) – – – – 0.098 10.3 – –
PVC (LOI = 0.35) – – – – 0.088 10.8 – –
PVC panel – – – – – 7.3 – –
CPVC (CH1.3Cl0.70) 12.8 0.48 0.052 – 0.043 4.4 – –
PVDF (CHF) 13.3 0.53 0.055 – 0.037 3.8 – –
ECTFE (CHF0.75Cl0.25) 12.0 0.41 0.095 – 0.038 4.6 – –
ETFE (Tefzel, CHF) 12.6 0.78 0.035 – 0.028 7.3 – –
PFA (Teflon, CF1.6O0.01) 5.0 0.42 0.099 – 0.002 2.2 – –
FEP (Teflon, CF1.8) 4.8 0.25 0.116 – 0.003 1.3 – –
TFE (Teflon, CF1.8) 6.2 0.38 0.092 – 0.003 2.0 – –
Building Products c
Particleboard (PB) – 1.2 0.004 – – 14.0 – –
Fiberboard (FB) – 1.4 0.015 – – 14.0 – –
Medium-density FB – 1.2 0.002 – – 14.0 – –
Wood panel – 1.2 0.002 – – 15.0 – –
Melamine-faced PB – 0.8 0.025 – – 10.7 – –
Gypsumboard (GB) – 0.3 0.027 – – 4.3 – –
Paper on GB – 0.4 0.028 – – 5.6 – –
Plastic on GB – 0.4 0.028 – – 14.3 – –
Textile on GB – 0.4 0.025 – – 13.0 – –
Textile on rock wool – 1.8 0.091 – – 25.0 – –
Paper on PB – 1.2 0.003 – – 12.5 – –
Rigid PU – 1.1 0.200 – – 13.0 – –
EPS – 1.9 0.054 – – 28.0 – –
Composite and Fiberglass-Reinforced Materials (FGR) (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
PEEK/FGR b – – – – 0.042 20.5 – –
IPST/FGR b – – – – 0.032 27.0 – –
PES/FGR b – – – – 0.049 27.5 – –
PEST1/FGR b – – – – – 16.0 – –
PEST2/FGR b – – – – – 12.9 – –
PEST1/FGR – – – – – 19.0 – –
PEST2/FGR – – – – – 13.9 – –
PEST3/FGR – 1.47 0.055 0.007 0.070 17.9 10.7 7.2
PEST4/FGR – 1.24 0.039 0.004 0.054 16.0 9.9 6.1
PEST5/FGR – 0.71 0.102 0.019 0.068 9.3 6.5 2.8
Epoxy/FG b – – – – 0.056 27.5 – –
PVEST/FGR – – – – 0.079 26.0 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
Kevlar/phenolic – 1.27 0.025 0.002 0.041 14.8 11.1 3.7
Phenolic-1/FGR – 0.98 0.066 0.003 0.023 11.9 8.9 3.0
Phenolic-2/FGR b – – – – 0.016 22.0 – –
Aircraft Panel Materials
Epoxy/FGR/paint – 0.828 0.114 0.016 0.166 11.3 6.2 5.1
Epoxy/Kevlar/paint – 0.873 0.091 0.016 0.126 11.4 6.3 5.1
Phenolic/FGR/paint – 1.49 0.027 0.002 0.059 22.9 11.5 11.4
Phenolic/Kevlar/paint – 1.23 0.088 0.011 0.094 18.6 8.9 9.7
Phenolic/graphite/paint – 1.67 0.026 0.003 0.062 24.6 14.0 10.6
Polycarbonate – – – – – 20.5 – –
Electric Cables (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
Polyethylene/Polyvinylchloride
1 – 2.08 0.100 0.021 0.076 31.3 11.6 19.7
2 – 1.75 0.050 0.013 0.115 25.1 11.1 14.0
3 – 1.67 0.048 0.012 – 24.0 13.0 11.0
4 – 1.39 0.166 0.038 – 22.0 14.0 8.1
5 – 1.29 0.147 0.042 0.136 20.9 10.7 10.2
EPR/Hypalon
1 – 1.95 0.072 0.014 – 29.6 15.8 13.9
2 – 1.74 0.076 0.022 – 26.8 17.0 9.8
3 – 1.21 0.072 0.014 – 19.0 12.3 6.7
4 – 0.99 0.090 0.085 0.082 17.4 6.6 10.8
5 – 0.95 0.122 0.024 – 17.3 7.5 9.8
6 – 0.89 0.121 0.022 0.164 13.9 9.2 4.7
Silicone
1 – 1.65 0.011 0.001 – 25.0 17.5 7.3
2 – 1.47 0.029 0.001 – 24.0 20.0 4.0
XLPE/XLPE
1 – 1.78 0.114 0.029 0.120 28.3 12.3 16.0
2 – 0.83 0.110 0.024 0.120 12.5 7.5 5.0
XLPE/Neoprene
1 – 0.68 0.122 0.031 – 12.6 5.9 6.7
2 – 0.63 0.082 0.014 0.175 10.3 4.9 5.5
Silicone/PVC
1 16.4 0.76 0.110 0.015 0.111 10.0 – –
2 16.4 1.19 0.065 0.005 0.119 15.6 – –
PVC/Nylon/PVC-Nylon
1 – 0.63 0.084 0.024 – 10.2 5.0 5.2
2 – 0.49 0.082 0.032 0.115 9.2 4.8 4.4
PTFE
1 – 0.180 0.091 0.012 0.011 3.2 2.7 0.4

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
2 6.2 0.383 0.103 – 0.005 5.7 – –
Materials with Fiberweb, Netlike, and Multiplex Structure (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature)
Olefin – 1.49 0.006 – – 16.5 13.3 3.2
PP-1 – 1.25 0.0029 – – 14.0 10.8 3.2
PP-2 – 1.56 0.0048 – – 17.2 10.5 6.7
Polyester-1 – 2.21 0.015 – – 24.6 8.9 15.7
Polyester-2 – 1.51 0.0079 – – 16.8 9.1 7.7
Polyester-3 – 2.55 0.020 – – 28.5 22.6 5.9
Polyester-4 – 1.92 0.014 – – 21.4 12.4 9.0
Rayon-1 – 1.80 0.043 – – 20.3 14.1 6.2
Rayon-2 – 1.91 0.043 0.002 – 21.5 13.3 8.2
Rayon-3 – 1.18 0.047 – – 13.5 8.3 5.2
Polyester-rayon – 1.52 0.005 – – 16.8 9.1 7.7
Polyester-polyamide – 1.82 0.008 – – 20.2 10.4 9.8
Two to Eight 100-mm × 100-mm × 100-mm Corrugated Paper Boxes with and without the Polymers with Three-
Dimensional Arrangement (abbreviations/names in the nomenclature) d
Empty – 1.53 0.023 0.001 – 14.2 10.7 3.5
With PVC (62% thick) – 1.01 0.073 0.007 0.119 10.7 9.5 1.2
With PC (59% thick) – 1.73 0.047 0.002 0.061 18.4 13.5 4.9
With PS (58% thick) – 1.40 0.138 0.026 0.285 16.2 12.5 3.7
With PS (60% thin) – 1.88 0.068 0.020 0.140 19.4 10.1 9.3
With PS (40% thin) – 1.74 0.042 0.005 0.167 18.0 11.7 6.7
With ABS (59% thick) – 1.53 0.089 0.006 0.143 16.1 12.7 3.4
With PET (41% thin) – 1.87 0.050 0.006 0.053 19.9 11.8 8.1
With PU (40% foam) – 1.56 0.024 – – 14.4 8.6 5.8
High-Pressure Liquid Spray Combustione
Hydraulic Fluids
Organic polyol esters
1 36.6 – – – – 35.5 – –
2 35.7 – – – – 35.1 – –
3 40.3 – – – – 37.2 – –
4 37.0 – – – – 35.7 – –
Phosphate esters
1 31.8 – – – – 29.3 – –
2 32.0 – – – – 29.6 – –
Water-in-oil emulsions
1 27.6 – – – – 2.5 – –
Polyglycol-in-water
1 11.0 – – – – 10.4 – –
2 11.9 – – – – 11.1 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

DHT yCO 2 yCO ych yS DHch DHcon DHrad

Material
(kJ/g) (g/g) (kJ/g)
3 14.7 – – – – 12.2 – –
4 12.1 – – – – 10.6 – –
Liquid fuels
Mineral oil 46.0 – – – – 44.3 – –
Methanol 20.0 – – – – 19.8 – –
Ethanol 27.7 – – – – 26.2 – –
Heptane 44.4 – – – – 40.3 – –
Note: Dashes = either not measured or less than 0.001.
a Data measured in the ASTM E2058 fire propagation apparatus. Data measured in the cone calorimeter are identified by superscripts b and c.

Some of the data are corrected to reflect well-ventilated fire conditions. All the data are reported for turbulent fires, that is, materials exposed
to higher external heat flux values.
b Calculated from the data measured in the cone calorimeter.
c Calculated from the data measured in the cone calorimeter.
d 100-mm × 100-mm × 100-mm corrugated paper boxes with and without the 99-mm × 99-mm × 99-mm polymer boxes or pieces on

corrugated paper compartments. The boxes are arranged in one and two layers, about 12 mm apart, with one to four boxes in each layer,
separated by about 12 mm. All the boxes are placed on a very light metal frame made of rods with screen base. Measurements made in the
ASTM E2058 fire propagation apparatus; numbers in parentheses are the weight percents.
e Data measured in high-pressure liquid spray combustion in the fire products collector (5,000-kW scale apparatus).

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.9 Combustion Properties of Fuels

(Shaded cells show measurements by Tewarson; refer to SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, for reference information.)

Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)

Fuel Formula S
(m) (g/mol) ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Normal Alkanes
Ethane C2H6 0.243 30 16.0 47.1 47.0 37.4 9.6 <0.001 0.002
n-Propane C3H8 0.162 44 15.6 46.0 44.1 31.6 12.5 0.005 0.019
n-Butane C4H10 0.160 58 15.4 45.4 43.5 31.0 12.4 0.005 0.020
n-Pentane C5H12 0.155 72 15.3 45.0 42.3 29.3 13.1 0.006 0.022
n-Hexane C6H14 0.125 86 15.2 44.8 41.7 28.2 13.4 0.009 0.031
n-Heptane C7H16 0.110 100 15.1 44.6 41.2 27.6 13.6 0.012 0.042
n-Octane C8H18 0.118 114 15.1 44.5 41.3 27.5 13.8 0.010 0.034
n-Nonane C9H20 0.110 128 15.0 44.4 40.9 26.9 14.1 0.012 0.037
n-Decane C10H22 0.110 142 15.0 44.3 40.9 26.8 14.0 0.012 0.037
n-Undecane C11H24 0.110 156 15.0 44.3 40.9 26.8 14.0 0.012 0.037
n-Dodecane C12H26 0.108 170 14.9 44.2 40.7 26.6 14.1 0.012 0.038
n-Tridecane C13H28 0.106 184 14.9 44.2 40.6 26.5 14.1 0.012 0.039
n-Tetradecane C14H30 0.109 198 14.9 44.1 40.6 26.6 14.0 0.012 0.037
Hexadecane C16H34 0.118 226 14.9 44.1 41.0 27.3 13.7 0.010 0.034
Branched Alkanes
Methylbutane C5H12 0.113 72 15.3 45.0 41.6 27.5 14.1 0.011 0.035
Dimethylbutane C6H14 0.089 86 15.2 44.8 40.4 25.5 15.0 0.015 0.046
Methylpentane C6H14 0.094 86 15.2 44.8 40.7 25.9 14.8 0.014 0.043
Dimethylpentane C7H16 0.096 100 15.1 44.6 40.6 25.9 14.6 0.014 0.043
Methylhexane C7H16 0.109 100 15.1 44.6 41.1 26.9 14.2 0.012 0.037
Isooctane (trimethylpentane) C8H18 0.080 114 15.1 44.5 40.5 26.7 13.8 0.016 0.051
Methylethylpentane C8H18 0.082 114 15.1 44.5 39.9 24.7 15.1 0.016 0.049
Ethylhexane C8H18 0.093 114 15.1 44.5 40.4 25.6 14.7 0.014 0.044
Dimethylhexane C8H18 0.089 114 15.1 44.5 40.2 25.3 14.9 0.015 0.046
Methylheptane C8H18 0.101 114 15.1 44.5 40.7 26.3 14.4 0.013 0.040
Cyclic Alkanes
Cyclo-pentane C5H10 0.067 70 14.7 44.3 38.9 23.2 15.6 0.020 0.059
Methylcyclopentane C6H12 0.052 84 14.7 43.8 37.5 21.5 16.0 0.025 0.070
Cyclohexane C6H12 0.085 84 14.7 43.8 39.9 24.5 15.3 0.016 0.049
Methylcyclohexane C7H14 0.075 98 14.7 43.4 38.5 23.5 15.0 0.018 0.054
Ethylcyclohexane C8H16 0.082 112 14.7 43.2 38.7 24.0 14.7 0.017 0.050
Dimethylcyclohexane C8H16 0.057 112 14.7 43.2 37.3 21.7 15.6 0.023 0.066
Cyclooctane C8H16 0.085 112 14.7 43.2 38.8 24.2 14.6 0.016 0.049
Decalin C10H18 – 138 14.4 42.8 34.2 17.9 16.3 0.015 0.097
Bicyclohexyl C12H22 – 166 14.5 42.6 36.2 20.9 15.3 0.010 0.071

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)

Fuel Formula S
(m) (g/mol) ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Alkenes
Ethylene C2H4 0.106 28 14.7 48.0 44.2 29.8 14.4 0.013 0.045
Propylene C3H6 0.029 42 14.7 46.4 37.6 19.0 18.6 0.036 0.103
Butylene C4H8 0.019 56 14.7 45.6 35.3 17.3 18.0 0.042 0.115
Pentene C5H10 0.053 70 14.7 45.2 38.7 22.3 16.5 0.024 0.070
Hexene C6H12 0.063 84 14.7 44.9 39.2 23.2 16.0 0.021 0.062
Heptene C7H14 0.073 98 14.7 44.6 39.5 24.0 15.5 0.019 0.055
Octene C8H16 0.080 112 14.7 44.5 39.8 24.5 15.2 0.017 0.051
Nonene C9H18 0.084 126 14.7 44.3 39.8 24.8 15.0 0.016 0.049
Decene C10H20 0.079 140 14.7 44.2 39.4 24.3 15.2 0.017 0.052
Dodecene C12H24 0.080 168 14.7 44.1 39.4 24.3 15.1 0.017 0.051
Tridecene C13H26 0.084 182 14.7 44.0 39.5 24.6 14.9 0.016 0.049
Tetradecene C14H28 0.079 196 14.7 44.0 39.3 24.2 15.1 0.017 0.052
Hexadecene C16H32 0.080 224 14.7 43.9 39.2 24.2 15.0 0.017 0.051
Octadecene C18H36 0.075 252 14.7 43.8 38.9 23.7 15.2 0.018 0.054
Polyethylene (C2H4)n 0.045 601 14.7 43.6 37.9 21.8 16.1 0.024 0.060
Polypropylene (C3H6)n 0.050 720 14.7 43.4 37.0 21.1 15.9 0.024 0.058
Cyclic Alkenes
Cyclohexene C6H10 0.044 82 14.2 43.0 36.2 20.2 16.0 0.028 0.080
Methylcyclohexene C7H12 0.043 96 14.3 43.1 36.2 20.1 16.1 0.028 0.080
Pinene C10H16 0.024 136 14.1 36.0 28.5 14.5 14.0 0.039 0.108
Alkynes and Butadiene
Acetylene C2H2 0.019 26 13.2 47.8 37.0 18.2 18.8 0.045 0.124
Heptyne C7H12 0.035 96 14.3 44.8 36.8 19.8 17.0 0.032 0.090
Octyne C8H14 0.030 110 14.4 44.7 36.2 19.0 17.2 0.035 0.096
Decyne C10H18 0.043 138 14.4 44.5 37.4 20.7 16.6 0.028 0.080
Dodecyne C12H22 0.030 166 14.5 44.3 35.9 18.8 17.0 0.034 0.096
1,3-Butadiene C4H6 0.015 54 14.0 44.6 33.7 16.0 17.7 0.048 0.130
Arenes
Benzene C6H6 0.007 78 13.2 40.1 28.1 11.9 16.2 0.064 0.171
Toluene C7H8 0.005 92 13.4 39.7 27.0 11.1 15.9 0.064 0.173
Styrene C8H8 0.006 104 13.2 39.4 27.2 11.2 16.0 0.066 0.178
Ethylbenzene C8H10 0.005 106 13.6 39.4 26.7 10.7 16.0 0.069 0.184
Xylene C8H10 0.006 106 13.6 39.4 27.2 11.2 16.0 0.065 0.175
Indene C9H8 0.008 116 13.0 39.2 27.8 12.0 15.8 0.062 0.166
Propylbenzene C9H12 0.009 120 13.7 39.2 28.1 12.4 15.8 0.057 0.155
Trimethylbenzene C9H12 0.006 120 13.7 39.2 27.0 11.2 15.9 0.065 0.174
Cumene C9H12 0.006 120 13.7 39.2 27.0 11.2 15.9 0.065 0.174
Naphthalene C10H8 0.005 128 12.9 39.0 26.4 10.6 15.8 0.071 0.190
Tetralin C10H12 0.006 132 13.5 39.0 26.9 11.1 15.8 0.065 0.176

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)

Fuel Formula S
(m) (g/mol) ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Butylbenzene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
Diethylbenzene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
p-Cymene C10H14 0.007 134 13.8 39.0 27.3 11.5 15.8 0.062 0.166
Methylnaphthalene C11H10 0.006 142 13.0 38.9 26.8 11.1 15.8 0.067 0.180
Pentylbenzene C11H16 0.009 148 13.9 38.8 27.9 12.2 15.6 0.057 0.154
Dimethylnaphthalene C12H12 0.006 156 13.2 38.8 26.8 11.0 15.7 0.066 0.178
Cyclohexylbenzene C12H16 0.007 160 13.7 38.7 27.1 11.5 15.6 0.062 0.167
Diisopropylbenzene C12H18 0.007 162 14.0 38.7 27.1 11.5 15.6 0.061 0.165
Triethylbenzene C12H18 0.006 162 14.0 38.7 26.7 11.0 15.7 0.064 0.172
Triamylbenzene C21H36 0.007 288 14.3 38.1 26.7 11.3 15.4 0.060 0.162
Polystyrene (C8H8)n 0.015 200 13.2 39.2 27.0 11.0 16.1 0.060 0.166
Aliphatic Esters
Ethyl formate C3H6O2 0.137 74 6.5 20.2 19.0 13.1 5.9 0.005 0.016
n-Propyl formate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
n-Butyl formate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
Methyl acetate C3H6O2 0.137 74 6.5 20.2 19.0 13.1 5.9 0.005 0.016
Ethyl acetate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
n-Propyl acetate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
n-Butyl acetate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.032
Isobutyl acetate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.032
Amyl acetate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.036
Cyclohexyl acetate C8H14O2 0.083 142 10.2 31.5 28.2 17.6 10.7 0.013 0.039
Octyl acetate C10H20O 0.077 172 11.2 33.6 29.9 18.3 11.6 0.015 0.043
Ethyl acetoacetate C6H10O3 0.086 130 7.4 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.010 0.031
Methyl propionate C4H8O2 0.114 88 7.8 23.9 22.1 14.6 7.5 0.007 0.023
Ethyl propionate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.029
n-Butyl propionate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.036
Isobutyl propionate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.042
Amyl propionate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.024
Methyl butyrate C5H10O2 0.099 102 8.8 26.6 24.3 15.6 8.7 0.009 0.035
Ethyl butyrate C6H12O2 0.093 116 9.5 28.7 26.0 16.5 9.5 0.011 0.038
Propyl butyrate C7H14O2 0.086 130 10.0 30.3 27.3 17.1 10.2 0.012 0.042
n-Butyl butyrate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.039
Isobutyl butyrate C8H16O2 0.082 144 10.5 31.6 28.3 17.5 10.8 0.013 0.069
Ethyl laurate C14H28O2 0.196 228 12.0 37.2 36.3 27.3 9.1 0.002 0.004
Ethyl oxalate C6H10O4 0.224 146 6.1 28.7 33.0 25.7 7.3 <0.001 0.003
Ethyl malonate C5H8O4 0.210 132 7.7 32.2 31.7 24.2 7.5 <0.001 0.005
Ethyl lactate C5H10O3 0.214 118 7.0 30.8 30.4 23.3 7.0 <0.001 0.005
Butyl lactate C7H14O3 0.206 146 8.5 33.3 32.7 24.9 7.8 0.001 0.007
Amyl lactate C8H16O3 0.203 160 9.0 34.3 33.6 25.5 8.1 0.001 0.007

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)

Fuel Formula S
(m) (g/mol) ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Ethyl carbonate C5H10O3 0.214 118 7.0 30.8 30.4 23.3 7.0 <0.001 0.005
Aliphatic Alcohols
Methyl alcohol CH4O 0.305 32 6.4 20.0 19.4 16.6 2.8 0.001 <0.001
Ethyl alcohol C2H6O 0.225 46 9.0 27.7 26.9 20.5 6.4 0.001 0.008
n-Propyl alcohol C3H8O 0.155 60 10.3 31.8 30.3 21.5 8.8 0.004 0.016
Isopropyl alcohol C3H8O 0.148 60 10.3 31.8 29.9 20.7 9.2 0.003 0.017
n-Butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Isobutyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Sec butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
Ter butyl alcohol C4H10O 0.141 74 11.1 34.4 32.5 22.5 10.0 0.006 0.020
n-Amyl alcohol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Isobutyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Sec butyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Methylpropyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
Dimethylethyl carbinol C5H12O 0.131 88 11.7 36.2 34.0 23.2 10.8 0.007 0.024
n-Hexyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Dimethylbutyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Ethylbutyl alcohol C6H14O 0.125 102 12.1 37.4 34.9 23.6 11.4 0.008 0.026
Allyl alcohol C3H6O 0.159 58 9.5 31.4 30.0 21.4 8.6 0.004 0.015
Cyclohexanol C6H12O 0.124 100 11.7 37.3 34.8 23.5 11.4 0.008 0.027
Aliphatic Ketones
Acetone C3H6O 0.205 58 9.5 29.7 28.5 21.7 6.8 0.001 0.009
Methyl ethyl ketone C4H8O 0.169 72 10.5 32.7 31.5 22.8 8.7 0.003 0.014
Cyclohexanone C6H10O 0.164 98 11.2 35.9 34.5 24.7 9.7 0.004 0.017
Di-acetone alcohol C6H12O2 0.161 116 9.5 37.3 35.7 25.5 10.2 0.004 0.015
Other Aliphatic Fuels
Monoethyl ether C4H10O2 0.232 90 8.4 26.7 26.5 20.8 5.7 <0.001 0.003
Monoethylether acetate C6H12O3 0.204 132 7.8 32.2 31.6 24.0 7.6 0.001 0.006
Monoethylether diacetate C6H10O4 0.208 146 6.1 33.3 32.7 25.0 7.8 <0.001 0.005
Glycerol triacetate C9H14O6 0.195 218 6.0 36.9 36.0 27.0 9.0 0.001 0.007
Other Aromatic Fuels
Benzaldehyde C7H6O 0.010 106 10.4 32.4 23.5 10.5 13.0 0.049 0.132
Benzyl alcohol C7H8O 0.010 108 10.8 32.6 23.7 10.6 13.1 0.048 0.130
Cresylic acid C8H8O 0.015 136 9.1 34.0 25.7 12.2 13.5 0.038 0.103
Ethyl benzoate C9H10O2 0.029 150 9.6 34.5 27.8 14.6 13.3 0.029 0.081
Aliphatic Fuels with Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
Diethylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
n-Butylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
Sec-Butylamine C4H11N 0.089 73 14.6 38.0 34.3 21.6 12.7 0.012 0.036
Triethylamine C6H15N 0.085 101 14.6 39.6 35.6 22.2 13.4 0.013 0.041

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Lsp M Heat of Combustion (kJ/g) Yield (g/g)

Fuel Formula S
(m) (g/mol) ΔHT ΔHch ΔHcon ΔHrad CO Smoke
Di-n-butylamine C8H19N 0.083 129 14.6 40.6 36.4 22.6 13.8 0.014 0.043
Tri-n-butylamine C12H27N 0.082 185 14.7 41.6 37.3 23.1 14.2 0.015 0.046
Aromatic Fuels with Carbon, Hydrogen, and Nitrogen
Pyridine C5H5N 0.022 79 12.6 32.2 25.3 12.7 12.6 0.035 0.096
Aniline C6H7N 0.018 93 12.9 33.8 26.0 12.7 13.3 0.039 0.106
Picoline C6H7N 0.018 93 12.9 33.8 26.0 12.7 13.3 0.039 0.106
Toluidine C7H9N 0.014 107 13.2 34.9 26.2 12.3 13.9 0.043 0.118
Dimethylaniline C8H11N 0.013 121 13.3 35.7 26.6 12.4 14.2 0.045 0.122
Quinoline C9H7N 0.012 129 12.5 36.1 26.7 12.2 14.4 0.049 0.132
Quinaldine C10H9N 0.011 143 12.7 36.7 26.9 12.2 14.7 0.050 0.136
Butylaniline C10H15N 0.009 149 13.6 37.0 26.6 11.7 14.9 0.051 0.139
Aliphatic Fuels with Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur
Hexyl mercaptan C6H14S 0.062 118 12.2 33.0 28.7 16.9 11.8 0.015 0.045
Heptyl mercaptan C7H16S 0.063 132 12.5 33.7 29.4 17.4 12.0 0.016 0.046
Decyl mercaptan C10H22S 0.062 174 13.0 34.9 30.4 17.9 12.5 0.017 0.050
Dodecyl mercaptan C12H26S 0.063 202 13.3 35.5 31.0 18.3 12.7 0.018 0.052
Hexyl sulfide C12H26S 0.063 202 13.3 35.5 31.0 18.3 12.7 0.018 0.052
Heptyl sulfide C14H30S 0.061 230 13.4 35.9 31.2 18.4 12.9 0.019 0.054
Octyl sulfide C16H34S 0.061 258 13.6 36.3 31.6 18.6 13.0 0.019 0.055
Decyl sulfide C20H42S 0.062 314 13.8 36.8 32.0 18.9 13.1 0.019 0.056
Aromatic Fuels with Carbon, Hydrogen, and Sulphur
Thiophene C4H4S 0.016 84 9.8 31.9 24.3 11.6 12.6 0.030 0.082
Methylthiophene C5H6S 0.014 98 10.5 33.2 24.9 11.7 13.2 0.034 0.092
Thiophenol C6H6S 0.013 110 10.6 34.1 25.4 11.8 13.6 0.037 0.101
Thiocresol C7H8S 0.011 124 11.1 34.9 25.6 11.6 14.0 0.041 0.110
Cresolmethyl sulfide C8H11S 0.011 155 11.6 36.2 26.5 12.0 14.5 0.041 0.112
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.10 Flammability Limits of Premixed and Diffusion Flames

Limits of Flammability (vol %)
Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)
Acetal 1.6 10 37 230
Acetaldehyde 4.0 60 – 175
Acetic acid 5.4 a – 40 465
Acetic anhydride 2.7 b 10 c 47 390
Acetanilide 1.0 d – – 545
Acetone 2.6 13 – 465
Acetophenone 1.1 d – – 570
Acetylacetone 1.7 d – – 340
Acetyl chloride 5.0 d – – 390

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

Acetylene 2.5 100 – 305
Acrolein 2.8 31 – 235
Acrylonitrile 3.0 – –6 –
Acetone-cyanohydrin 2.2 12 – –
Adipic acid 1.6 d – – 420
Aldol 2.0 d – – 250
Allyl alcohol 2.5 18 22 –
Allyl amine 2.2 22 – 375
Allyl bromide 2.7 d – – 295
Allyl chloride 2.9 – –32 485
o-Aminodiphenyl 0.66 4.1 – 450
Ammonia 15.0 28 – –
n-Amyl acetate 1.0 a 7.1 a 25 360
n-Amyl alcohol 1.4 a 10 a 38 300
tert-Amyl alcohol 1.4 d – – 435
n-Amyl chloride 1.6 e 8.6 a – 260
tert-Amyl chloride 1.5 f – –12 345
n-Amyl ether 0.7 d – – 170
Amyl nitrite 1.0 d – – 210
n-Amyl propionate 1.0 d – – 380
Amylene 1.4 8.7 – 275
Aniline 1.2 g 8.3 g – 615
Anthracene 0.65 d – – 540
n-Amyl nitrate 1.1 – – 195
Benzene 1.3 a 7.9 a – 560
Benzyl benzoate 0.7 d – – 480
Benzyl chloride 1.2 d – – 585
Bicyclohexyl 0.65 a 5.1 h 74 245
Biphenyl 0.70 i – 110 540
2-Biphenylamine 0.8 d – – 450
Bromobenzene 1.6 d – – 565
Butadiene (1,3) 2.0 12 – 420
n-Butane 1.8 8.4 –72 405
1,3-Butandiol 1.9 d – – 395
Butene-1 1.6 10 – 385
Butene-2 1.7 9.7 – 325
n-Butyl acetate 1.4 e 8.0 a – 425
n-Butyl alcohol 1.7 a 12 a – –
sec-Butyl alcohol 1.7 a 9.8 a 21 405
tert-Butyl alcohol 1.9 a 9.0 a 11 480
tert-Butyl amine 1.7 a 8.9 a – 380
n-Butyl benzene 0.82 a 5.8 a – 410

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

sec-Butyl benzene 0.77 a 5.8 a – 420
tert-Butyl benzene 0.77 a 5.8 a – 450
n-Butyl bromide 2.5 a – – 265
Butyl cellosolve 1.1 h 11 j – 245
n-Butyl chloride 1.8 10 a – –
n-Butyl formate 1.7 8.2 – –
n-Butyl stearate 0.3 d – – 355
Butyric acid 2.1 d – – 450
a-Butryolactone 2.0 h – – –
Carbon disulfide 1.3 50 – 90
Carbon monoxide 12.5 74 – –
Chlorobenzene 1.4 – 21 640
m-Cresol 1.1 h – – –
Crotonaldehyde 2.1 16 k – –
Cumene 0.88 a 6.5 a – 425
Cyanogen 6.6 – – –
Cycloheptane 1.1 6.7 – –
Cyclohexane 1.3 7.8 – 245
Cyclohexanol 1.2 d – – 300
Cyclohexene 1.2 a – – –
Cyclohexyl acetate 1.0 d – – 335
Cyclopropane 2.4 10.4 – 500
Cymene 0.85 a 6.5 a – 435
Decaborane 0.2 – – –
Decalin 0.74 a 4.9 a 57 250
n-Decane 0.75 l 5.6 m 46 210
Deuterium 4.9 75 – –
Diborane 0.8 88 – –
Diesel fuel (60 cetane) – – – 225
Diethyl amine 1.8 10 – –
Diethyl analine 0.8 d – 80 630
1,4-Diethyl benzene 0.8 a – – 430
Diethyl cyclohexene 0.75 – – 240
Diethyl ether 1.9 36 – 160
3,3-Diethyl pentane 0.7 a – – 290
Diethyl ketone 1.6 – – 450
Diisobutyl carbinol 0.82 a 6.1 j – –
Diisobutyl ketone 0.79 a 6.2 a – –
2-4,Diisocyanate – – 120 –
Diisopropyl ether 1.4 7.9 – –
Dimethyl amine 2.8 – – 400
2,2-Dimethyl butane 1.2 7.0 – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

2,3-Dimethyl butane 1.2 7.0 – –
Dimethyl decalin 0.69 a 5.3 i – 235
Dimethyl dichlorosilane 3.4 – – –
Dimethyl ether 3.4 27 – 350
n,n-Dimethyl formamide 1.8 a 14 a 57 435
2,3-Dimethyl pentane 1.1 6.8 – 335
2,2-Dimethyl propane 1.4 7.5 – 450
Dimethyl sulfide 2.2 20 – 205
Dimethyl sulfoxide – – 84 –
Dioxane 2.0 22 – 265
Dipentene 0.75 h 6.1 h 45 237
Diphenylamine 0.7 d – – 635
Diphenyl ether 0.8 d – – 620
Diphenyl methane 0.7 d – – 485
Divinyl ether 1.7 27 – –
n-Dodecane 0.60 d – 74 205
Ethane 3.0 12.4 –130 515
Ethyl acetate 2.2 11 – –
Ethyl alcohol 3.3 19 k – 365
Ethyl amine 3.5 – – 385
Ethyl benzene 1.0 a 6.7 a – 430
Ethyl chloride 3.8 – – –
Ethyl cyclobutane 1.2 7.7 – 210
Ethyl cyclohexane 2.0 n 6.6 n – 260
Ethyl cyclopentane 1.1 6.7 – 260
Ethyl formate 2.8 16 – 455
Ethyl lactate 1.5 – – 400
Ethyl mercaptan 2.8 18 – 300
Ethyl nitrate 4.0 – – –
Ethyl nitrite 3.0 50 – –
Ethyl propionate 1.8 11 – 440
Ethyl propyl ether 1.7 9 – –
Ethylene 2.7 36 – 490
Ethyleneimine 3.6 46 – 320
Ethylene glycol 3.5 d – – 400
Ethylene oxide 3.6 100 – –
Furfural alcohol 1.8 o 16 p 72 390

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

Gasoline:
100/130 1.3 7.1 – 440
115/145 1.2 7.1 – 470
Glycerine – – – 370
n-Heptane 1.05 6.7 –4 215
n-Hexadecane 0.43 d – 126 205
n-Hexane 1.2 7.4 –26 225
n-Hexyl alcohol 1.2 a – – –
n-Hexyl ether 0.6 d – – 185
Hydrazine 4.7 100 – –
Hydrogen 4.0 75 – 400
Hydrogen cyanide 5.6 40 – –
Hydrogen sulfide 4.0 44 – –
Isoamyl acetate 1.1 7.0 a 25 360
Isoamyl alcohol 1.4 9.0 a – 350
Isobutane 1.8 8.4 –81 460
Isobutyl alcohol 1.7 a 11 a – –
Isobutyl benzene 0.82 a 6.0 j – 430
Isobutyl formate 2.0 8.9 – –
Isobutylene 1.8 9.6 – 465
Isopentane 1.4 – – –
Isophorone 0.84 – – 460
Isopropylacetate 1.7 d – – –
Isopropyl alcohol 2.2 – – –
Isopropyl biphenyl 0.6 d – – 440
Jet fuel:
JP-4 1.3 8 – 240
JP-6 – – – 230
Kerosene – – – 210
Methane 5.0 15.0 –187 540
Methyl acetate 3.2 16 – –
Methyl acetylene 1.7 – – –
Methyl alcohol 6.7 36 k – 385
Methyl amine 4.2 d – – 430
Methyl bromide 10 15 – –
3-Methyl butene-1 1.5 9.1 – –
Methyl butyl ketone 51.2 8.0 a – –
Methyl cellosolve 2.5 q 20 g – 380
Methyl cellosolve acetate 1.7 h – 46 –
Methyl ethyl ether 2.2 d – – –
Methyl chloride 7d – – –
Methyl cyclohexane 1.1 6.7 – 250

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

Methyl cyclopentadiene 1.3 a 7.6 a 49 445
Methyl ethyl ketone 1.9 10 – –
Methyl ethyl ketone peroxide – – 40 390
Methyl formate 5.0 23 – 465
Methyl cyclohexanol 1.0 d – – 295
Methyl isobutyl carbinol 1.3 d – 40 –
Methyl isopropenyl ketone 1.8 e 9.0 e – –
Methyl lactate 2.2 a – – –
a-Methyl naphthalene 0.8 d – – 530
2,Methyl pentane 1.2 d – – –
Methyl propionate 2.4 13 – –
Methyl propyl ketone 1.6 8.2 – –
Methyl styrene 1.0 d – 49 495
Methyl vinyl ether 2.6 39 – –
Methylene chloride – – – 615
Monoisopropyl bicyclohexyl 0.52 4.1 r 124 230
2-Monoisopropyl biphenyl 0.53 j 3.2 r 141 435
Monomethylhydrazine 4 – – –
Naphthalene 0.88 s 5.9 t – 526
Nicotine 0.75 a – – –
Nitroethane 3.4 – 30 –
Nitromethane 7.3 – 33 –
1-Nitropropane 2.2 – 34 –
2-Nitropropane 2.5 – 27 –
n-Nonane 0.85 u – 31 205
n-Octane 0.95 – 13 220
Paraldehyde 1.3 – – –
Pentaborane 0.42 – – –
n-Pentane 1.4 7.8 –48 260
Pentamethylene glycol – – – 335
Phthalic anhydride 1.2 g 9.2 v 140 570
3-Picoline 1.4 d – – 500
Pinane 0.74 w 7.2 w – –
Propadiene 2.16 – – –
Propane 2.1 9.5 –102 450
1,2-Propandiol 2.5 d – – 410
b-Propiolactone 2.9 c – – –
Propionaldehyde 2.9 17 – –
n-Propyl acetate 1.8 8 – –
n-Propyl alcohol 2.2 k 14 a – 440
Propyl amine 2.0 – – –
Propyl chloride 2.4 d – – –

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Combustible LFL y UFL y TL (°C) AIT (°C)

n-Propyl nitrate 1.8 q 100 q 21 175
Propylene 2.4 11 – 460
Propylene dichloride 3.1 d – – –
Propylene glycol 2.6 x – – –
Propylene oxide 2.8 37 – –
Pyridine 1.8 k 12 y – –
Propargyl alcohol 2.4 e – – –
Quinoline 1.0 d – – –
Styrene 1.1 z – – –
Sulfur 2.0 aa – 247 –
p-Terphenyl 0.96 d – – 535
n-Tetradecane 0.5 d – – 200
Tetrahydrofurane 2.0 – – –
Tetralin 0.84 a 5.0 h 71 385
2,2,3,3-Tetramethyl pentane 0.8 – – 430
Tetramethylene glycol – – – 390
Toluene 1.2 a 7.1 a – 480
Trichloroethane – – – 500
Trichloroethylene 12 bb 40 y 30 420
Triethyl amine 1.2 8.0 – –
Triethylene glycol 0.9 g 9.2 bb – –
2,2,3-Trimethyl butane 1.0 – – 420
Trimethyl amine 2.0 12 – –
2,2,4-Trimethyl pentane 0.95 – – 415
Trimethylene glycol 1.7 d – – 400
Trioxane 3.2 d – – –
Turpentine 0.7 a – – –
Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine 2.0 95 – –
Vinyl acetate 2.6 – – –
Vinyl chloride 3.6 33 – –
m-Xylene 1.1 a 6.4 a – 530
o-Xylene 1.1 a 6.4 a – 465
p-Xylene 1.1 a 6.6 a – 530
a T = 100°C b T = 75°C c T = 75°C d Calculated e T = 50°C f T = 85°C g T = 140°C
h T = 150°C i T = 110°C j T = 175°C k T = 60°C l T = 53°C m T = 86°C n T = 130°C
o T = 72°C p T = 117°C q T = 125°C r T = 200°C s T = 78°C t T = 122°C u T = 43°C
v T = 195°C w T = 160°C x T = 96°C y T = 70°C z T = 29°C aa T = 247°C bb T = 30°C

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.11 Limiting Oxygen Concentrations

Limiting Oxygen Concentrations at Normal Temperature and Pressure
Limiting Oxidant Concentration Limiting Oxidant Concentration
Gas or Vapor N2/Air (volume % O2 above CO2/Air (volume % O2 above
which deflagration can take place) which deflagration can take place)
Ethane 11 13.5
Propane 11.5 14.5
n-Butane 12 14.5
Isobutane 12 15
n-Pentane 12 14.5
Isopentane 12 14.5
n-Hexane 12 14.5
n-Heptane 11.5 14.5
Ethylene 10 11.5
Propylene 11.5 14
1-Butene 11.5 14
Isobutylene 12 15
Butadiene 10.5 13
3-Methyl-1-butene 11.5 14
Benzene 11.4 14
Gasoline:
(73/100) 12 15
(100/130) 12 15
(115/145) 12 14.5
Kerosene 10 (150°C) 13 (150°C)
JP-1 fuel 10.5 (150°C) 14 (150°C)
JP-3 fuel 12 14.5
JP-4 fuel 11.5 14.5
Natural Gas
(Pittsburgh) 12 14.5
14 –
n-Butyl chloride
12 (100°C) –
19 (30°C) –
Methylene chloride
17 (100°C) –
13 –
Ethylene dichloride
11.5 (100°C) –
1,1,1-Trichloro-
14 –
ethane
Trichloroethylene 9 (100°C) –
Acetone 11.5 14
n-Butanol – 16.5 (150°C)
Carbon disulfide 5 7.5
Carbon monoxide 5.5 5.5

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Limiting Oxidant Concentration Limiting Oxidant Concentration

Gas or Vapor N2/Air (volume % O2 above CO2/Air (volume % O2 above
which deflagration can take place) which deflagration can take place)
Ethanol 10.5 13
2-Ethyl butanol 9.5 (150°C) –
Ethyl ether 10.5 13
Hydrogen 5 5.2
Hydrogen sulfide 7.5 11.5
Isobutyl formate 12.5 15
Methanol 10 12
Methyl acetate 11 13.5
Methyl ether 10.5 13
Methyl formate 10 12.5
Methyl ethyl ketone 11 13.5
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.12 Pool Burning: Thermochemical and Empirical Constants for a Number of Common ‌
Organic Fuels
Density Δhg Δhc mo m3 kβ
Material
(kg●m–3) (kJ●kg–1) (MJ●kg–1) (kg●m–2●s–1) (m–1)
Cryogenics
Liquid H2 70 442 120.0 0.017 (±0.001) 6.1 (±0.4)
LNG (most CH4) 415 619 50.0 0.078 (±0.018) 1.1 (±0.8)
LPG (mostly C3H8) 585 426 46.0 0.099 (±0.009) 1.4 (±0.5)
Alcohols
Methanol (CH3OH) 796 1,195 20.0 * *
Ethanol (C2H5OH) 794 891 26.8 * *
Simple Organic Fuels
Butane (C4H10) 573 362 45.7 0.078 (±0.003) 2.7 (±0.3)
Benzene (C6H6) 874 484 40.1 0.085 (±0.002) 2.7 (±0.3)
Hexane (C6H14) 650 433 44.7 0.074 (±0.005) 1.9 (±0.4)
Heptane (C7H16) 675 448 44.6 0.101 (±0.009) 1.1 (±0.3)
Xylenes (C8H10) 870 543 40.8 0.090 (±0.007) 1.4 (±0.3)
Acetone (C3H6O) 791 668 25.8 0.041 (±0.003) 1.9 (±0.3)
Dioxane (C4H8O2) 1,035 552 26.2 0.018 5.4
Diethyl ether (C4H10O) 714 382 34.2 0.085 (±0.018) 0.7 (±0.3)
Petroleum Products
Benzine 740 – 44.7 0.048 (±0.002) 3.6 (±0.4)
Gasoline 740 330 43.7 0.055 (±0.002) 2.1 (±0.3)
Kerosene 820 670 43.2 0.039 (±0.003) 3.5 (±0.8)
JP-4 760 – 43.5 0.051 (±0.002) 3.6 (±0.1)
JP-5 810 700 43.0 0.054 (±0.002) 1.6 (±0.3)
Transformer oil, hydrocarbon 760 – 46.4 0.039 0.7
Fuel oil, heavy 940–1,000 – 39.7 0.035 (±0.003) 1.7 (±0.6)

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Density Δhg Δhc mo m3 kβ

Material
(kg●m–3) (kJ●kg–1) (MJ●kg–1) (kg●m–2●s–1) (m–1)
Crude oil 830–880 – 42.5–42.7 0.060 0.62
Solids
Polymethylmethacrylate 1,184 1,611 24.9 0.020 (±0.002) 3.3 (±0.8)
Polyoxymethylene (CH2O)n 1,425 2,430 15.7
Polypropylene (C3H6)n 905 2,030 43.2
Polystyrene (C8H8)n 1,050 1,720 39.7
Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

11.13 Effective Opposed-Flow Flame Spread Properties

Tig kρc F Ts,min F/kρc
Material
(°C) (kW2●s/m4●K2) (kW2/m3) (°C) (mK2/s)
PMMA polycast (1.59 mm) 278 0.73 5.4 120 8
Polyurethane (S353M) 280 – – 105 82
Hardboard (6.35 mm) 298 1.87 4.5 170 2
Carpet (acrylic) 300 0.42 9.9 165 24
Fiberboard, low density (S119M) 330 – – 90 42
Fiber insulation board 355 0.46 2.2 210 5
Hardboard (3.175 mm) 365 0.88 10.9 40 12
Hardboard (S159M) 372 – – 80 18
PMMA type g (1.27 cm) 378 1.02 14.4 90 14
Asphalt shingle 378 0.70 5.3 140 8
Douglas fir particle board (1.27 cm) 382 0.94 12.7 210 14
Wood panel (S178M) 385 – – 155 43
Plywood, plain (1.27 cm) 390 0.54 12.9 120 24
Chipboard (S118M) 390 – – 180 11
Plywood, plain (0.635 cm) 390 0.46 7.4 170 16
Foam, flexible (2.54 cm) 390 0.32 11.7 120 37
GRP (2.24 mm) 390 0.32 9.9 80 31
Mineral wool, textile paper (S160M) 400 – – 105 34
Hardboard (gloss paint) (3.4 mm) 400 1.22 3.5 320 3
Hardboard (nitrocellulose paint) 400 0.79 9.8 180 12
GRP (1.14 mm) 400 0.72 4.2 365 6
Particle board (1.27 cm stock) 412 0.93 4.2 275 5
Gypsum board, wallpaper (S142M) 412 0.57 0.79 240 1
Carpet (nylon/wool blend) 412 0.68 11.1 265 16
Carpet #2 (wool, untreated) 435 0.25 7.3 335 30
Foam, rigid (2.54 cm) 435 0.03 4.0 215 141
Polyisocyanurate (5.08 cm) 445 0.02 4.9 275 201
Fiberglass shingle 445 0.50 9.0 415 18
Carpet #2 (wool, treated) 455 0.24 0.8 365 4
Carpet #1 (wool, stock) 465 0.11 1.8 450 17

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

Tig kρc F Ts,min F/kρc

Material
(°C) (kW2●s/m4●K2) (kW2/m3) (°C) (mK2/s)
Aircraft panel epoxy Fiberite 505 0.24 * 505 *
Gypsum board, FR (1.27 cm) 510 0.40 9.2 300 23
Polycarbonate (1.52 mm) 528 1.16 14.7 455 13
Gypsum board (common) (1.27 mm) 565 0.45 14.4 425 32
Plywood, FR (1.27 cm) 620 0.76 * 620 *
Polystyrene (5.08 cm) 630 0.38 * 630 *
Note: Values are only significant to two places.
* Flame spread was not measurable.

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

11.14 Fire Propagation Index and Smoke Development Index for Polymetric Materials
36 Combustion Characteristics of Materials and Generation of Fire Products 1163

Table 36.4 Fire propagation index and smoke development index for polymeric materials
FPI (m/s1/2)/ SDI (g/g)(m/s1/2)/
Polymeric material (kW/m)2/3 (kW/m)2/3
Fire-retarded or unmodified electrical cables
Polyvinyl chloride(PVC/polyvinylchloride PVC) 36 4.1
Polyethylene (PE)/polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 28 3.8
Silicone/polyvinyl chloride (PVC) 17 2.0
Modified electrical cables
Polyvinylchloride (PVC) 8 1.2
High-temperature polyvinylchloride (PVC) 7 0.69
Polyethylene (PE)/ethylvinylacetate (EVA) 5 0.40
Ordinary polymeric materials
Fire-retarded polystyrene (FR-PS) 34 5.60
Fire-retarded polybutyleneterephthalate (FR-PBT) 32 2.20
Unmodified polymethylmethacrylate (U-PMMA) 23 1.1
Unmodified polyoxymethylene (U-POM) 15 0.03
Fire-retarded (FR) vinyl ester 10 2.5
Unmodified wood slab 14 0.20
Unmodified polyethylene (U-PE) 30 1.4
Polyethylene with 25 % chlorine 15 1.7
Polyethylene with 36 % chlorine 11 1.5
Polyethylene with 48 % chlorine 8 1.9
Modified polyethylene (M-PE)-1 7 0.64
Modified polyethylene (M-PE)-2 6 0.65
Unmodified polypropylene (U-PP) 31 1.7
Fire-retarded polypropylene (FR-PP) 30 2.1
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-1 11 3.0
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-2 7 0.95
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-3 7 0.35
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-4 6 0.41
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-5 5 0.40
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-6 5 0.19
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-7 5 0.21
Modified polypropylene (M-PP)-8 4 0.19
Fire-retarded flexible polyvinylchloride (FR-PVC) 16 1.6
Unmodified rigid polyvinylchloride (U-PVC)-1 8 0.86
Unmodified rigid polyvinylchloride (U-PVC)-2 7 1.2
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-1 6 0.31
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-2 5 0.64
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-3 4 0.15
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-4 3 0.16
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-5 3 0.29
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-6 2 0.11
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-7 2 0.04
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-8 2 0.06
Modified rigid polyvinylchloride (M-PVC)-9 1 0.03
Chlorinated rigid polyvinylchloride (CPVC, Corzan) 3 0.13
(continued)

Chapter 11: Physical Properties

1164 M.M. Khan et al.

Table 36.4 (continued)

FPI (m/s1/2)/ SDI (g/g)(m/s1/2)/
Polymeric material (kW/m)2/3 (kW/m)2/3
Highly halogenated specialty polymeric materials
Unmodified polyvinylidenefluoride (U-PVDF Kynar)-1 5 0.14
Unmodified polyvinylidenefluoride (U-PVDF)-2 4 0.08
Unmodified ethylenechlorotrifluoroethylene (U-ECTFE, Halar) 4 0.15
Unmodified ethylenetetrafluoroethylene (U-ETFE, Tefzel) 7 0.17
Unmodified perfluoroalkoxy (U-PFA, Teflon) 2 0.01
Unmodified fluorinated ethylene-propylene (U-FEP, Teflon) 3 0.01
High-temperature specialty polymeric materials
Phenol formaldehyde 5 0.06
Polyether ether ketone (PEEK) 4 0.03
Melamine 7 0.24
Unmodified polycarbonate (U-PC) 14 4.2
Modified polycarbonate (M-PC)-1 10 4.2
Modified polycarbonate (M-PC)-2 7 4.0
Unmodified polysulfone (U-POS) 18 1.49
Modified polysulfone (M-POS)-1 11 1.4
Modified polysulfone (M-POS)-2 11 0.32
Modified polysulfone (M-POS)-3 7 1.2
Modified polysulfone (M-POS)-4 7 0.25
Modified polyetherimide (M-PEI)-1 6 0.24
Modified polyetherimide (M-PEI)-2 6 0.04
Modified polyetherimide (M-PEI)-3 5 0.46
Unmodified polyphenyleneoxide (U-PPO) 9 1.6
Glass fiber–reinforced ordinary polyesters
Glass fiber–reinforced fire-retarded polyester (FR-PES)-1 21 5.4
Glass fiber–reinforced fire-retarded polyester (FR-PES)-1 16 7.4
Glass fiber–reinforced fire-retarded polyester (FR-PES)-1 14 4.0
Glass fiber–reinforced modified polyester (M-PES)-1 11 5.5
Glass fiber–reinforced modified polyester (M-PES)-1 10 5.2
Glass fiber–reinforced modified polyester (M-PES)-1 9 3.1
Composites
Fire-retarded polyester (30 %)/glass fibers (70 %)-1 13 0.91
Fire-retarded polyester (30 %)/glass fibers (70 %)-2 10 0.68
Unmodified phenolic (16 %)/Kevlar fibers (84 %) 8 0.33
Modified phenolic (20 %)/glass fibers (80 %) 3 0.07
Fire-retarded epoxy (35 %)/glass fibers (65 %)-1 11 2.1
Fire-retarded epoxy (35 %)/glass fibers (65 %)-2 10 0.94
Fire-retarded epoxy (35 %)/glass fibers (65 %)-3 9 1.2
Modified epoxy (24 %)/glass fibers (76 %)-1 5 0.61
Modified epoxy (29 %)/graphite fibers (71 %) 5 0.54
Modified epoxy and phenolic (18 %)/glass fibers (82 %) 2 0.18
Modified polyphenylenesulfide (16 %)/glass fibers (84 %) 3 0.29
Modified cyanate (27 %)/graphite fibers (73 %) 4 0.41
Note: Data taken from Refs. [19, 43, 44, 48, 49]

Source: SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, fifth edition, with permission from SFPE.

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