PPS TEAM

Reference
Definitions, Postulates & Theorems –

Basics

Point: An exact location in space

Line ( ): An infinite set of points forming a straight path extending in opposite directions

Line segment ( ): A part of a line that consists of the two endpoints and all the points of the
line between them

Ray ( ): A part of a line that has one endpoint and extends infinitely in one direction

Distance between Two Points ( ): length of the segment between the two points

Midpoint: The point on a line segment that divides it into two equal segments

Angle ( ): The union of two rays that share a common endpoint

Plane: A flat surface with infinite length and width but no thickness

Collinear: On the same line

Perpendicular ( ) lines: Lines that intersect to form a right angle

Parallel ( ) lines: Lines in the same plane that do not intersect

Supplementary angles: Two angles with measures whose sum is 180˚

Complementary angles: Two angles with measures whose sum is 90˚

Interior angle: An angle on the inside of a polygon, formed by the sides of the polygon

Exterior angle: An angle formed by the side of a polygon and an extension of an adjacent side

Adjacent angles: Angles that share a common ray and endpoint, but that do not overlap

Acute angle: An angle with measure between 0 and 90 degrees

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Obtuse angle: An angle with measure between 90 and 180 degrees

Right angle: An angle with measure of 90 degrees

Vertex: The common endpoint of two rays or segments (plural: vertices)

Equidistant: a distance by equal amounts from two or more points

Polygons

Polygon: The union of segments in the same plane such that each segment intersects exactly
two others, one at each endpoint

Closed Figure: a shape or curve that begins and ends at the same point

Convex Polygon: a polygon such that no line containing a side of the polygon contains a point in
the interior of the polygon

Concave Polygon: a polygon with one or more internal angles which are greater than 180
degrees

Regular polygon: A polygon that has all sides congruent and all angles congruent

Triangle: A three-sided polygon

Quadrilateral: A four-sided polygon

Pentagon: A five-sided polygon

Hexagon: A six-sided polygon

Heptagon: A seven-sided polygon

Octagon: An eight-sided polygon

Nonagon: A nine-sided polygon

Decagon: A ten-sided polygon

Dodecagon: A twelve-sided polygon

Interior angle: An angle on the inside of a polygon, formed by the sides of the polygon

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Diagonal: A segment drawn from the vertex of a polygon to a non-adjacent vertex

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Triangle Basics

Acute triangle: A triangle whose interior angles each measure less than 90˚

Altitude: A segment drawn from a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side, or to the lines
containing the opposite side.

Base: Non-congruent side of an isosceles triangle OR side of the triangle to which the altitude is
drawn.

Base angles: The two angles whose common side is the base of an isosceles triangle.

Bisect: To cut into two equal pieces

Equiangular triangle: A triangle whose angles all have the same measure

Equilateral triangle: A triangle whose sides all have the same length

Hypotenuse: The side opposite the right angle in a right triangle (the longest side of this
triangle)

Isosceles triangle: A triangle with two congruent sides

Leg: The non-hypotenuse side(s) of a right triangle

Median: A segment from a vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side.

Obtuse triangle: A triangle with exactly one interior angle that measures more than 90˚

Right triangle: A triangle that contains one interior angle which measures exactly 90˚.

Scalene triangle: A triangle that has no congruent sides

Angles formed by lines

Transversal: A line that intersects two or more other lines at different points.

Linear pair: A linear pair of angles is formed when two lines intersect. The angles are adjacent
and formed by the two intersecting lines. Below, and are a linear pair.

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Vertical Angles: Formed when two lines intersect, vertical angles are on opposite sides of the
intersection.

Corresponding angles: When a transversal intersects two lines, corresponding angles are on the
same side of the transversal and on the same side of the given lines

Alternate interior angles: When a transversal intersects two lines, alternate interior angles are
on opposite sides of the transversal and on the inside of the given lines

Alternate exterior angles: When a transversal intersects two lines, alternate exterior angles are
on opposite sides of the transversal and on the outside of the given lines.

Same-side interior angles: When a transversal intersects two lines, same-side interior angles
are on the same side of the transversal and on the inside of the given lines.

Same-side exterior angles: When a transversal intersects two lines, same-side exterior angles
are on the same side of the transversal and on the outside of the given lines

Truths

The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180 degrees.

The sum of the interior angles of a convex polygon with sides is degrees.

The sum of the exterior angles of all convex polygons is 360 degrees.

Two Point Postulate: Two points determine a unique line.

Two lines intersect at a point.

Pythagorean Theorem:

Lines
Coordinate Geometry: Geometry with an x-y coordinate system. Everything that is true in
analytic geometry is also true in coordinate geometry.

Analytic Geometry: Geometry without a coordinate system with no notion of up or down, left
or right.

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Congruent: Having exactly the same size and shape. Congruent angles have the same measure,
and congruent segments have the same length.

Coincidental Lines: Two or more lines that lie on top of one another.

Quadrant: A section of the coordinate plane created by the intersecting, perpendicular x and
y axes. The upper right quadrant is called quadrant I and the other quadrants are numbered II
– IV in counter-clockwise fashion.

Formulas

● The distance formula

Calculating the distance between two points A and B

● The midpoint formula

Calculating the midpoint between two points and is essentially
averaging

● Slope (m)

● Finding the equation of a line ● Solving a system of ‘linear’ equations can

o Point-slope form: be done using
o the substitution method
o the elimination method
o Slope-intercept form: o the graphing method (to find their
o Know when to use each form – be coordinates of intersection)
efficient!

Truths

Parallel Postulate: Parallel lines corresponding angles are congruent.

Parallel lines same-side interior angles are supplementary.

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Parallel lines alternate interior angles are congruent.

Parallel lines alternate exterior angles are congruent.

Parallel lines same-side exterior angles are supplementary.

The angles in a linear pair are supplementary.

Vertical angles are congruent.

Proof and Logical Reasoning:

Conjecture: An unproven statement that is based on observations; it is like a hypothesis.
Postulate: A statement that is accepted as true; an unproven assumption.
Theorem: A mathematical statement that can be shown to be true based on postulates,
definitions, or other proven theorems.
Analytic Geometry: Geometry without a coordinate system with no notion of up or down, left
or right.
Coordinate Geometry: Geometry with an x-y coordinate system. Everything that is true in
analytic geometry is also true in coordinate geometry.
Conditional statement (p q): A statement in the form of “if p, then q”.
Hypothesis: The “if” part of a conditional statement
Conclusion: The “then” part of a conditional statement
Converse statement (q p): The converse of a conditional statement is formed by reversing the
hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if q, then p.”
Inverse statement (Not p not q): The inverse of a conditional statement is formed by negating
the hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if not p, then not q.”
Contrapositive statement (Not q not p): The contrapositive of a conditional statement is
formed by reversing AND negating the hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if not q, then
not p.”
Counterexample: Shows that the hypothesis (if part) of a conditional can be true without the
conclusion (then part) also being true.
Biconditional: A conditional whose converse is also true. Denoted with a double-ended arrow (
).
Proof: a series of steps taken in deductive reasoning
Axioms (Postulates) of Algebra
Equality Properties
1. Reflexive Property:
2. Addition Property: If and , then
3. Subtraction Property: If and , then .
4. Multiplication Property: If , then

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 5. Division Property: If and , then .
6. Substitution Property: If , then either or may be substituted for
the other in any equation.
7. Transitive Property: If , , then .

Inequality Properties (work for >, <, ≤, ≥ as long as same symbol is used every time)

8. Trichotomy Property: Either , , or .

9. Addition Property: If and , then .
10. Subtraction Property: If and , then .
11. Multiplication Property: If and , then .

12. Division Property: If and , then .

Note: The multiplication and division properties change if . In those cases, the
inequality sign in the final answer switches. If , the division property is not possible.

13. Substitution: If a = b, then either a or b may be substituted for the

other in any inequality.
14. Transitive Property: If , , then .

Addition and Multiplication Properties

15. Commutative Property: and

16. Associative Property: and
17. Identity Property: and
18. Distributive Property: and

Warning: Square roots and powers do not distribute!

Triangles:

Acute triangle: A triangle whose interior angles each measure less than 90˚
Altitude: A segment drawn from a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side, or to the lines
containing the opposite side.
Base: Non-congruent side of an isosceles triangle OR side of the triangle to which the altitude is
drawn.
Base angles: The two angles whose common side is the base of an isosceles triangle.

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Congruent: Having exactly the same size and shape. Congruent angles have the same measure,
and congruent segments have the same length.
Equiangular triangle: A triangle whose angles all have the same measure
Equilateral triangle: A triangle whose sides all have the same length
Hypotenuse: In a right triangle, the side opposite the right angle
Isosceles triangle: A triangle with two congruent sides
Legs: (1) The two congruent sides of an isosceles triangle or (2) The two sides of a right triangle
that form the right angle.
Median: A segment from a vertex of a triangle to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Obtuse triangle: A triangle with exactly one interior angle that measures more than 90˚.

Right triangle: A triangle that contains one interior angle which measures exactly 90˚.

Scalene triangle: A triangle that has no congruent sides

Distance from a point to a line: the length of the perpendicular segment from the point to the
line.

Isosceles Triangle Theorem: In an isosceles triangle, the angles opposite the congruent sides
are congruent. (Base angles are congruent). Converse: If the two base angles of a triangle are
congruent, then the triangle is isosceles.

If two sets of corresponding angles in two triangles are congruent, then the third set of angles
must be congruent.

The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180o.

Exterior angle of a triangle theorem: The exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the
two remote interior angles. (m below = m +m )

In an isosceles triangle, angle bisector median altitude perpendicular bisector of

the base

The Pythagorean Theorem: The sum of the squares of the legs of a right triangle is equal to the
square of the hypotenuse.

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Triangle Inequalities
● Side-Angle Inequality: In a triangle, the longest side is opposite the largest
angle, the smallest side opposite the smallest angle.
● Triangle Inequality: Any side of a triangle must be greater than the difference
and smaller than the sum of the other two sides.

Similarity:

Proportion: An equation showing that two ratios are equivalent.

Dilation: A transformation that changes the size but not the shape of an object for figure.
Ratio: A comparison of two or more numbers using division.
Similar ( ): Having exactly the same shape, but not necessarily the same size. Similar plane
figures have proportional corresponding sides and congruent corresponding angles.

AA Triangle Similarity Postulate: If two angles of a triangle are congruent to two corresponding
angles of another triangle, then the triangles are similar.

SAS Triangle Similarity Postulate: If two sides of a triangle are proportional to two
corresponding sides of another triangle and the corresponding angles between the sides are
congruent, then the triangles are similar.

SSS Triangle Similarity Postulate: If the three sides of a triangle are proportional to the three
corresponding sides of another triangle, then the triangles are similar.

Congruence:

Congruent: Having exactly the same shape, and exactly the same size. Congruent figures are
similar, with a scale factor of 1. All corresponding angles and all corresponding sides are
congruent.

SSS Triangle Congruence: When three side of one triangle are congruent to three corresponding
sides of another triangle then the triangles are congruent.

SAS Triangle Congruence: When two side of one triangle and their included angle are congruent
to two corresponding sides of another triangle and their included angle then the triangles are
congruent.

ASA Triangle Congruence: When two angles of one triangle and their included side are
congruent to two corresponding angles of another triangle and their included side then the
triangles are congruent.

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AAS Triangle Congruence: When two angles of one triangle and one side are congruent to two
corresponding angles of another triangle and one corresponding side then the triangles are
congruent. Be certain that the side is attached to the same angle in both!

HL Triangle Congruence: When the hypotenuse and the leg of a right triangle are congruent to
the hypotenuse and the corresponding leg of another triangle, then the triangles are congruent.

Quadrilaterals:

Quadrilateral: a polygon with four sides

Parallelogram: a quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel
Rhombus: a parallelogram with all sides congruent
Rectangle: a parallelogram with 4 right angles
Square: a parallelogram with 4 equal sides and 4 right angles
Kite: a quadrilateral with two distinct (different) pairs of consecutive congruent sides
Trapezoid: a quadrilateral with exactly one pair of opposite sides parallel
Isosceles trapezoid: a trapezoid with congruent legs
Legs of a trapezoid: the non-parallel sides
Bases of a trapezoid: the parallel sides
Base angles of a trapezoid: Pair of angles located at each end of a base
Median of a trapezoid: segment connecting the midpoints of the legs

The properties of a parallelogram are

● Both pairs of opposite sides are congruent
● Both pairs of opposite angles are congruent
● Diagonals bisect each other

The properties of a rhombus are

● All the properties of a parallelogram
● Diagonals not only bisect each other…they bisect the vertex/interior angles
and are perpendicular to each other.

The properties of a rectangle are

● All the properties of a parallelogram
● Diagonals not only bisect each other…they are congruent

The properties of a square are

● All the properties of a rectangle and of a rhombus

The properties of a kite are

● One diagonal (the symmetry diagonal) is the perpendicular bisector of the
other diagonal and the bisector of its two vertex/interior angles.

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The properties of a trapezoid are
● The midline of a trapezoid has a length that is one half the sum of the lengths
of the bases, and is parallel to the bases (We did not discuss this in class, and
it will not be on the exam.)

The properties of an isosceles trapezoid are

● Legs (non-parallel sides) are congruent
● Both pairs of base angles are congruent
● Diagonals are congruent and cut each other proportionally

5 Ways to Prove a Quadrilateral is a Parallelogram

● Prove both pairs of opposite sides parallel
● Prove both pairs of opposite sides congruent
● Prove both pairs of opposite angles congruent
● Prove that the diagonals bisect each other
● Prove one pair of opposite sides both parallel and congruent

3 Ways to prove a Quadrilateral is a Rhombus

● Prove all four sides congruent
● Prove that it is a parallelogram with 2 consecutive congruent sides
● Prove the diagonals are bisecting and perpendicular

3 Ways to prove a Quadrilateral is a Rectangle

● Prove all four angles are right angles
● Prove that it is a parallelogram with one right angle
● Prove diagonals are congruent and bisecting

2 Ways to prove a Quadrilateral is a Square

● Prove it has 4 right angles and 4 congruent sides
● Prove it has diagonals that are bisecting, congruent and perpendicular

2 Ways to prove a Quadrilateral is a Kite

● Prove it has 2 pairs of consecutive sides that are congruent
● Prove that its diagonals are perpendicular, but only one is bisected

Logic

Conditional statement (p q): A statement in the form of “if p, then q”.

Point of interest (POI): The “if” part of the statement is the hypothesis and the “then”
part is the conclusion. Conditionals in geometry should be true. (A POI is not a part of a
definition.)

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Converse statement (q p): The converse of a conditional statement is formed by reversing the
hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if q, then p.”

POI: The converse of any given conditional statement is not always true.

Inverse statement (Not p not q): The inverse of a conditional statement is formed by negating
the hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if not p, then not q.”

POI: The inverse of any given conditional statement is not always true.

Contrapositive statement (Not q not p): The contrapositive of a conditional statement is

formed by reversing AND negating the hypothesis and the conclusion to become “if not q, then
not p.”

POI: The contrapositive of any given conditional statement is always true, if the original
statement is true. It is false if the original statement is false.

Counterexample: Shows that the “if” part of a conditional is true but the “then” part is false.

Biconditional: A conditional whose converse is also true. Denoted with a double-ended arrow (
).

Theorems

If two lines are parallel to the same line, they are parallel to each other.

If two lines are perpendicular to the same line, they are parallel to each other.

If two sets of corresponding angles in a triangle are congruent, then the third set of angles must
be congruent.

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