Chapter 2: Operating-System

Structures

Operating System Concepts – 9ᵗʰ Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Chapter 2: Operating-System Structures

Operating System Services

User Operating System Interface
System Calls
Types of System Calls
System Programs
Operating System Design and Implementation
Operating System Structure
Operating System Debugging
Operating System Generation
System Boot

Operating System Concepts – 9ᵗʰ Edition 2.<number> Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Objectives
To describe the services an operating system provides to
users, processes, and other systems
To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system
To explain how operating systems are installed and
customized and how they boot

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 Operating System Services
Operating systems provide an environment for execution of programs
and services to programs and users
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful
to the user:
User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user
interface (UI).
Varies between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User
Interface (GUI), Batch
Program execution - The system must be able to load a program
into memory and to run that program, end execution, either
normally or abnormally (indicating error)
I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may
involve a file or an I/O device

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 Operating System Services (Cont.)
One set of operating-system services provides functions that are helpful to the
user (Cont.):
File-system manipulation - The file system is of particular interest.
Programs need to read and write files and directories, create and delete
them, search them, list file Information, permission management.
Communications – Processes may exchange information, on the same
computer or between computers over a network
Communications may be via shared memory or through message
passing (packets moved by the OS)
Error detection – OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors
May occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user
program
For each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to
ensure correct and consistent computing
Debugging facilities can greatly enhance the user’s and programmer’s
abilities to efficiently use the system

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 Operating System Services (Cont.)

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efficient operation of the
system itself via resource sharing
Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running
concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them
Many types of resources - CPU cycles, main memory, file storage,
I/O devices.
Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what
kinds of computer resources
Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a
multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use of that
information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other
Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is
controlled
Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication,
extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access
attempts

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 A View of Operating System Services

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 User Operating System Interface - CLI

CLI or command interpreter allows direct command entry

Sometimes implemented in kernel, sometimes by systems
program
Sometimes multiple flavors implemented – shells
Primarily fetches a command from user and executes it
Sometimes commands built-in, sometimes just names of
programs
If the latter, adding new features doesn’t require shell
modification

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 Bourne Shell Command Interpreter

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 User Operating System Interface - GUI

User-friendly desktop metaphor interface

Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor
Icons represent files, programs, actions, etc
Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause
various actions (provide information, options, execute function,
open directory (known as a folder)
Invented at Xerox PARC
Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces
Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI “command” shell
Apple Mac OS X is “Aqua” GUI interface with UNIX kernel
underneath and shells available
Unix and Linux have CLI with optional GUI interfaces (CDE,
KDE, GNOME)

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 Touchscreen Interfaces

Touchscreen devices require new

interfaces
Mouse not possible or not desired
Actions and selection based on
gestures
Virtual keyboard for text entry
Voice commands.

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 The Mac OS X GUI

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 System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS
Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)
Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application
Programming Interface (API) rather than direct system call use
Three most common APIs are Win32 API for Windows, POSIX API
for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX,
Linux, and Mac OS X), and Java API for the Java virtual machine
(JVM)

Note that the system-call names used throughout this

text are generic

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 Example of System Calls

System call sequence to copy the contents of one file to another file

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 Example of Standard API

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 System Call Implementation

Typically, a number associated with each system call

System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to
these numbers
The system call interface invokes the intended system call in OS
kernel and returns status of the system call and any return values
The caller need know nothing about how the system call is
implemented
Just needs to obey API and understand what OS will do as a
result call
Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API
Managed by run-time support library (set of functions built
into libraries included with compiler)

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 API – System Call – OS Relationship

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 System Call Parameter Passing

Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system

call
Exact type and amount of information vary according to OS and call
Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS
Simplest: pass the parameters in registers
In some cases, may be more parameters than registers
Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of
block passed as a parameter in a register
This approach taken by Linux and Solaris
Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and
popped off the stack by the operating system
Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of
parameters being passed

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 Parameter Passing via Table

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 Types of System Calls
Process control
create process, terminate process
end, abort
load, execute
get process attributes, set process attributes
wait for time
wait event, signal event
allocate and free memory
Dump memory if error
Debugger for determining bugs, single step execution
Locks for managing access to shared data between processes

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 Types of System Calls

File management
create file, delete file
open, close file
read, write, reposition
get and set file attributes
Device management
request device, release device
read, write, reposition
get device attributes, set device attributes
logically attach or detach devices

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 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

Information maintenance
get time or date, set time or date
get system data, set system data
get and set process, file, or device attributes
Communications
create, delete communication connection
send, receive messages if message passing model to host name
or process name
From client to server
Shared-memory model create and gain access to memory regions
transfer status information
attach and detach remote devices

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 Types of System Calls (Cont.)

Protection
Control access to resources
Get and set permissions
Allow and deny user access

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 Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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 Standard C Library Example

C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call

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 Example: MS-DOS

Single-tasking
Shell invoked when system
booted
Simple method to run program
No process created
Single memory space
Loads program into memory,
overwriting all but the kernel
Program exit -> shell reloaded

At system startup running a program

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 Example: FreeBSD
Unix variant
Multitasking
User login -> invoke user’s choice of shell
Shell executes fork() system call to create
process
Executes exec() to load program into
process
Shell waits for process to terminate or
continues with user commands
Process exits with:
code = 0 – no error
code > 0 – error code

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 System Programs

System programs provide a convenient environment for program

development and execution. They can be divided into:
File manipulation
Status information sometimes stored in a File modification
Programming language support
Program loading and execution
Communications
Background services
Application programs
Most users’ view of the operation system is defined by system
programs, not the actual system calls

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 System Programs
Provide a convenient environment for program development and
execution
Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others
are considerably more complex

File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list,

and generally manipulate files and directories

Status information
Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available
memory, disk space, number of users
Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging
information
Typically, these programs format and print the output to the
terminal or other output devices
Some systems implement a registry - used to store and
retrieve configuration information

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 System Programs (Cont.)
File modification
Text editors to create and modify files
Special commands to search contents of files or perform
transformations of the text
Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers,
debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided
Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable
loaders, linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems
for higher-level and machine language
Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual
connections among processes, users, and computer systems
Allow users to send messages to one another’s screens,
browse web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in
remotely, transfer files from one machine to another

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 System Programs (Cont.)
Background Services
Launch at boot time
Some for system startup, then terminate
Some from system boot to shutdown
Provide facilities like disk checking, process scheduling, error
logging, printing
Run in user context not kernel context
Known as services, subsystems, daemons

Application programs
Don’t pertain to system
Run by users
Not typically considered part of OS
Launched by command line, mouse click, finger poke

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 Operating System Design and Implementation

Design and Implementation of OS not “solvable”, but some

approaches have proven successful

Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely

Start the design by defining goals and specifications

Affected by choice of hardware, type of system

User goals and System goals

User goals – operating system should be convenient to use,
easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast
System goals – operating system should be easy to design,
implement, and maintain, as well as flexible, reliable, error-free,
and efficient

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 Operating System Design and Implementation (Cont.)

Important principle to separate

Policy: What will be done?
Mechanism: How to do it?
Mechanisms determine how to do something, policies decide
what will be done
The separation of policy from mechanism is a very important
principle, it allows maximum flexibility if policy decisions are to
be changed later (example – timer)
Specifying and designing an OS is highly creative task of
software engineering

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 Implementation

Much variation
Early OSes in assembly language
Then system programming languages like Algol, PL/1
Now C, C++
Actually usually a mix of languages
Lowest levels in assembly
Main body in C
Systems programs in C, C++, scripting languages like PERL,
Python, shell scripts
More high-level language easier to port to other hardware
But slower
Emulation can allow an OS to run on non-native hardware

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 Operating System Structure
General-purpose OS is very large program
Various ways to structure ones
Simple structure – MS-DOS
More complex -- UNIX
Layered – an abstrcation
Microkernel -Mach

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 Simple Structure -- MS-DOS

MS-DOS – written to provide the

most functionality in the least
space
Not divided into modules
Although MS-DOS has some
structure, its interfaces and
levels of functionality are not
well separated

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 Non Simple Structure -- UNIX
UNIX – limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX
operating system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists
of two separable parts
Systems programs
The kernel
Consists of everything below the system-call interface
and above the physical hardware
Provides the file system, CPU scheduling, memory
management, and other operating-system functions; a
large number of functions for one level

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 Traditional UNIX System Structure

Beyond simple but not fully layered

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 Layered Approach

The operating system is divided

into a number of layers (levels),
each built on top of lower layers.
The bottom layer (layer 0), is the
hardware; the highest (layer N)
is the user interface.
With modularity, layers are
selected such that each uses
functions (operations) and
services of only lower-level
layers

Operating System Concepts – 9ᵗʰ Edition 2.<number> Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 Microkernel System Structure
Moves as much from the kernel into user space
Mach example of microkernel
Mac OS X kernel (Darwin) partly based on Mach
Communication takes place between user modules using
message passing
Benefits:
Easier to extend a microkernel
Easier to port the operating system to new architectures
More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)
More secure
Detriments:
Performance overhead of user space to kernel space
communication

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 Microkernel System Structure

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 Modules
Many modern operating systems implement loadable kernel
modules
Uses object-oriented approach
Each core component is separate
Each talks to the others over known interfaces
Each is loadable as needed within the kernel
Overall, similar to layers but with more flexible
Linux, Solaris, etc

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 Solaris Modular Approach

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 Hybrid Systems

Most modern operating systems are actually not one pure model
Hybrid combines multiple approaches to address performance,
security, usability needs
Linux and Solaris kernels in kernel address space, so
monolithic, plus modular for dynamic loading of functionality
Windows mostly monolithic, plus microkernel for different
subsystem personalities
Apple Mac OS X hybrid, layered, Aqua UI plus Cocoa
programming environment
Below is kernel consisting of Mach microkernel and BSD Unix
parts, plus I/O kit and dynamically loadable modules (called
kernel extensions)

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 Mac OS X Structure

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 iOS

Apple mobile OS for iPhone, iPad

Structured on Mac OS X, added functionality
Does not run OS X applications natively
Also runs on different CPU architecture
(ARM vs. Intel)
Cocoa Touch Objective-C API for developing
apps
Media services layer for graphics, audio,
video
Core services provides cloud computing,
databases
Core operating system, based on Mac OS X
kernel

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 Android
Developed by Open Handset Alliance (mostly Google)
Open Source
Similar stack to IOS
Based on Linux kernel but modified
Provides process, memory, device-driver management
Adds power management
Runtime environment includes core set of libraries and Dalvik virtual
machine
Apps developed in Java plus Android API
Java class files compiled to Java bytecode then translated
to executable than runs in Dalvik VM
Libraries include frameworks for web browser (webkit), database
(SQLite), multimedia, smaller libc

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 Android Architecture

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 Operating-System Debugging

Debugging is finding and fixing errors, or bugs

OS generate log files containing error information
Failure of an application can generate core dump file capturing memory of
the process
Operating system failure can generate crash dump file containing kernel
memory
Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance
Sometimes using trace listings of activities, recorded for analysis
Profiling is periodic sampling of instruction pointer to look for statistical
trends
Kernighan’s Law: “Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the
first place. Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as possible, you
are, by definition, not smart enough to debug it.”

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 Performance Tuning

Improve performance by
removing bottlenecks
OS must provide means of
computing and displaying
measures of system behavior
For example, “top” program
or Windows Task Manager

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 DTrace

DTrace tool in Solaris,

FreeBSD, Mac OS X allows
live instrumentation on
production systems
Probes fire when code is
executed within a provider,
capturing state data and
sending it to consumers of
those probes

Example of following
XEventsQueued system call
move from libc library to
kernel and back

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 Dtrace (Cont.)

DTrace code to record

amount of time each process
with UserID 101 is in running
mode (on CPU) in
nanoseconds

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 Operating System Generation

Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of

machines; the system must be configured for each specific
computer site
SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specific
configuration of the hardware system
Used to build system-specific compiled kernel or system-
tuned
Can general more efficient code than one general kernel

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 System Boot

When power initialized on system, execution starts at a fixed memory

location
Firmware ROM used to hold initial boot code
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware
can start it
Small piece of code – bootstrap loader, stored in ROM or
EEPROM locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it
Sometimes two-step process where boot block at fixed location
loaded by ROM code, which loads bootstrap loader from disk
Common bootstrap loader, GRUB, allows selection of kernel from
multiple disks, versions, kernel options
Kernel loads and system is then running

Operating System Concepts – 9ᵗʰ Edition 2.<number> Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013
 End of Chapter 2

Operating System Concepts – 9ᵗʰ Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne ©2013