Unit-IV Syllabus

Internet and Network: Networking and its Types (LAN, MAN, WAN,
Topologies). Internet and its Features, Services Protocol, browser,
www, DNS, Websites, Search Engine

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COMPUTER NETWORKING

INTRODUCTION
A computer network is a system that connects numerous independent computers in order
to share information (data) and resources. The integration of computers and other different
devices allows users to communicate more easily.
A computer network consists of various kinds of nodes. Servers, networking hardware,
personal computers, and other specialized or general-purpose hosts can all be nodes in a
computer network. Host names and network addresses are used to identify them.
Computer Network means an interconnection of autonomous (standalone) computers for
information exchange. The connecting media could be a copper wire, optical fiber,
microwave, or satellite.
Computer networking refers to connected computing devices (such as laptops, desktops,
servers, smartphones, and tablets) and an ever-expanding array of IoT devices (such as
cameras, door locks, doorbells, refrigerators, audio/visual systems, thermostats, and various
sensors) that communicate with one another.

Definition
Computer network, two or more computers that are connected with one another for the
purpose of communicating data electronically. Besides physically connecting computer and
communication devices, a network system serves the important function of establishing
a cohesive architecture that allows a variety of equipment types to transfer information in a
near-seamless fashion.

Networking Elements – The computer network includes the following networking

elements:
1. At least two computers
2. Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3. Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4. Network software such as Network Operating System

How Does a Computer Network Work?

Computer Networks simply work using nodes and links. Data Communication Equipment
is simply termed as Nodes. For example, Modems, Hubs, Switches, etc. whereas links in
Computer networks can be referred to as a connection between two nodes. We have
several types of links like cable wires, optical fibers, etc.

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Whenever a Computer Network is working, nodes have the work of sending and receiving
data via the links. Computer Network provides some set of protocols that helps in
following the rules and protocols.

What Do Computer Networks Do?

Computer Networks are one of the important aspects of Computer Science. In the early
days, it is used for data transmission on telephone lines and had a very limited use, but
nowadays, it is used in a variety of places.
Computer Networks help in providing better connectivity that helps nowadays. Modern
computer networks have the following functionality like
• Computer Networks help in operating virtually.
• Computer Networks integrate on a large scale.
• Computer Networks respond very quickly in case of conditions change.
• Computer Networks help in providing data security.

Criteria of a Good Network

The criteria that have to be met by a computer network are:

1. Performance: It can be measured in many ways, including transmit time and

response time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel
from one device to another. Response time is the elapsed time between an
inquiry and a response. The performance of the network depends on a number of
factors, including the number of users, the type of medium & Hardware
2. Reliability: In addition to accuracy is measured by frequency of failure, the time
it takes a link to recover from failure, and the network’s robustness in
catastrophe.
3. Security: Network security issues include protecting data from unauthorized
access, protecting data from damage and development, and implementing
policies and procedures for recovery from breaches and data loss.

Goals of Computer Networking

• Programs do not have to execute on a single system because of resource and load
sharing.
• Reduced costs – Multiple machines can share printers, tape drives, and other
peripherals.
• Reliability – If one machine fails, another can take its place.
• Scalability (it’s simple to add more processors or computers)
• Communication and mail (people living apart can work together)

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 • Information Access (remote information access, access to the internet, e-mail,
video conferencing, and online shopping)
• Entertainment that is interactive (online games, videos, etc.)
• Social Networking

Networking Components/Devices

Computer network components are the major parts which are needed to install the software.
Some important network components are NIC, switch, cable, hub, router, and modem.
Depending on the type of network that we need to install, some network components can
also be removed. For example, the wireless network does not require a cable.

Following are the major components required to install a network:

• NIC (Network Interface Card): A network card, often known as a network

adapter or NIC (network interface card), is computer hardware that enables
computers to communicate via a network. It offers physical access to networking
media and, in many cases, MAC addresses serve as a low-level addressing
scheme. Each network interface card has a distinct identifier. This is stored on a
chip that is attached to the card.

• Hub: A hub is a device that joins together many twisted pairs or fiber optic
Ethernet devices to give the illusion of a formation of a single network segment.
The device can be visualized as a multiport repeater. A network hub is a
relatively simple broadcast device. Any packet entering any port is regenerated
and broadcast out on all other ports, and hubs do not control any of the traffic
that passes through them. Packet collisions occur as a result of every packet
being sent out through all other ports, substantially impeding the smooth flow of
communication.

• Routers: Routers are networking devices that use headers and forwarding tables
to find the optimal way to forward data packets between networks. A router is a
computer networking device that links two or more computer networks and
selectively exchanges data packets between them. A router can use address
information in each data packet to determine if the source and destination are on
the same network or if the data packet has to be transported between networks.
When numerous routers are deployed in a wide collection of interconnected
networks, the routers share target system addresses so that each router can
develop a table displaying the preferred pathways between any two systems on
the associated networks.

• Bridges: Bridges broadcast data to all the ports but not to the one that received
the transmission. Bridges, on the other hand, learn which MAC addresses are
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 reachable through specific ports rather than copying messages to all ports as hubs
do. Once a port and an address are associated, the bridge will only transport
traffic from that address to that port.

• Gateways: To provide system compatibility, a gateway may contain devices

such as protocol translators, impedance-matching devices, rate converters, fault
isolators, or signal translators. It also necessitates the development of
administrative procedures that are acceptable to both networks. By completing
the necessary protocol conversions, a protocol translation/mapping gateway joins
networks that use distinct network protocol technologies.

Computer Networks: Business Applications

Following are some business applications of computer networks:

Application of Computer Networking

The following are the some of the application of computer network:

1. Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can
share one Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks,
Fax Machines, etc. Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual
Box, Postman, Android Studio, etc.

Resource sharing is the process of sharing the resources such as storage devices,
input/output devices, etc. over the network. For example, printer can be shared among the
computers connected in a network by attaching it to the server computer. When the users
want their documents to be printed they can simply give the print command from their
computers and get their document printed. The sharing of a printer on a network is relatively
cheaper than attaching separate printers to the individual computers connected in the
network.

2. Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides
Search capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared
among the many users over the internet.

3. Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system
etc.

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The far-reaching applications of network are electronic mail and teleconferencing. These
applications allow individuals as well as organizations to use networks for exchanging
messages (written, voice and video) extensively. Electronic mail enables a person to send
and receive instant messages over a computer network with the help of Internet. On the
other hand, teleconferencing enables real-time communication over a distance by allowing
people at different locations to communicate with each other by seeing the video picture of
people at other sites. This is also referred as virtual meeting.

4. Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment
industries are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV
programs, etc.

5. Access to Remote Databases

Remote data access is the process of accessing the data from remote location in an efficient
way. Different software programs are used to provide an interface to the end users for
accessing the data remotely.

Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by
the end-users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home
Banking, Automated Newspaper, Automated Library etc.

6. Home Applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For
example, you can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction,
electronic commerce, and entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts,
transferring money to some other banks, paying bills electronically. A computer network
arranges a robust connection mechanism between users.

7. Business Applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource
sharing is that without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans,
and tools can be shared to any network user. Most of the companies are doing business
electronically with other companies and with other clients worldwide with the help of a
computer network.

8. Mobile Users
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 The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook
computers and PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable
device. The computer network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches,
wearable devices, tablets, online transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.

9. Social Media
Social media is also a great example of a computer network application. It helps people to
share and receive any information related to political, ethical, and social issues.

Types of Computer Networks –

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

• Local Area Network (LAN) –

• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

• Wide Area Network (WAN) –

The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different computers
via any medium. LAN, MAN, and WAN are the three major types of networks designed to
operate over the area they cover. There are some similarities and dissimilarities between
them. One of the major differences is the geographical area they cover, i.e. LAN covers
the smallest area; MAN covers an area larger than LAN and WAN comprises the largest
of all.

Local Area Network (LAN) –

LAN stands for local area network. It is a group of network devices that allow
communication between various connected devices. Private ownership has control over the
local area network rather than the public. LAN has a short propagation delay than MAN as
well as WAN. It covers smaller areas such as colleges, schools, hospitals, and so on.
o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
o Local Area Network provides higher security.
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LAN or Local Area Network connects network devices in such a way that personal
computers and workstations can share data, tools, and programs. The group of computers
and devices are connected together by a switch, or stack of switches, using a private
addressing scheme as defined by the TCP/IP protocol. Private addresses are unique in
relation to other computers on the local network. Routers are found at the boundary of a
LAN, connecting them to the larger WAN.
Data transmits at a very fast rate as the number of computers linked is limited. By
definition, the connections must be high speed and relatively inexpensive hardware (Such
as hubs, network adapters, and Ethernet cables). LANs cover a smaller geographical area
(Size is limited to a few kilometers) and are privately owned. One can use it for an office
building, home, hospital, schools, etc. LAN is easy to design and maintain. A
Communication medium used for LAN has twisted-pair cables and coaxial cables. It
covers a short distance, and so the error and noise are minimized.
Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 Mbps range. Today, speeds are normally 100 or
1000 Mbps. Propagation delay is very short in a LAN. The smallest LAN may only use
two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN
typically relies mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. The fault tolerance of a LAN is more and there is
less congestion in this network. For example A bunch of students playing Counter-Strike
in the same room (without internet).

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) –

MAN stands for metropolitan area network. It covers a larger area than LAN such as small
towns, cities, etc. MAN connects two or more computers that reside within the same or
completely different cities. MAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one
organization.

MAN or Metropolitan area Network covers a larger area than that of a LAN and smaller
area as compared to WAN. It connects two or more computers that are apart but reside in
the same or different cities. It covers a large geographical area and may serve as an ISP
(Internet Service Provider). MAN is designed for customers who need high-speed

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connectivity. Speeds of MAN range in terms of Mbps. It’s hard to design and maintain a
Metropolitan Area Network.
o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN,
OC-3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

The fault tolerance of a MAN is less and also there is more congestion in the network. It is
costly and may or may not be owned by a single organization. The data transfer rate and
the propagation delay of MAN are moderate. Devices used for transmission of data
through MAN are Modem and Wire/Cable. Examples of a MAN are the part of the
telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer or the
cable TV network in a city.
Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.

o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

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Wide Area Network
WAN covers a large area than LAN as well as a MAN such as country/continent etc.
WAN is expensive and should or might not be owned by one organization. Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) or satellite medium is used for wide area networks.

WAN or Wide Area Network is a computer network that extends over a large geographical
area, although it might be confined within the bounds of a state or country. A WAN could
be a connection of LAN connecting to other LANs via telephone lines and radio waves
and may be limited to an enterprise (a corporation or an organization) or accessible to the
public. The technology is high speed and relatively expensive.
o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such
as states or countries.
o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

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Examples Of Wide Area Network:
o Mobile Broadband: A 4G network is widely used across a region or country.
o Last mile: A telecom company is used to provide the internet services to the
customers in hundreds of cities by connecting their home with fiber.
o Private network: A bank provides a private network that connects the 44 offices.
This network is made by using the telephone leased line provided by the telecom
company.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area: A Wide Area Network provides a large geographical area.

Suppose if the branch of our office is in a different city then we can connect with
them through WAN. The internet provides a leased line through which we can
connect with another branch.
o Centralized data: In case of WAN network, data is centralized. Therefore, we do not
need to buy the emails, files or back up servers.
o Get updated files: Software companies work on the live server. Therefore, the
programmers get the updated files within seconds.
o Exchange messages: In a WAN network, messages are transmitted fast. The web
application like Facebook, Whatsapp, Skype allows you to communicate with friends.
o Sharing of software and resources: In WAN network, we can share the software
and other resources like a hard drive, RAM.
o Global business: We can do the business over the internet globally.
o High bandwidth: If we use the leased lines for our company then this gives the high
bandwidth. The high bandwidth increases the data transfer rate which in turn
increases the productivity of our company.

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

The following are the disadvantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Security issue: A WAN network has more security issues as compared to LAN and
MAN network as all the technologies are combined together that creates the security
problem.
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software: The data is transferred on the internet which
can be changed or hacked by the hackers, so the firewall needs to be used. Some
people can inject the virus in our system so antivirus is needed to protect from such a
virus.
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 o High Setup cost: An installation cost of the WAN network is high as it involves the
purchasing of routers, switches.
o Troubleshooting problems: It covers a large area so fixing the problem is difficult.

Differences between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Basis LAN MAN WAN

Full-Form LAN stands for local MAN stands for WAN stands for wide
area network. metropolitan area area network.
network.

Geographic Operates in small Operates in large Operates in larger areas

Span areas such as the areas such as a city. such as country or
same building or continent.
campus.

Ownership LAN’s ownership is MAN’s ownership While WAN also might

private. can be private or not be owned by one
public. organization.

Transmission The transmission While the Whereas the transmission

Speed speed of a LAN is transmission speed of speed of a WAN is low.
high. a MAN is average.

Propagation The propagation There is a moderate Whereas, there is a long

delay delay is short in a propagation delay in a propagation delay in a
LAN. MAN. WAN.

Congestion There is less While there is more Whereas there is more

congestion in LAN. congestion in MAN. congestion than MAN in
WAN.

Design & LAN’s design and While MAN’s design Whereas WAN’s design
Maintenance maintenance are easy. and maintenance are and maintenance are also
difficult than LAN. difficult than LAN as
well MAN.

Fault tolerance There is more fault While there is less In WAN, there is also
tolerance in LAN. fault tolerance. less fault tolerance.

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Conclusion –
There are many advantages of LAN over MAN and WAN, such as LAN’s provide
excellent reliability, high data transmission rate, they can easily be managed and shares
peripheral devices too. Local Area Network cannot cover cities or towns and for that
Metropolitan Area Network is needed, which can connect a city or a group of cities
together. Further, for connecting a Country or a group of Countries one requires a Wide
Area Network.

Types of Network Topology

The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via sender and
receiver is referred to as network topology. The various network topologies are: Star,
Bus, Ring, Mesh, Tree

a) Star Topology :
In star topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is
the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be
passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time
the hub can be intelligent known as an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them.

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of connection
i.e. hub.

Advantages of this topology :

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total
number of ports required is N.

Problems with this topology :

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole
system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

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 b) Bus Topology :
Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected
to a single cable. It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction. No bi-
directional feature is in bus topology. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are connected to the
channel via drop lines.

Advantages of this topology :

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of
cables required to connect them is 1, which is known as backbone cable, and N
drop lines are required.
• The cost of the cable is less as compared to other topologies, but it is used to
build small networks.

Problems with this topology :

• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid
this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted
Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Security is very low.

c) Ring Topology :
In this topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with its exactly two neighbouring
devices.
A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if
someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes,
then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent
data loss repeaters are used in the network.
The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2
connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology.

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Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a ring.

The following operations take place in ring topology are :

1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the responsibility to
perform the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the transmission is
done, the token is to be released for other stations to use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token release releases the
token just after transmitting the data and Delay token release releases the token
after the acknowledgment is received from the receiver.

Advantages of this topology :

• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.

Problems with this topology :

• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or removal of stations can disturb the whole
topology.
• Less secure.

d) Mesh Topology :

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a particular channel.

Figure 1: Every device is connected with another via dedicated channels. These channels
are known as links.

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 • Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
the total number of ports that are required by each device is N-1. In Figure 1,
there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total number of ports
required by each device is 4. Total number of ports required=N*(N-1).
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then the total number of dedicated links required to connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-
1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence the total
number of links required is 5*4/2 = 10.

Advantages of this topology :

• It is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.

Problems with this topology :

• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

e) Tree Topology :
This topology is the variation of Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of
data.

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which
contains the repeater. In this data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the central hub to
secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e. devices to the secondary hub
and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust topology
because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.

Advantages of this topology :

• It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it decreases the
distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the devices.
• It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different computers.

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Problems with this topology :
• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of cabling.

INTERNET

Introduction

Internet is defined as an interconnection of networks. It allows computers on different

networks to interact with each other. Any two computers, often having different software
and hardware can exchange information over internet, as long as they obey the technical
rules of Internet.

The Internet - The Internet is a worldwide network of computers that allows users access to
data, information, and feedback from distant sources. It functions as the world’s largest
public library, providing access to a seemingly endless range of data. It provides access to
communication services and information resources to millions of user around the globe.

The Internet has no central computer; instead, each message sent bears an address code that
lets a sender forward a message to a desired destination from any computer linked to the
Net.

Many benefits of the Internet arise because the Internet is a collection of thousands of small
networks, both domestic and foreign connecting academic, governmental, commercial,
organizational and individuals’ sites, rather than a single computer operation.

A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest

network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can have
connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and uses IP as
its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using IPv4. Because of
shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information worldwide. It
uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge level, internet
works on Client-Server model.

Internet uses very high-speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various continents,
fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.
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Internet Evolution

The concept of Internet was originated in 1969 and has undergone several technological &
Infrastructural changes as discussed below:

• The origin of Internet devised from the concept of Advanced Research Project
Agency Network (ARPANET).
• ARPANET was developed by United States Department of Defense.
• Basic purpose of ARPANET was to provide communication among the various
bodies of government.
• Initially, there were only four nodes, formally called Hosts.
• In 1972, the ARPANET spread over the globe with 23 nodes located at different
countries and thus became known as Internet.
• By the time, with invention of new technologies such as TCP/IP protocols, DNS,
WWW, browsers, scripting languages etc.,Internet provided a medium to publish and
access information over the web.

How the Internet works?

Physically, the Internet uses a portion of the total resources of the currently existing
public telecommunication networks. Technically, what distinguishes the Internet is its use of
a set of protocols called Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Two
recent adaptations of Internet technology, the Intranet and the extranet, also make use of the
TCP/IP protocol.

The Internet can be seen as having two major components: Network Protocols and
hardware. The protocols, such as the TCP/IP suite, present sets of rules that devices must
follow in order to complete tasks. Without this common collection of rules, machines would
not be able to communicate.

The protocols are also responsible for translating the alphabetic text of a message into
electronic signals that can be transmitted over the Internet, and then back again into legible,
alphabetic text.

Hardware, the second major component of the Internet, includes everything from the
computer or smartphone that is used to access the Internet to the cables that carry
information from one device to another. Additional types of hardware include satellites,
radios, cell phone towers, routers and servers.

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These various types of hardware are the connections within the network. Devices such as
computers, smartphones and laptops are end points, or clients, while the machines that store
the information are the servers. The transmission lines that exchange the data can either be
wireless signals from satellites or 4G and cell phone towers, or physical lines, such as cables
and Fiber optics.

The process of transferring information from one device to another relies on packet
switching. Each computer connected to the Internet is assigned a unique IP address that
allows the device to be recognized. When one device attempts to send a message to another
device, the data is sent over the Internet in the form of manageable packets. Each packet is
assigned a port number that will connect it to its endpoint.

A packet that has both a unique IP address and port number can be translated from
alphabetic text into electronic signals by travelling through the layers of the OSI model from
the top Application Layer to the bottom Physical Layer. The message will then be sent
over the Internet where it is received by the Internet Service Provider's (ISP) router. The
router will examine the destination address assigned to each packet and determine where to
send it.

Eventually, the packet reaches the client and travels in reverse from the bottom physical
layer of the OSI model to the top application layer. During this process, the routing data --
the port number and IP address -- is stripped from the packet, thus allowing the data to be
translated back into alphabetic text and completing the transmission process.

Uses of the Internet

In general, the Internet can be used to communicate across large or small distances, share
information from any place in the world and access information or answers to almost any
question in moments.

Some specific examples of how the Internet is used include:

• Social media and content sharing;

• E-mail and other forms of communication, such as Internet Relay Chat (IRC),
Internet telephony, instant messaging, video conferencing.
• education and self-improvement through access to online degree programs,
courses and workshops and

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 • searching for jobs -- both the employer and applicant use the Internet to post open
positions, apply for jobs and recruit individuals found on social networking sites
like LinkedIn.

Other examples include:

• Online discussion groups and forums

• Online dating
• Online gaming
• Research
• Reading electronic newspapers and magazines
• Online shopping, or e-commerce.

Security and the Internet

Large amounts of information, both public and private, are collected across the Internet,
opening users up to the risk of data breaches and
other security threats. Hackers and crackers can break into networks and systems and steal
information such as login information or bank and credit card account records. Some steps
that can be taken to protect online privacy include:
• Installing antivirus and antimalware
• Creating difficult, varied passwords that are impossible to guess.
• Using a Virtual Private Network (VPN) or, at least, a private browsing mode, such
as Google Chrome's Incognito window.
• Only using HTTPS
• Making all social media accounts private.
• Deactivating autofill.
• Turning off the device's GPS.
• Updating cookies so an alert is sent anytime a cookie is installed.
• Logging out of accounts instead of just closing the tab or window.
• Using caution with spam emails and never opening or downloading content from
unknown sources.
• Using caution when accessing public Wi-Fi or hotspots.

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Additionally, there is an element of the Internet called the dark web. The dark web is hidden
and inaccessible through standard browsers. Instead, it uses the Tor and I2P browsers which
allow users to remain entirely anonymous. While this anonymity can be a great way to
protect an online user's security and free speech or for the government to keep classified
data hidden, the dark web also creates an environment that facilitates cybercrime, the
transfer of illegal goods and terrorism.

Benefits of the Internet include:

• Access to endless information, knowledge and education.

• An increased ability to communicate, connect and share.

• The ability to work from home, collaborate and access a global workforce.

• The chance to sell and make money as a business or individual.

• Access to an unlimited supply of entertainment sources, such as movies, music,

videos and games.

• The ability to amplify the impact of a message, allowing charities and other

organizations to reach a wider audience and increase the total amount of

donations.
• Access to the internet of things (IoT), which allows home appliances and devices

to connect and be controlled from a computer or smartphone.

• The ability to save data and easily share files with cloud storage.

• The ability to monitor and control personal accounts instantly, such as bank

accounts or credit card bills.

Internet Advantages
Internet covers almost every aspect of life, one can think of. Here, we will discuss some of
the advantages of Internet:

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Internet Disadvantages

Internet technologies
SERVER :
A server is a computer program that provides a service to another computer program and its
user.

Types of Servers
Application Server - a program in a computer that provides the business logic for an
application program.

• Web Server – A web servers is a computer that deliver requested Web pages to your
computer. A computer program that serves requested HTML pages or files.
• Proxy Server – It is a software that acts as an intermediary between an endpoint
device, such as computer and another server from which a user is requesting.
• Mail Server – It is an application that receives incoming e-mail from local users and
remote senders and forward outgoing e-mail for delivery.
• File Server – is a computer responsible for central storage and management of data
files so that other computer on the same network can access them.
• Policy Server – is a security component of a policy –based network that provides
authorization services and facilitates tracking and control of files.

IP ADDRESS (Internet Protocol)

It is a numerical label assigned to each device. This provides identity to a networked device.
Example of an IP address 72.14.207.99. An IP address usually consist of four groups of
numbers. The number in each group is between 0 and 255. The first portion of IP address –
Network, the second portion of IP address – specific Device.

INTERNET SERVICE PROVIDER (ISP)

It is provided Internet access to a specific geographic area.

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET:

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• Cable Internet Service – provides high-speed Internet access through the cable television
network via cable modem.
• DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) – provides high-speed Internet connection using regular
copper telephone wire.
• FTTP (Fiber to the Premises) – uses fiber-optic cable to provide high-speed Internet
access to home and business.
• A Cellular Radio Network – offers high-speed Internet connection to devices with built-
in compatible technology.
• Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) – network uses radio signals to provide high-speed Internet
connections to compatible or properly equipped wireless computer or device.
• Satellite Internet Service – provides high-speed Internet connections via satellite dish
that communicates with a satellite modem.

DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM (DNS)

The Domain name system comprises of Domain Names, Domain Name Space, Name
Server that have been described below:
DNS is the phonebook of the Internet. We access information online through domain
names.

Examples of DNS : www.facebook.com www.teachingenglish.org.uk

www.depedtambayan.ph, www.academia.edu
The domain name system (DNS) is mainly used to translate hostnames into numeric IP
addresses.
• Hostname : A unique identification that specifies a particular computer on the Internet.
A hostname consists of the computer name followed by the domain name. ex.
pimrindore.ac.in is the domain name
A domain name is separated into two or more sections that specify the organization, and
possibly a subset of an organization, of which the computer is a part
• Domain Name - Most computers on the Internet have a unique domain name. Special
computers, called domain name servers, look up the domain name and match it to the
corresponding IP address, so that data can be properly routed to its destination on the
Internet.
Ex. 180.149.243.7
Domain Name
Domain Name is a symbolic string associated with an IP address. There are several domain
names available; some of them are generic such as .com, .edu, .gov, .net etc, while some
country level domain names such as .au, .in, .za, .us etc.
The following table shows the Generic Top-Level Domain names:

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 Domain Name Meaning

Com Commercial business

Edu Education

Gov U.S. government agency

Int International entity

Mil U.S. military

Net Networking organization

Org Non profit organization

The following table shows the Country top-level domain names:

Domain Name Meaning Uk United Kingdom

Au Australia Jp Japan

In India Ca Canada

Fr France Ee Estonia

Us United States Hk Hong Kong

Za South Africa

Domain Name Space

The DNS name space is the set of all domain names that are registered in the DNS. These
domain names are organized into a tree-like structure, with the top of the tree being the root
domain. Below the root domain, there are a number of top-level domains, such as .com,
.net, and .org. Below the top-level domains, there are second-level domains, and so on.
Each domain name in the DNS name space corresponds to a set of resource records, which
contain information about that domain name, such as its IP address, mail servers, and other
information.
The DNS name space is hierarchical, meaning that each domain name can have
subdomains beneath it. For example, the domain name "example.com" could have
subdomains such as "www.example.com" and "mail.example.com". This allows for a very
flexible and scalable naming structure for the Internet.
The DNS name space is managed by a number of organizations, including the Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), which is responsible for
coordinating the allocation of unique domain names and IP addresses.
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The domain name space refers a hierarchy in the internet naming structure. This hierarchy
has multiple levels (from 0 to 127), with a root at the top. The following diagram shows the
domain name space hierarchy:

In the above diagram each subtree represents a domain. Each domain can be partitioned
into sub domains and these can be further partitioned and so on.

Name Server
Name server contains the DNS database. This database comprises of various names and
their corresponding IP addresses. Since it is not possible for a single server to maintain
entire DNS database, therefore, the information is distributed among many DNS servers.
• Hierarchy of server is same as hierarchy of names.
• The entire name space is divided into the zones

Zones
Zone is collection of nodes (sub domains) under the main domain. The server maintains a
database called zone file for every zone.

If the domain is not further divided into sub domains then domain and zone refers to the
same thing.
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The information about the nodes in the sub domain is stored in the servers at the lower
levels however; the original server keeps reference to these lower levels of servers.
Types of Name Servers
Following are the three categories of Name Servers that manages the entire Domain Name
System:
• Root Server
• Primary Server
• Secondary Server
Root Server : Root Server is the top level server which consists of the entire DNS tree. It
does not contain the information about domains but delegates the authority to the other
server.

Primary Servers :Primary Server stores a file about its zone. It has authority to create,
maintain, and update the zone file.

Secondary Server : Secondary Server transfers complete information about a zone from
another server which may be primary or secondary server. The secondary server does not
have authority to create or update a zone file.

Internet Services
Communication Services
There are various Communication Services available that offer exchange of information
with individuals or groups. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:

S.N. Service Description

1 Electronic Mail
Used to send electronic message over the internet.

2 Telnet
Used to log on to a remote computer that is attached to internet.

3 Newsgroup
Offers a forum for people to discuss topics of common interests.

4 Internet Relay Chat (IRC)

Allows the people from all over the world to communicate in real time.

5 Mailing Lists
Used to organize group of internet users to share common information
through e-mail.

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 6 Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Allows the internet users to talk across internet to any PC equipped to
receive the call.

7 Instant Messaging
Offers real time chat between individuals and group of people. Eg. Yahoo
messenger, MSN messenger.

Information Retrieval Services

There exist several Information retrieval services offering easy access to information
present on the internet. The following table gives a brief introduction to these services:

S.N. Service Description

1 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) : Enable the users to transfer files.

2 Archie
It’s updated database of public FTP sites and their content. It helps to
search a file by its name.

3 Gopher
Used to search, retrieve, and display documents on remote sites.

4 Very Easy Rodent Oriented Netwide Index to Computer Achieved

(VERONICA)
VERONICA is gopher based resource. It allows access to the information
resource stored on gopher’s servers.

Web Services
Web services allow exchange of information between applications on the web. Using web
services, applications can easily interact with each other.
The web services are offered using concept of Utility Computing.

World Wide Web (WWW)

WWW is also known as W3. It offers a way to access documents spread over the several
servers over the internet. These documents may contain texts, graphics, audio, video,
hyperlinks. The hyperlinks allow the users to navigate between the documents.
• WWW as a way to organize information in the form of pages linked together through
selectable text or images on the screen. Use of the WWW increase due to the
graphical interface and graphical web pages. And web pages are a true multimedia
experience. It can contain text, graphics, animation, sound, video, and three-
dimensional virtual reality objects. Although the web is only part of the Internet.

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 • Web documents are referred to as pages can contain links to other related documents
in a tree like structure. The person browsing one document can access any other
linked page. The web documents and the web browsers which are the application
programs to access them are designed to be platform independent. Thus any web
document can be accessed irrespective of the platform of the computer accessing the
document and that of the host computer.

• WWW :Internet encompasses any electronic communication between computers using

TCP/IP protocol, such as e-mail, file transfers etc. The www is a segment of Internet,
which uses Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) to link together files and offers a
very convenient means of navigating through the net. It uses HTTP for
communication between computers.

Web Page –

A web page is unit of information, often called a document that is available over the WWW
. Web pages are created using HTML, which defines the contents of a web page such as
images, text, hypertext links, video and audio files etc. Web pages send and received
through HTTP. Browser client software enables users to request web pages from HTTP
(web) server, and to view the requested web pages on their computer screen.

Web Browser –

Web Browser – An application or software that allows user to access information on the
Web. Browser are the application used to access the internet and surf for information.

A browser is a software program that acts as an interface between the user and the www.
The browser sends requests for information that is available on the Internet and displays the
information for the user. Or a browser is a piece of software that acts as an interface
between the user and the inner-working of the Internet, specifically www. The browser acts
on behalf of the user and does : contact a web server and sends request for information, and
receives the information and then displays it on the user’s computer. There are many
different types of browsers like text-based browser, graphical browser.

Website
It is a collection of web pages in a Server that is accessible via Internet using a Web address
called a URL (uniform resource locator)
A collection of web pages and media over the internet is called a website. The website can
be published on at least one web server and can be identified by a common domain name,
for example - javatpoint.com, google.com, youtube.com.

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All the websites that are accessible publicly come under the World Wide Web. There is
a website that is accessed only on a private network. Most of the websites are dedicated to a
particular topic or purpose, for example, education, news, commerce, entertainment, or
Social networking. The websites start with a home page, which is followed by some
navigation page that is linked by the Hyperlinking between the web pages.

History of Website
One of the British CERN physicist named Tim Berners-Lee created the WWW (World
Wide Web) in 1990. It was free from 30 April 1993 by CERN. The gopher protocol and
the FTP (File Transfer Protocol) were used before the introduction of the HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol). They only offer a simple directory structure, and the documents will be
presented as a plain text file without any formatting.

Types of Website : There two types of website : 1)static 2) Dynamic

Categories of Website : Blog, E-Commerce, Informational, Online-Community, Social
Media, Brochure, Non-profit etc.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator, and is used to specify addresses on the World
Wide Web. A URL is the fundamental network identification for any resource connected to
the web (e.g., hypertext pages, images, and sound files). URL is the address of a web page
on the Internet. Web page – an electronic document on the web.

Definition of URL
A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a unique identifier used to locate a resource on the
Internet. It is also referred to as a web address. URLs consist of multiple parts -- including a
protocol and domain name -- that tell a web browser how and where to retrieve a resource.
End users use URLs by typing them directly into the address bar of a browser or by clicking
a hyperlink found on a webpage, bookmark list, in an email or from another application.

How is a URL structured?

The URL contains the name of the protocol needed to access a resource, as well as a
resource name. The first part of a URL identifies what protocol to use as the primary access
medium. The second part identifies the IP address or domain name -- and possibly
subdomain -- where the resource is located.
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URL protocols include HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) and HTTPS (HTTP Secure) for
web resources, mail to for email addresses, FTP for files on a File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
server, and telnet for a session to access remote computers. Most URL protocols are
followed by a colon and two forward slashes; "mail to" is followed only by a colon .

Optionally, after the domain, a URL can also specify:

• a path to a specific page or file within a domain;

• a network port to use to make the connection;
• a specific reference point within a file, such as a named anchor in an
HTML file; and
• a query or search parameters used -- commonly found in URLs for
search results.
URLs have the following format:

protocol://hostname/other_information

For example, the URL for Indiana University's home page is:

http://www.indiana.edu/

The protocol specifies how information from the link is transferred. The protocol used
for web resources is HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP). Other protocols
compatible with most web browsers include HTTPS, FTP, telnet, newsgroups,
and Gopher. The protocol is followed by a colon, two slashes, and then
the domain name. The domain name is the computer on which the resource is located.
Links to particular files or subdirectories may be further specified after the domain
name. Directory names are separated by single forward slashes.

URL examples
When designing URLs, there are different theories about how to make the syntax most
usable for readers and archivists. For example, in the URL's path, dates, authors, and topics
can be included in a section referred to as the "slug." Consider, for example, the URL for
this definition:

https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/URL

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Look past the protocol (identified as HTTPS) and the permalink (www.techtarget.com) and
we see the file path includes two paths (search networking and definition) and the title of the
definition (URL).

Parts of a URL
Using the URL https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/search/query?q=URL as an example,
components of a URL can include:

• The protocol or scheme. Used to access a resource on the internet. Protocols

include http, https, ftps, mailto and file. The resource is reached through the
domain name system (DNS) name. In this example, the protocol is https.
• Host name or domain name. The unique reference the represents a webpage. For
this example, whatis.techtarget.com.
• Port name. Usually not visible in URLs, but necessary. Always following a
colon, port 80 is the default port for web servers, but there are other options. For
example, :port80.
• Path. A path refers to a file or location on the web server. For this example,
search/query.
• Query. Found in the URL of dynamic pages. The query consists of a question
mark, followed by parameters. For this example, ?.
• Parameters. Pieces of information in a query string of a URL. Multiple
parameters can be separated by ampersands (&). For this example, q=URL.
• Fragment. This is an internal page reference, which refers to a section within the
webpage. It appears at the end of a URL and begins with a hashtag (#). Although

32
 not in the example above, an example could be #history in the URL
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet#History.

SEARCH ENGINE
• A web search engine is a software system that is designed to search for information
on the World Wide Web.
• Search Engine is a program that searches for and identifies items in a database that
correspond to keywords or characters specified by the user, used especially for
finding particular sites on the World Wide Web.
• A search engine is accessed through a browser on their computer, Smartphone,
tablet, or another device.
Examples of popular Search Engines :
Google, Bing, Yahoo, Ask.com, Aol.com, Internet Archive… Etc.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS

Internet Protocol (IP)

IP software deals with the routing of packets through the maze ofinterconnected networks
to their final destination
Internet Protocol is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It ensures no guarantee of
successfully transmission of data.
In order to make it reliable, it must be paired with reliable protocol such as TCP at the
transport layer.
Internet protocol transmits the data in form of a datagram as shown in the following
diagram:

33
Internet Protocol Address (IP Address)

An IP Address is a unique, numeric identifier used to specify a particular host

computer on a particular network, and is part of a global, standardized scheme
for indentifying machines that are connected to the Internet. IP addresses
consist of four numbers between 0 to 255, separated by periods, which
represent both the network and the host machine.

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP software breaks messages into packets, hands them off to the IP software
for delivery, and then orders and reassembles the packets at their destination
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) corresponds to the Transport Layer of OSI
Model.
• TCP is a reliable and connection oriented protocol.
• TCP offers:
o Stream Data Transfer.
o Reliability.
o Efficient Flow Control
o Full-duplex operation.
o Multiplexing.
• TCP offers connection oriented end-to-end packet delivery.
• TCP ensures reliability by sequencing bytes with a forwarding acknowledgement
number that indicates to the destination the next byte the source expect to receive.
• It retransmits the bytes not acknowledged with in specified time period.
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Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) –
TCP/IP is a set of rules which define how computers communicate with each other. It is a
suite, or family of protocols that govern the way data is transmitted across networks.
TCP/IP protocols work together to break the data into small pieces that can be efficiently
handled by the network, communicated the destination of the data to the network, verify
the receipt of the data on the

other end of the transmission, and reconstruct the data in its original form. TCP/IP
protocol uses a unique addressing scheme through which each computer on the network is
identified.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is the protocol or set of rules, that enables files to be transferred from one computer
to another. It is part of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Files that are available for FTP are
stored on computers called FTP servers. An FTP client program is an interface that allows
the user to locate the file/s to be transferred and initiate the transfer process. It is possible
to transfer a file to and from a computer (FTP site) without having an account in that
machine.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP is used to copy files from one host to another. FTP offers the mechanism for the same
in following manner:
• FTP creates two processes such as Control Process and Data Transfer Process at both
ends i.e. at client as well as at server.
• FTP establishes two different connections: one is for data transfer and other is for
control information.
• Control connection is made between control processes while Data Connection is
made between<="" b="">
• FTP uses port 21 for the control connection and Port 20 for the data connection.

35
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
HTTP is the set of rules or protocol that enables hypertext data to be transferred from one
computer to another. HTTP enables users to retrieve a wide variety of resources, such as
text, graphics, sound, animation and other hypertext documents, and allow hypertext
access to other Internet protocols.

HTTP is a communication protocol. It defines mechanism for communication between

browser and the web server. It is also called request and response protocol because the
communication between browser and server takes place in request and response pairs.

HTTP is a communications protocol used to transfer or convey information on the World

Wide Web. HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the standard markup language for
creating web pages and web applications.

HTTP Request
HTTP request comprises of lines which contains:
• Request line
• Header Fields
• Message body
Key Points
• The first line i.e. the Request line specifies the request method i.e. Get or Post.
• The second line specifies the header which indicates the domain name of the server
from where index.htm is retrieved.
HTTP Response
Like HTTP request, HTTP response also has certain structure. HTTP response contains:
• Status line
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 • Headers
• Message body

Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)

WAP is the latest industry standard, which provides wireless access to Internet through
handheld devices like a cellular telephone. This is an open standard promoted by WAP
forum and has been adopted by world’s all major handset manufacturers. WAP is
supplemented by Wireless Application Environment (WAE), which provides industry
wise standard for developing applications and services for wireless communication
networks.

Telnet
Telnet is the protocol that enables one computer to establish a connection to another
computer. The computer establishing the connection is referred to as the local computer,
the computer accepting the connection is referred to as the remote, or host computer.
Telnet can provide access to many resources around the world, such as library catalogs,
database and other Internet tools andapplications.

Telnet is a protocol used to log in to remote computer on the internet. There are a number
of Telnet clients having user friendly user interface. The following diagram shows a person
is logged in to computer A, and from there, he remote logged into computer B.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Like IP, UDP is connectionless and unreliable protocol. It doesn’t require making a
connection with the host to exchange data. Since UDP is unreliable protocol, there is no
mechanism for ensuring that data sent is received.
UDP transmits the data in form of a datagram. The UDP datagram consists of five parts as
shown in the following diagram:

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Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol is also used to transfer the files but it transfers the files
without authentication. Unlike FTP, TFTP does not separate control and data information.
Since there is no authentication exists, TFTP lacks in security features therefore it is not
recommended to use TFTP.
Key points
• TFTP makes use of UDP for data transport. Each TFTP message is carried in
separate UDP datagram.
• The first two bytes of a TFTP message specify the type of message.
• The TFTP session is initiated when a TFTP client sends a request to upload or
download a file.
• The request is sent from an ephemeral UDP port to the UDP port 69 of an TFTP
server.

Email
Email is a service which allows us to send the message in electronic mode over the internet.
It offers an efficient, inexpensive and real time mean of distributing information among
people.
E-mail Protocols

SMPTP
SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It was first proposed in 1982. It is a
standard protocol used for sending e-mail efficiently and reliably over the internet.
Key Points:
• SMTP is application level protocol.
• SMTP is connection oriented protocol.
• SMTP is text based protocol.
• It handles exchange of messages between e-mail servers over TCP/IP network.

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 • Apart from transferring e-mail, SMPT also provides notification regarding incoming
mail.
• When you send e-mail, your e-mail client sends it to your e-mail server which further
contacts the recipient mail server using SMTP client.
• These SMTP commands specify the sender’s and receiver’s e-mail address, along
with the message to be send.
• The exchange of commands between servers is carried out without intervention of
any user.
• In case, message cannot be delivered, an error report is sent to the sender which
makes SMTP a reliable protocol.
IMAP
IMAP stands for Internet Message Access Protocol. It was first proposed in 1986. There
exist five versions of IMAP as follows:
• Original IMAP
• IMAP2
• IMAP3
• IMAP2bis
• IMAP4
Key Points:
• IMAP allows the client program to manipulate the e-mail message on the server
without downloading them on the local computer.
• The e-mail is hold and maintained by the remote server.
• It enables us to take any action such as downloading, delete the mail without reading
the mail.It enables us to create, manipulate and delete remote message folders called
mail boxes.
• IMAP enables the users to search the e-mails.
• It allows concurrent access to multiple mailboxes on multiple mail servers.
POP
POP stands for Post Office Protocol. It is generally used to support a single client. There
are several versions of POP but the POP 3 is the current standard.
Key Points
• POP is an application layer internet standard protocol.
• Since POP supports offline access to the messages, thus requires less internet usage
time.
• POP does not allow search facility.
• In order to access the messaged, it is necessary to download them.

39
 • It allows only one mailbox to be created on server.
• It is not suitable for accessing non mail data.
• POP commands are generally abbreviated into codes of three or four letters. Eg.
STAT.
E-mail Working
Email working follows the client server approach. In this client is the mailer i.e. the mail
application or mail program and server is a device that manages emails.
Following example will take you through the basic steps involved in sending and receiving
emails and will give you a better understanding of working of email system:
• Suppose person A wants to send an email message to person B.
• Person A composes the messages using a mailer program i.e. mail client and then
select Send option.
• The message is routed to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol to person B’s mail server.
• The mail server stores the email message on disk in an area designated for person B.
The disk space area on mail server is called mail spool.
• Now, suppose person B is running a POP client and knows how to communicate with
B’s mail server.
• It will periodically poll the POP server to check if any new email has arrived for
B.As in this case, person B has sent an email for person B, so email is forwarded
over the network to B’s PC. This is message is now stored on person B’s PC.
The following diagram gives pictorial representation of the steps discussed above:

Key Points:
• Gmail manages the mail into three categories namely Primary,
Social and Promotions.

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 • Compose option is given at the right to compose an email message.
• Inbox, Starred, Sent mail, Drafts options are available on the left pane which
allows you to keep track of your emails.
Composing and Sending Email
Before sending an email, we need to compose a message. When we are composing an
email message, we specify the following things:
• Sender’s address in To field
• Cc (if required)
• Bcc (if required)
• Subject of email message
• Text
• Signature
You should specify the correct email address; otherwise it will send an error back to the
sender.
Once you have specified all the above parameters, It’s time to send the email. The mailer
program provides a Send button to send email, when you click Send, it is sent to the mail
server and a message mail sent successfully is shown at the above.
Reading Email
Every email program offers you an interface to access email messages. Like in Gmail,
emails are stored under different tabs such as primary, social, and promotion. When you
click one of tab, it displays a list of emails under that tab.
In order to read an email, you just have to click on that email. Once you click a particular
email, it gets opened.
The opened email may have some file attached with it. The attachments are shown at the
bottom of the opened email with an option called download attachment.
Replying Email
After reading an email, you may have to reply that email. To reply an email,
click Reply option shown at the bottom of the opened email.
Once you click on Reply, it will automatically copy the sender’s address in to the To field.
Below the To field, there is a text box where you can type the message.
Once you are done with entering message, click Send button. It’s that easy. Your email is
sent.
Forwarding Email
It is also possible to send a copy of the message that you have received along with your
own comments if you want. This can be done using forward button available in mail client
software.
The difference between replying and forwarding an email is that when you reply a message
to a person who has send the mail but while forwarding you can send it to anyone.
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When you receive a forwarded message, the message is marked with a > character in front
of each line and Subject: field is prefixed with Fw.
Deleting Email
If you don’t want to keep email into your inbox, you can delete it by simply selecting the
message from the message list and clicking delete or pressing the appropriate command.
Some mail clients offers the deleted mails to be stored in a folder called deleted items or
trash from where you can recover a deleted email.
Difference between the World Wide Web and the Internet
The key difference between the Internet and the World Wide Web (WWW or the Web) is
that the Internet is a global connection of networks while the Web is a collection of
information that can be accessed using the Internet. In other words, the Internet is
the infrastructure and the Web is a service on top.

The Web is the most widely used part of the Internet. Its outstanding feature is hypertext, a
method of instant cross-referencing. In most Web sites, certain words or phrases appear in
text of a different color than the rest; often this text is also underlined. When a user selects
one of these words or phrases, they will be transferred to the related site or page. Buttons,
images, or portions of images are also used as hyperlinks.

The Web provides access to billions of pages of information.

Web browsing is done through a Web browser, the most popular of which are Google
Chrome, Firefox and Internet Explorer. The appearance of a particular Web site may vary
slightly depending on the browser used. Later or more updated versions of a particular
browser are able to render more complex features, such as animation, virtual reality, sound
and music files.

• Internet is a world-wide global system of interconnected computer networks.

• Internet uses the standard Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).
• Every computer in internet is identified by a unique IP address.
• IP Address is a unique set of numbers (such as 110.22.33.114) which identifies a
computer location.
• A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server) is used to give name to the IP
Address so that user can locate a computer by a name.
• For example, a DNS server will resolve a name http://www.flipkart.com to a
particular IP address to uniquely identify the computer on which this website is
hosted.
• Internet is accessible to every user all over the world.
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