Group members

S VETRI VINAYAGAN
S BHAVEEN
S PUGAZHARASAN
KP RUBINAATH
S ADITHYA KRISHNAN
Introduction and classification of semiconductors
Semiconductors are materials that have electrical conductivity between
conductors (like metals) and insulators (like rubber). Unlike conductors,
which allow easy flow of electrical current, and insulators, which block
it, semiconductors can control electrical current under specific
conditions. This unique property makes them essential in modern
electronics.

The conductivity of semiconductors is not fixed; it can be controlled

through a process known as
*doping*, where small
amounts of other elements
are added to the pure
semiconductor material.
Silicon (Si) is the most widely
used semiconductor material
due to its abundance and
favourable properties,
though materials like
germanium (Ge) and gallium
arsenide (GaAs) are also used in specific applications.

Semiconductors are the backbone of modern electronic devices,

including transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits (ICs), which are
found in computers, smartphones, and solar cells. These materials
can exist in two forms: *intrinsic semiconductors, which are pure,
and **extrinsic semiconductors*, which have been doped to
enhance their conductivity. The ability to manipulate the electrical
properties of semiconductors has revolutionized technology,
enabling advancements in communication, computing, and
renewable energy.
Semiconductors are classified into different categories based on their
electrical conductivity and material properties. The two main types
are intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors:
1. Intrinsic Semiconductors: These are pure materials, typically
silicon or germanium, with electrical conductivity that depends
on temperature. At absolute zero, they behave as insulators,
but at higher temperatures, thermal energy excites electrons,
creating electron-hole pairs that enable conductivity. The
number of charge carriers is purely determined by the
material's properties.
2. Extrinsic Semiconductors: These are doped semiconductors,
where impurities are intentionally added to modify their
electrical properties. Depending on the type of dopant, they
can be classified as:
o n-type Semiconductors: Doped with elements that have extra
electrons (e.g., phosphorus in silicon), creating an abundance of
free electrons that increase conductivity.
o p-type Semiconductors: Doped with elements that create
holes by accepting electrons (e.g., boron in silicon),
leading to an abundance of positively charged carriers
(holes) and enabling electrical conductivity.
This classification plays a crucial role in designing devices like diodes,
transistors, and integrated circuits, which rely on the controlled
manipulation of semiconductor properties
Intrinsic semiconductor

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure form of semiconductor material,

typically made from elements like silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge). In its
natural state, an intrinsic semiconductor has a crystal structure where
each atom is covalently bonded to four neighbouring atoms. At
absolute zero, there are no free electrons, and the semiconductor
behaves like an insulator. However, at room temperature, some
covalent bonds break due to thermal energy, and electrons are freed,
leaving behind holes in the crystal lattice. Both free electrons and
holes act as charge carriers, contributing to the electrical conductivity
of the material.
The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor depends solely on the
temperature.

The concentration of
electrons and holes remains
equal in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
The behavior of these
semiconductors can be
described by the equation:
ne=nh=ni
Extrinsic conductors

An intrinsic semiconductor is a pure form of semiconductor material,

typically made from elements like silicon (Si) or germanium (Ge). In its
natural state, an intrinsic semiconductor has a crystal structure where
each atom is covalently bonded to four neighboring atoms.
At absolute zero, there are no free electrons, and the semiconductor
behaves like an insulator. However, at room temperature, some
covalent bonds break due to thermal energy, and electrons are freed,
leaving behind holes in the crystal lattice. Both free electrons and
holes act as charge carriers, contributing to the electrical conductivity
of the material.

In an n-type semiconductor, In a p-type semiconductor,

pentavalent impurities such trivalent impurities like
as phosphorus or arsenic are boron or gallium are added.
added to silicon or These impurities have three
germanium. These valence electrons, so they
impurities have five valence form three covalent bonds
electrons, and four of them with neighboring silicon
form covalent bonds with atoms, leaving one bond
neighbouring atoms. The incomplete. . This
incomplete bond creates a
fifth electron becomes free, "hole," or a positive charge
contributing to the electrical carrier. In a p-type
conductivity. In an n-type semiconductor, holes are the
semiconductor, electrons majority charge carriers,
are the majority charge while electrons are the
minority charge carriers.
carriers, while holes are the
minority charge carriers
n-type semiconductor p-type semiconductor

\
Intrinsic Semiconductors
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure materials, such as silicon
or germanium, without any impurities. Their conductivity
depends entirely on the thermal generation of electron-hole
pairs. When energy, typically in the form of heat, is supplied,
electrons in the valence band are excited to the conduction
band, leaving behind holes.

However, this process is temperaturedependent, and the

number of charge carriers is inherently limited. This makes
their conductivity relatively low under normal conditions.
Intrinsic semiconductors are rarely used directly in devices but
serve as a base material for further doping.

Extrinsic Semiconductors

Extrinsic semiconductors, on the other hand, are created by

doping intrinsic semiconductors with specific impurities to
enhance their electrical properties.

Doping dramatically increases conductivity by introducing an

abundance of charge carriers. Extrinsic semiconductors are
more versatile and essential in electronics, forming the
backbone of transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.
Additionally, the doping level can be adjusted to fine-tune the
material's properties, enabling precise control of device
behavior.
Formation of pn junction

Imagine we have a thin piece of p-type silicon (p-Si), which is a

type of semiconductor. Then, we add a pentavalent impurity
(n-Si). This changes a small part of the p-Si into n-type silicon
(n-Si).
Now, the wafer has a p-region and an n-region, and there is a
boundary between them called a metallurgical junction.
When this p-n junction forms, two important things happen:

1.Diffusion – the movement of particles from high to low

concentration.
2.Drift – the movement of particles due to an electric field
inside the semiconductor diode
Diffusion

In an n-type semiconductor, electrons are more concentrated than

holes, while in a p-type semiconductor, holes dominate. When a p-n
junction forms, diffusion occurs due to the concentration gradient
across both sides.

Electron Diffusion: Electrons from the n-type side, where they are
more concentrated, begin to diffuse toward the p-type side. This
diffusion happens because the concentration of electrons on the n-
side is higher than on the p-side, and they will naturally move
towards the region of lower concentration.
As the electrons diffuse into the p-side, they recombine with the
holes present there, leaving behind ionized donor atoms (positively
charged) on the n-side. This creates a positively charged layer near
the junction on the n-side.

Hole Diffusion: Similarly, holes from the p-type side, which are in
greater concentration than on the n-side, diffuse towards the n-type
side. This diffusion occurs because the hole concentration on the p-
side is higher than on the n-side.
As the holes diffuse into the n-side, they recombine with the
electrons present there, leaving behind ionized acceptor atoms
(negatively charged) on the p-side. This creates a negatively charged
layer near the junction on the p-side.
These diffusion processes create space-charge regions on both sides
of the junction. As more electrons and holes diffuse, the regions of
positive and negative charge grow, leading to an electric field that
opposes further diffusion.
This balance between diffusion and the electric field eventually
stabilizes the junction. The overall result of these diffusion
movements is the formation of a diffusion current across the
junction, which plays a key role in the functioning of the p-n junction.
Drift
As electrons and holes diffuse across the p-n junction, they create space-
charge regions on both sides. On the n-side, ionized donor atoms create a
positive charge region, while on the p-side, ionized acceptor atoms create
a negative charge region.

This imbalance of charge gives rise to an electric field that points from
the positively charged n-side to the negatively charged p-side. The electric
field plays a key role in the movement of charge carriers, causing drift to
occur in the opposite direction of diffusion.
Specifically, electrons are driven by the electric field to drift from the p-
side to the n-side, and holes drift from the n-side to the p-side.
This movement of charge carriers due to the electric field is known as
drift current. The drift current opposes the diffusion current, and both
currents balance each other to reach an equilibrium. The interplay
between these diffusion and drift currents is crucial for the behavior of
the p-n junction, allowing it to control current flow and function as a
rectifier.
This balance between the two currents is fundamental to the operation of
semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors, and solar cells.
Introduction
A semiconductor diode is
essentially a p-n junction with
metallic contacts at each end for
external voltage application,
making it a two-terminal device.

It is symbolically represented
with an arrow indicating the
conventional current direction
when forward-biased. The equilibrium barrier potential of the
diode can be modified by applying an external voltage across it.

Semiconductor diode under Forward bias

An external voltage V is applied to a semiconductor diode during forward

biasing, connecting the n-side to the negative terminal and the p-side to
the positive battery terminal.

The depletion zone uses up the majority of this voltage, with the p-side
and n-side experiencing very little voltage considering their low resistance
in comparison to the depletion region's high resistance.

As a result, the effective barrier height relative to the built-in potential V

is reduced. Few carriers have enough energy to cross the barrier at low
applied voltage, which leads to a low current.
Semiconductor diode under Forward bias
During forward biasing, minority carrier injection occurs,
wherein electrons from the n-side and holes from the p-side
traverse the depletion region. This significantly raises minority
carrier concentrations along the
junction boundary on both sides.

Because of the concentration shift,

injected electrons on the p-side and
injected holes on the n-side diffuse
to opposing ends of their respective
sides. This movement of charged
carriers induces a current, consisting
of hole diffusion current and
conventional current, due to electron diffusion.

The diode's total forward current is

commonly measured in milliamperes (mA).

Semiconductor diode under reverse bias

When a diode is reverse biased by applying a voltage V with the n-side

positive and the p-side negative, most of the voltage drops across the
depletion region, increasing the barrier height and widening the
depletion zone due to changes in the electric field. The effective barrier
height becomes V0+ V, reducing the diffusion current of electrons and
holes to negligible levels compared to forward bias.

Electrons on the p-side and holes on the n-side, during random motion,
are swept to the majority zone by the electric field, creating a drift
current.
Semiconductor diode under reverse bias

This drift current, caused by minority carriers moving across the

junction, is low (in the microampere range) and nearly independent of
the applied voltage, as it is determined by the minority carrier
concentration on both sides of the junction.

Under reverse bias, the current remains

nearly constant until the reverse bias
reaches the breakdown voltage Vbr. At
V=Vbr , a small increase in voltage causes
a large increase in current.

If reverse current exceeds the diode's

rated value, overheating can cause
permanent damage. Similarly, excessive
forward current beyond the rated limit
can also destroy the diode by
overheating. Proper external circuit
regulation is essential to prevent failure.

V-I Characteristics of Semiconductor diode – Forward

Bias

In forward bias, with the battery's positive terminal connected to the p-

side of the diode, a milliammeter measured the current. Initially, the
current increased slowly as voltage rose. Once the voltage reached the
cut-in or threshold voltage the current increased rapidly with small
voltage increments.
This behaviour shows that the diode conducts significantly after
surpassing the threshold voltage. Beyond this point, the current
increase is almost exponential, highlighting the diode's capability to
allow large currents when forward-biased. This characteristic
demonstrates the non-linear conduction properties of the diode, which
make it a crucial component in rectification and switching circuits.

V-I Characteristics of Semiconductor diode - Reverse

Bias

In reverse bias, where the positive terminal of the battery is connected

to the n-side of the diode, a microammeter was used to measure the
current, which remained very small and nearly constant, a value known
as the reverse saturation current. This small current flows due to the
minority charge carriers in the diode.

Interestingly, at very high reverse voltages, the current can suddenly

increase, a phenomenon referred to as breakdown. This happens when
the reverse voltage exceeds a critical value, causing a significant
increase in current. General-purpose diodes are not designed to
operate in this breakdown region, as it can damage the diode.

This behavior demonstrates that diodes primarily allow current

to flow in one direction (forward bias), making them essential
for converting AC to DC electricity, a process known as
rectification.
Additionally, the concept of dynamic resistance, defined as the
ratio of a small change in voltage (ΔV) to the corresponding
small change in current (ΔI), was founded.

Understanding these characteristics is crucial for designing and

analyzing circuits that incorporate diodes and other
semiconductor devices.
Rectifiers
A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC)
to direct current (DC).An alternating voltage is applied across a diode
the current flows only in that part of the cycle when the diode is
forward biased.
This property is used to rectify alternating voltages and the circuit
used for this purpose is called a rectifier. It is a crucial component in
power supplies for electronic devices
Rectifiers are of two types

1. Half-wave Rectifier
2. Full-wave Rectifier

Half-wave Rectifier
Utilizes a single diode to convert AC to DC. It only allows one half of
the AC cycle to pass through, resulting in pulsating DC output.
Working:

The secondary of a transformer supplies the desired ac voltage

across terminals A and B.
When the voltage at
A is positive, the
diode is forward
biased and it
conducts.
 When A is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and it does not
conduct. The reverse saturation current of a diode is negligible and
can be considered equal to zero for practical purposes.
The reverse breakdown voltage of the diode must be sufficiently
higher than the peak ac voltage at the secondary of the transformer
to protect the diode from reverse breakdown.
Since the rectified output of this circuit is only for half of the input ac
wave it is called as half-wave rectifier

Full-Wave Rectifier

Utilizes two diodes (center-tap transformer configuration) or four

diodes (bridge rectifier) to convert the entire AC cycle into DC.
Working:

The p-side of the two diodes are connected to the ends of the secondary
of the transformer. The n-side of the diodes are connected together and
the output is taken between this common point of diodes and the
midpoint of the secondary of the transformer.
So for a full-wave rectifier the secondary of the transformer is provided
with a centre tapping and so it is called centre-tap transformer
In the course of the ac cycle when the voltage at A becomes negative
with respect to centre tap, the voltage at B would be positive.
In this part of the cycle diode D1 would not conduct but diode D2
would, giving an output current and output voltage (across RL ) during
the negative half cycle of the input ac.
Thus, we get output voltage during both the positive as well as the
negative half of the cycle.
The circuit using two diodes gives output rectified voltage
corresponding to both the positive as well as negative half of the
ac cycle. Hence, it is known as full-wave rectifier.
Role of rectifiers in
semiconductors

Power Supply Circuits:

Rectifiers are the backbone of power supplies used in electronic
devices. They convert AC from the power grid into DC suitable for
electronic circuits.
Battery Charging:
Rectifiers are used in battery chargers for converting AC into DC to
charge batteries efficiently.
Signal Demodulation:
In radio and communication systems, rectifiers extract the audio
signal from modulated waves.
Conclusion
Semiconductors have significantly transformed the field of rectification by
enabling precise control over the flow of electric current. Through the
unique properties of the p-n junction diode, which exhibits unidirectional
conductivity, semiconductors efficiently convert alternating current (AC)
into direct current (DC). This ability is essential in a wide array of
electronic devices, from basic power supplies to sophisticated
communication systems, ensuring they operate seamlessly and reliably.
The impact of semiconductors extends far beyond power conversion;
their compact size, high efficiency, and durability make them fundamental
to modern electronics. The versatility of semiconductor technology has
led to advancements in various industries, driving innovations in
computing, telecommunications, and renewable energy. With their crucial
role in power rectification and other applications, semiconductors have
solidified their position as the cornerstone of modern electronics.
Their continued development and integration into new technologies
promise to drive future advancements in electronics, making them
indispensable for the next generation of devices and systems that shape
our everyday lives
Uses of Semiconductors in Chip Manufacturing:

Semiconductors are vital in chip manufacturing, enabling the creation of

transistors, memory chips, and sensors, powering devices like
computers, smartphones, and IoT systems with efficient data processing
and power management.
Future Scopes of the Semiconductor Industry in India:
India's semiconductor industry has significant growth potential with
government initiatives, skilled workforce, and rising demand for
electronics, positioning the country as a key player in global chip
manufacturing and technology development.