Machine_Learning_Techniques_for_Coffee_Classificat
Machine_Learning_Techniques_for_Coffee_Classificat
Isabela V. de C. Motta * , Nicolas Vuillerme , Huy-Hieu Pham , Felipe Augusto Pereira de Figueiredo
doi: 10.20944/preprints202406.1462.v1
Keywords: artificial intelligence; coffee bean and leaves classification; computer vision; machine-learning
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Article
Machine Learning Techniques for Coffee Classification:
A Comprehensive Review of Scientific Research
Isabela V. de C. Motta 1, *, Nicolas Vuillerme 2 , Huy-Hieu Pham 3 , Felipe A. P. de Figueiredo 1
1 National Institute of Telecommunications, Av. João de Camargo, 510, Santa Rita do Sapucaí 37540-000, Minas Gerais, Brazil;
[email protected]
2 AGEIS, Université Grenoble Alpes, Grenoble 38000, France; [email protected]
3 College of Engineering & Computer Science and VinUni-Illinois Smart Health Center, VinUniversity, Hanoi,Vietnam;
[email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: In the realm of agribusiness, transformative shifts are underway, propelled by the growing demands
and expanding scales of grain production. This evolution calls for a critical reevaluation of the existing paradigms
in coffee production and marketing paradigms, with a specific focus on integrating Artificial Intelligence (AI).
This work aims to review, synthesize, and summarize the available data regarding how Machine Learning (ML)
has been used to detect and classify characteristics in coffee beans and leaves. For this purpose, a comprehensive
literature review of the most significant research contributions describing the application of AI for advanced
classification techniques in coffee agriculture has been carried out. Our analysis suggests that implementing AI
technologies allows the classification of coffee, encompassing various attributes such as maturity, roast intensity,
disease identification, flavor profiles, and overall quality. More largely, this technological advancement holds the
potential to revolutionize coffee farming by providing producers and agricultural specialists with sophisticated
tools to enhance production efficiency, minimize costs, and improve the accuracy and confidence of their decision-
making processes. This article allows us to learn about the latest studies in ML in the coffee area, observe the
methodology used, and allow researchers to develop new research that covers gaps in the literature, bringing a
real contribution to the scientific field. Furthermore, this article listed the databases used in the studies and which
may be useful for future ML projects.
Keywords: artificial intelligence; machine-learning; computer vision; coffee bean and leaves classification
1. Introduction
Coffee stands as a cornerstone crop globally and its consumption has been increasing in recent
years. [1]. This surge underscores coffee’s pivotal role in the global market, given its status as a crucial
economic food commodity [2].
Current methodologies for managing agricultural data in coffee farming are increasingly consid-
ered outdated—labor-intensive, time-consuming, and, most importantly, prone to inaccuracies and
errors. In this context, the advent of Machine Learning (ML) and intelligent data analytics emerges as a
transformative force, propelling sustainable agriculture by enhancing food production and addressing
the pressing challenges in this sector [3].
Although a considerable volume of work addresses the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in coffee
culture, it should be noted that research has followed different paths, depending on its various aspects.
There is a considerable volume of work on the use of AI in agriculture, especially in the category of
predictive analysis [4]. Indeed, there are numerous areas in coffee production where ML techniques
can be applied. Intelligent systems can provide advances and improvements, from grain harvesting
to commercialization. In a scenario where specialized systems surpass human diagnoses in terms of
trust, speed, and accuracy, it will be of fundamental importance for coffee growers to make their use
widely applicable and essential to increase productivity in agriculture.
Therefore, the present work aims to review and summarize the available data regarding how ML
has been used in coffee production and marketing in classification activities, which encompass the
classification of defects, roasting, maturation, and sensory characteristics of coffee beans and also leaf
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diseases that affect the coffee plantation. This research is important and justified by understanding
the relationship between AI and coffee production, identifying trends in AI applications in coffee
classification, and, mainly, identifying research gaps that can be eliminated to improve processes
throughout the coffee production chain.
Considering that global coffee consumption is increasing, and its importance of participation
in revenue in more than 70 developing countries economies [1], combined with the capacity of AI
techniques for problem-solving and decision-making, this paper presents a detailed summary of
research covering coffee and AI.
Table 1 compares our literature and related literature reviews. The first column corresponds
to the reference of the literature review; the second column describes the paper; the third column
lists the number of papers analyzed in the work; and the last column informs the time range of the
analyzed works. The review’s authors [5] analyzed seven studies that classify the quality and type
of coffee beans based on images and using ML. The reviews [6–8] analyze research works and list
challenges of disease detection of various plants. The literature review [6] focuses on leaf diseases. The
study of [9] analyzes technologies for detecting roast-level coffee beans, but not all studies use ML
techniques. Many studies related to smart agriculture [10,11] address machine learning techniques for
classifications of other types of crops, such as rice [12–15], corn [16,17] and soybean [18].
A Comprehensive Review was used to achieve the proposed objective of synthesizing and
understanding how ML techniques for coffee classification are presented in scientific research. The
review was carried out in the IEEE, Science Direct, and Springer databases, with terms compatible
with the object of this research.
The main goal of this review is to survey current research in the coffee area that uses machine and
deep learning techniques. This research lists the works related to the classification of coffee beans and
leaves in a comprehensive way. In this context, our main contributions include:
• A more up-to-date and comprehensive literature review of current ML research in the classi-
fication and detection of coffee beans and coffee leaves, covering 72 papers and different ML
algorithms, including comparisons and discussions among them;
• An analysis of the evaluation metrics used in ML for classification and detection of coffee beans
and coffee leaves for understanding results and reproducing them, benefiting future research;
• A presentation of architectures used based on ML for detecting and classifying coffee beans and
coffee leaves;
• A detailed exploration of the main limitations, challenges, and future directions related to the
use of ML techniques for the classification and detection of coffee beans and coffee leaves;
• A summary of the databases used in research to detect and classify coffee beans and coffee leaves.
This work was divided into five more sections to contextualize the use of ML in coffee farming,
specifically its use on coffee beans and leaves. Following this introduction, the second section describes
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the research strategy and details the important points of each selected study. The third section
introduces the main ML techniques used for classification tasks. The fourth section summarizes
and analyzes the findings, presents the importance of coffee classification in the coffee industry, and
demonstrates how agribusiness uses ML techniques. The fifth section discusses the studies’ challenges,
future trends, and limitations and summarizes the dataset for classification tasks. Finally, the sixth
section presents the final considerations.
2. Methodology
This paper is a descriptive research of the comprehensive review type carried out through online
access to the IEEE, Science Direct, and Springer databases. In the browsing for research articles,
the descriptors "machine learning" and "coffee." For the inclusion of works in the present study, the
following criteria were established: articles published in the last five years before the consultation,
articles in which the topic of "machine learning" is related to coffee classification techniques, and
articles available in full format in the databases above. Theoretical studies and systematic literature
reviews were not included in the overview of synthesized research data.
The article analysis process followed these steps: 1) search for descriptors in the databases above;
2) exclusion of articles published more than five years ago; 3) exclusion of works with low relevance; 4)
critical reading of the articles and checking whether they meet the proposed theme; 5) exclusion of
theoretical articles and literature reviews; 6) final analysis. After selecting the articles using inclusion
and exclusion criteria, tables containing the main information about the objectives and scenario of
application, the methodology used for coffee classification analysis, and the results were created.
In the IEEE database, 114 articles were found with the words “machine learning” and “coffee”.
Fifty-eight (58) articles were disregarded because they were unrelated to the coffee area; for example,
the author’s last name is Coffee or the three searched words do not appear simultaneously in the text.
Only "machine learning", or only "coffee". Ten (10) articles were disregarded because they were not
related to classifying coffee beans, such as Predicting Coffee Crop Yield, detecting coffee trees, coffee
price prediction, and agriculture 4.0. Finally, two (2) articles were disregarded in the analysis because
it was a literature review. In the same way, in the Science database, 2,828 articles were found; 2,770
were disregarded because it was not related to the general theme; 34 were disregarded because it was
not related to the specific theme; and two (2) articles were disregarded in the analysis because it was
a literature review. In summary, 7,630 articles were found in the Springer database, but 7,617 were
disregarded; 6 were disregarded because they were unrelated to the specific theme; and 1 article was
disregarded in the analysis because it was a literature review. Figure 1 shows the research methodology
used in this study. Figure 1 shows the total number of publications per database and the steps used to
choose the selected publications.
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IEEE • STEP 1: 114 articles were found with words “machine learning” and coffee; IEEE
• STEP 2: 58 articles were disregarded because they were not related to the
coffee classification area;
• STEP 3: 10 articles were disregarded because it were not related to classifying
coffee beans;
114 publication 44 publication
• STEP 4: 2 articles were disregarded in analysis because was literature review.
SCIENCE • STEP 1: 2,828 articles were found with words “machine learning” and coffee; 72 selected
SCIENCE
• STEP 2: 2,770 articles were disregarded because they were not related to the publicacions
coffee classification area;
• STEP 3: 34 articles were disregarded because it were not related to classifying
coffee beans;
2,828 publication 22 publication
• STEP 4: 2 articles were disregarded in analysis because was literature review.
SPRINGER • STEP 1: 7,630 articles were found with words “machine learning” and coffee; SPRINGER
• STEP 2: 7,617 articles were disregarded because they were not related to the
coffee classification area;
• STEP 3: 6 articles were disregarded because it were not related to classifying
coffee beans;
7,630 publication 6 publication
• STEP 4: 1 articles were disregarded in analysis because was literature review.
In Figure 2, we can see a fluctuation in the number of publications over the last five (5) years,
which various factors may have influenced. In general, the number of publications has increased over
the years.
Publication Year
28
23
10
5 6
Additionally, Table 2 below shows the number of publications per database searched. As illus-
trated, the first column corresponds to the database, and the second column describes the number of
publications.
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Computer vision is an area of AI that seeks to analyze, interpret, and extract relevant information
from images so that decisions can be made. Object recognition in its complete generality is difficult [20].
Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) is a ML model that extracts features in various computer vision
tasks like image classifications. Several CNN architecture models, such as AlexNet, VGGNet, ResNet,
MobileNet, EfficientNet, and DenseNet, are used for image classifications. The Figure 5 shows a
typical CNN.
Vision Transformer is a neural network with the potential for extensive use in image classification
tasks [22]. The Figure 6 shows a illustration of the Vision Transformer Model.
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ML techniques combined with computer vision have become decisive in developing agricultural
efficiency and have been widely applied in research in various areas of agriculture [24], including
coffee farming. Due to different algorithms, this research seeks to identify which models achieve
greater accuracy in image classification.
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Most coffee defect classification research consists of categorizing coffee according to effective
beans of an intrinsic nature (imperfect beans), which are beans damaged by the imperfect application
of agricultural processes such as improper drying or picking of overripe cherries [44]. These coffee
beans are black, broken, and damaged by insects, including the coffee borer beetle.
The challenge in future research in defect classification is to cover all defects originating from
coffee cultivation. Few studies have identified external defects in the coffee bean, such as the presence
of sticks, stones, clods, bark, and small insects. These defects originate during harvesting due to coffee
falling on the ground and poor fanning. In the same way, few studies have identified acidic coffees
derived from prolonged fermentation.
The paper [30] classified 6 types of coffee intrinsic and extrinsic defects. The authors created a
screening system with a user interface. The authors of [34] created a high-speed near-infrared (NIR)
camera to capture images of coffee beans moving on a conveyor belt. [25] also proposed a conveyor
for capturing and uploading images.
[26] used an automated system to classify good and bad coffee beans. The bad coffee beans are
divided into three categories: broken, insect-infested, and mold. The system recognizes the coffee
beans; if all classification results are negative, the coffee bean is considered good and kept. If at least
one output indicates a defect, the coffee bean is labeled with the corresponding type of defect. [28]
classified all defects categorized by the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA).
Meanwhile, [27] developed a Python algorithm to extract texture, shape, and color characteristics
from images of coffee beans. Specialty coffees go through a more laborious production process, require
special care from planting to roasting, and are made of pure, unmixed, high-quality coffees. At the
same time, traditional coffee has inferior and defective beans. This mixture reduces the quality of the
coffee as it changes its flavor and reduces its cost. [35] classified coffee beans in different regions of
Brazil as special or traditional. The papers [38] and [37] classify coffee bean species. [38] classified
arabica and robusta coffee plants, and [37] classified espresso, Kenya, and Starbucks pike place species.
The networks tested for classifying coffee defects were Resnet-50, Densenet201, SVM, DNN, RF,
GAN, MobilenetV2, Hough Circle Transformer, Mask R-CNN, NFNet-F3, SqueezeNet, Slim-CNN,
InceptionResnetV2, ANN , InceptionV3 and CNN networks proposed by the researches authors.
Enhanced, AlexNet, ResNet-18, KNN, MLP, VGG-16, VGG-19, MobileNet were also tested, but
obtained inferior results when compared to other networks.
The highest accuracy achieved was 99.58% for the ANN network proposed by the work (tsai,
2023). Tsai’s study combines ANN with Mass Spectrometry and analyzes 2 classes of single beans:
civet coffee beans and regular beans. It is not possible to say which network model presents the best
performance among all the researches analyzed because the databases tested were different. The works
differ in the defects they seek to classify and consequently in the number of classes presented in each
model. The researches used datasets from 100 images to around 20,000 images. The size of the dataset
also influences the model result.
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As illustrated in Table 5, the first column corresponds to the reference of the literature review; the
second column describes the paper’s main objectives; the third column lists the models and algorithms
used in the paper; and the last column informs the results achieved.
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The authors of papers [46,47] developed a mobile application that automatically classifies coffee
bean quality based on its roast degree.
Additional work has been carried out on the automated diagnosis of coffee roasting level, achiev-
ing excellent results. [45] achieved a maximum 100% accuracy in classifying Arabica coffee into light,
medium, and dark. To predict the roasting degree of coffee beans, the authors of [48] created a model
that consists of 4 input data: temperature, humidity, place of origin, and temperature of the roasting
curve sampled every 15 seconds.
The networks tested for coffee roast classification were SVM, ResNet-152, MobileNetV2, Fully
Connected Neural Network, SPSO, DenseNet121, and CNN proposed by the research authors.
VGG16, MobileNetV1, NasNetMobile, Linear Regression, DT, RF, Support Vector Regression, and
Fully Couped Neural Network were also tested, but obtained inferior results when compared to other
network models.
The research by (Septiarini, 2022) achieved maximum accuracy to classify 3 roast levels using
SVM. It is not possible to say which network presents the best performance among all the works
analyzed because the databases tested were different. The works differ in the roast levels they seek to
classify and consequently in the number of classes presented in each model. The studies studied used
datasets from 160 images to around 11,000 images. The size of the dataset also influences the model
result. More studies are needed to consider different coffee roasting levels.
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The models for finding the sensory characteristics of coffee (aroma and flavor) do not use images,
these studies employ a dataset with coffee samples and can use an electronic tongue or nose. The
electronic nose (e-nose) has gas sensors that can identify patterns when combined with MA algorithms.
The dataset of these studies is composed of samples of coffee odors collected by the gas sensors present
in the e-nose. The samples are submitted to machine learning algorithms to recognize and classify the
coffee brand [58] and coffee bean types [56]. [53,54,56,58] classified coffee beans based on their aroma
using an e-nose. The method proposed by [58] achieved 100% accuracy for classifying two distinct
coffee brands using odor samples collected by e-nose gas sensors. The electronic tongue (e-tongue) has
low-selective potentiometric sensors that respond to a wide variety of flavors. [55] classified the taste
of coffee using an e-tongue and achieved excellent results. The dataset [55]’s research is composed of
coffee cup samples prepared by a coffee machine, and the model identifies 21 varieties of coffee and
achieves an average accuracy of 91.3%. The study [57] classified the quality of coffee drinks based on
measurements made to almond and roasted coffee beans. [59] used a sensory evaluation of the coffee
quality scores dataset with features related to aroma, flavor, acidity, body, balance, uniformity, and
others using various linear regression models to predict coffee quality scores.
The networks tested for coffee sensory analysis were SVM, KNN, PLSR, LDA, ANN, SVM and
various Regressions Models. It is not possible to say which network presents the best performance
among all the works analyzed because the techniques used were different (e-nose and e-tongue) and
the databases tested were also different.
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CNN networks are used to classify the ripening stage of coffee beans by [60,62,65]. The paper’s
authors [60] classified coffee cherry fruit into immature, semi-mature, mature, overripe, and dry. [61]
classified coffee cherries based on skin color and shape characteristics. [63] classified coffee cherries
based on spectral and textural characteristics.
The networks tested to identify coffee maturity were DenseNet201, KNN, ResNet50, Naive Bayes,
and GoogLeNet. VGG16, VGG19, InceptionResNet-V2, Inception-v3, ANN, Deep-CNN, ShuffleNet
were also tested, but did not achieve satisfactory results when compared with other networks. It is not
possible to say which network presents the best performance among all the works analyzed because
the databases tested were different. The researches differ in the maturity levels they seek to classify
and consequently in the number of classes presented in each model. The studies studied used datasets
from 600 images to around 5,000 images. The size of the dataset also influences the model result.
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The white stem borer disease is a major pest of Arabica [75,101] proposed a method to identify
them. The beetle pierces the coffee stem and remains buried until the plant falls completely. As the
disease is difficult to diagnose in the early stages of its infestation, it causes major problems for coffee
producers. The authors of the paper [75] used the YoloV5 deep learning model to identify white stem
borer disease using color, texture, and shape characteristics. The Jackal UGV robot navigated and
mapped the simulated environment of an Arabica coffee plantation using a depth camera and state
and location estimation algorithms.
Coffee Leaf Rust is a serious disease that affects many coffee-producing regions. It is caused by
a pathogenic fungus that attacks the underside of coffee leaves and is described by yellow-orange,
powdery dots. If left untreated, rust can cause a drop in coffee production. [76] carried out a
comparative study designed to identify Coffee Leaf Rust with twenty-five models and achieved
the best performance of 90% with models ResNet101V2, InceptionV3, ResNet50V2, Xception, and
DenseNet169. [67] used a CNN architecture to spot rust infestation and identify rust in coffee leaves of
different varieties and stages of development.
The paper [84] presented an application for identifying and quantifying diseases and pests in
coffee leaves using smartphone images. The application consists of two main modules: semantic
segmentation for severity and symptom classification.
The authors of the paper [66] proposed a method to capture the discolored distribution of coffee
leaves, allowing her to identify the severity of the disease more easily.
In [68], the authors achieved 100% accuracy in identifying disease with no errors using VGG16
architecture, hence demonstrating that the appropriate configuration and optimization can generate
efficient results. [81] also used VGG16 to classify diseases in coffee leaves. In this paper, the authors
modified VGG16 and achieved an accuracy of 97.9% to classify healthy and infected coffee leaves.
The work in [77] proposed a hybrid feature fusion with MobileNetV3 that extracts local features,
while Swin Transformer extracts high-level features classification performance and rust. [78] used
two models. The first model identifies coffee leaves. This model used a CNN architecture with 10
convolutional layers, Adam optimization, softmax, and 100 epochs and achieved an accuracy of 95%.
The second model was used to detect diseases from coffee leaves, and the CNN architecture has 20
convolutional layers, Adamax optimization, and 100 epochs, achieving an accuracy of 90%. In the
same way, [79] proposed two architectures to classify diseases of coffee leaves. The first identifies
the diseases of coffee in six classes. The second architecture is used to improve the classification
performance made by the first stage.
On the other hand, [87] proposed three experiments that can learn to classify using just a few
examples. Each experiment was tested with two architectures: Tripletnet and Protonet. The first two
experiments were tested to classify the biotic stress of coffee leaves. The third experiment sought to
automatically estimate the severity of the disease: low, very low, high, very high.
The paper [82] introduced a dataset with images captured in a controlled environment showing
nutritional deficiencies in coffee leaves. The nutritional deficiencies are Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Potas-
sium, Magnesium, Boron, Manganese, Calcium, and Iron. The nutritional deficiencies are detected and
classified by analyzing the color and shape characteristics. Leaves with more than one deficiency can
also be detected.
Moreover, [83] proposed a model with GoogLeNet and RestNet in the feature extraction phase
and MLP with traditional ML classifiers such as KNN, DT, SVM, and RF for classification tasks.
Three CNN-based methods were proposed in [93]. ECNN focuses on the effective concatenation of
five CNNs; HLGGM combines dimension-reduced Mobile-Net v3 features with handcrafted features;
and HLGCM has reduced dimensionality and uses a DT.
The networks tested to identify coffee diseases were SVM, VGG16, ResNet50, Deep Belief Net-
work, BPNN, MobileNetV2, ResNet101V2, TripletNet, ProtoNet, GooLeNet, ResNet, UNet, AlexNet,
ANN, Mask R-CNN, XGBoost, RFT, NVIDIA Digits, Decision Tree, Enhanced EfficientNetV2-5, and
DenseNet264. MobileNet, MobileNetV3, RNN, CNN, Swin Transformer, PSPNet, KNN, MLP, Grad-
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Boosting, RLM, OpenCV, LDA, NB, QDA, DenseNet121, were also tested, but did not achieve satisfac-
tory results when compared with other networks. It is not possible to say which network presents
the best performance among all the works analyzed because the databases tested were different. The
works differ in the diseases they seek to classify and consequently in the number of classes presented
in each model. The studies studied used datasets from 400 images to around 58,000 images. The size
of the dataset also influences the model result.
The proposed methodologies for classifying coffee diseases can be applied to assist farmers in
early detection and making decisions to protect coffee plantations. It is necessary to include more
classifications for coffee diseases and expand the size of the dataset. Future studies can also compare
other deep learning algorithms with other pre-trained models to achieve higher accuracy.
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Although little explored, agribusiness professionals should prepare themselves for the future tools
that will emerge from the research results presented in this article. These agribusiness professionals
will encounter new challenges and changes in the way they work. They must adapt and relearn their
roles, focusing on their analytical skills in data-driven agriculture.
Recognizing the urgent demand for refined classification tools to aid coffee growers, this work
underscores the importance of machine learning-based image classification in supporting decision-
making and enhancing overall industry efficiency.
Finally, the transformative power of ML and Computer Vision offers promising prospects for
coffee bean diagnostics, promising to enhance productivity and management confidence significantly.
Future research should, therefore, expand upon these findings, focusing on refining classification
techniques for a broader and more accurate application in coffee bean classification.
As a result, Figure 7 lists the roadmap of future trends for resources in ML coffee classification. To
maximize production, reduce costs, and increase precision in decision-making in coffee farming, future
research needs to increase the capacity to implement higher-performance ML algorithms, increase the
size of image datasets, and, finally, develop fewer generalist methods and more classes considered.
• Maximize production;
• Reduce costs;
• Increase precision in decision
6. Conclusions
This comprehensive literature review examined the application of ML techniques to coffee bean
and leaves classification, focusing on the last five years of research related to coffee defects, roasting,
maturity, sensing, and diseases.
The synthesis of data extracted from the reviewed works offers valuable insights, presenting a
comprehensive overview of contemporary day research, the most frequently used algorithms, and
model comparisons.
Some of the research directions for the future include creating new data sets that are larger, less
general, and with more classes, and, above all, the search for increasing the capacity to implement
higher-performance ML algorithms.
Notably, there has been a significant increase in relevant scientific publications, reflecting the
growing impact of machine learning-based image classification in advancing coffee agriculture. This
surge in scholarly activity has catalyzed increased investments in developing new products and
services, underscoring the promising trajectory for future ML research within the coffee domain.
Author Contributions: I.V.C.M. contributed to this study’s conceptualization, data curation, resources, writing,
review, and editing. F.A.P.F., N.V., and H.P. contributed to methodology, supervision, review, validation, and
funding. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
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Funding: This work was partially funded by CNPq (Grant Nos. 403612/2020-9, 311470/2021-1 and 403827/2021-
3), by Sao Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (Grant No. 2021/06946-0), by Minas Gerais Research Foundation
(FAPEMIG) (Grant No. APQ-00810-21, PPE-00124-23) and by the project "Resource-aware Machine Learning
Model Optimization for Edge Computing" supported by xGMobile - EMBRAPII-Inatel Competence Center on
5G and 6G Networks, with financial resources from the PPI IoT/Manufatura 4.0 from MCTI grant number
052/2023, signed with EMBRAPII and by the French National Research Agency (ANR) in the framework of the
Investissements d’avenir program (ANR-10-AIRT-05 and ANR-15-IDEX-02) and the MIAI @ Grenoble Alpes
(ANR-19-P3IA-0003).
Data Availability Statement: Data declarations do not apply to this paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
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