WEATHERING

- process of breakdown of rocks at the Earth's surface

- caused by the action of water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals, gravity and changing
temperatures

Agents of Weathering
PAWST
Plants
- when the seed of a tree being spread in the environment sprouts in soil that has
collected in a cracked rock.
- the roots grow, they widen the cracks, eventually breaking the rock into pieces.
Animals
- tunnel underground, such as moles and prairie dogs also work to break apart rock
and soil.
- animals dig and trample rock above ground, causing rock to slowly crumble.
Water
- either in liquid or solid form is one of the agents of mechanical weathering.
- in liquid form, it seeps into cracks and crevices of rocks and when the temperature
drops, it freezes and definitely will expand in the form of ice.
- the ice then works as a wedge which slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock.
- when the ice melts the liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying away the
tiny rock fragments lost in the split.
Salt
- the process of haloclasty (the growth and thermal expansion of salt crystals)
- saltwater sometimes gets into the cracks and pores of rock. when evaporates, salt
crystals are left behind and grow in the cracks and pores which cause pressure on the
rock and slowly break it apart.
Temperature
- temp changes can also contribute to weathering through the process called thermal
stress.
- during thermal stress, rock tends to expand with heat and contract with low
temperature.
- as this happens repeatedly, the structure of the rock weakens and over time
crumbles.

Physical Weathering
- caused by the effects of changing temperatures on rocks, causing the rock to break
apart.
a. Abrasion
- occurs when the rock's surface is frequently exposed to water, wind and gravity.
b. Freeze - thaw
- occurs when water continually seeps into cracks, freezes and expands, eventually
breaking the rock apart.
- occurs in mountainous regions like the Alps or Snowdonia.
c. Exfoliation
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- can happen as cracks develop parallel to the land surface as a consequence of the
reduction in pressure during uplift and erosion.
- occurs typically in upland areas where there are exposures of uniform coarsely
crystalline igneous rocks.

Chemical Weathering
- is caused by rainwater reacting with the mineral grains in rocks to form new
minerals (clays) and soluble salts.
- occur particularly when the water is slightly acidic
- it needs water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperatures, so warm, damp
climates are best.

a. Carbonation
- co2 in the air dissolves in rainwater and becomes weakly acidic.
- the weak "carbonic acid can dissolve limestone as it seeps into cracks and cavities.
- over many years, solutions of the rock can form spectacular cave systems

b. Hydrolysis
- the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble salts.
- takes place when acid rain reacts with rock-forming minerals such as feldspar to
produce clay and salts that are removed in solution.
- only common rock- forming mineral that is not affected is quartz (chemically
resistant mineral)
- quartz and clay are the two of the most common minerals in sedimentary rocks.

c. Hydration
- type of chemical weathering where water reacts chemically with the rocks, modifying
its chemical structure.
ex: H2O (water) is added to CaSO4 (calcium sulfate) to create CaSO4 + 2H20 (calcium sulfate
dihydrate). It changes from anhydrite to gypsum.

d. Oxidation
- the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich rocks a rusty-
colored weathered surface.

3. Biological Weathering
- occurs when rocks are weakened by different biological agents like plants and
animals.
- when plant roots grow through rocks, it creates fractures and cracks that result
eventually to rock breakage.
a. Biological Weathering by Physical Means
- burrowing animals like shrews, moles and earthworms create holes on the ground by
excavation and move the rock fragments to the surface.
- these fragments become more exposed to other environmental factors that can
further enchance their weathering.

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- humans also indirectly contribute indirectly.

b. Biological Weathering by Chemical Compounds

- some plants and animals also produce acidic substances that react with the rock
and cause its slow disintegration.

EARTH'S INTERNAL HEAT

- formed about 4.6 billion years ago and supports a wide variety of life.
- its internal heat, which varies by layer, keeps these organisms alive.
- the heat increases from the crust to the inner core for several reasons, including:

1. Primordial heat of the planet remains from its early stage.

- earth formed through accretion, where gas and dust were pulled together by gravity,
creating planetesimals.
- collisions among these masses generated heat, leading to a molten early earth with
heat trapped in its core.
- this heat took a long time to move to the surface, primarily through convection in the
core and conduction along plate boundaries, allowing some of the original heat to
remain inside the planet.

2. Heat from the decay of radioactive elements.

- earth acts like a thermal engine
- because of heat produced by the decay of naturally occurring isotopes like
potassium-40, uranium-235, uranium-238, and thorium-232.
- radioactive decay - releases energy as atomic nuclei break down.
- while there are other isotopes present, they contribute less to heat due to their low
abundance and heat capacity.
radioactive decay helps keep earth from cooling completely.

3. Gravitational pressure
- as you go deeper into earth, pressure increases due to the weight of the rocks
above.

4. Dense core material in the center of the planet.

- earths core is very dense due to high pressure and heavy materials.
- the inner core, made mostly of iron and nickel, has a density of 12,600-13,000 kg/m'.

WHAT IS ENDOGENIC PROCESS?

- it is a geological process that was formed, originated, and located below the surface of the
earth.
- it involves geologic activities such as tectonic movements, metamorphism, seismic
activities and magmatism

How is magma formed?

- magma forms deep in the crust or upper mantle, a layer called the asthenosphere.

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- through the partial melting of mantle rocks.

- happens because different minerals melt at different temperatures.
- as temperature rises, some minerals melt while others remain solid

pressure also plays a role; it increases with depth due to the weight of overlying rock.

1. Decompression melting
- occurs when rock is moved to the surface while temperature stays the same but
pressure decreases.
- allows hot rock near its melting point to start melting.

2. Flux melting
- happens when water or carbon dioxide lowers the melting temperature of rock
close to its melting point, triggering partial melting.

- as magma rises, it interacts with surrounding rocks, often causing them to partially
melt as well.
- high temperatures (over 1300°C), most magma is fully liquid.
- as it cools, silicon and oxygen combine to form silica chains, making the magma
thicker (more viscous), which can lead to more explosive volcanic eruptions.
- as cooling continues, crystals begin to form..

What happens after magma is formed?

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Intrusion
- when magma moves up into a volcano without erupting, causing the volcano to
grow from the inside without breaking through the surface.
Plutonism
- involves all igneous activities below the earth’s surface.
- when magma seeps into the crust but doesn't reach the surface, it can create
conditions for metal formation.
- occurs due to various oxides and compounds needed to form magma.
- when magma crystallizes inside the crust, it forms plutonites
- type of igneous rock created through the solidification of magma below the
surface.
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Extrusion
- the eruption of magma that forms land on earth's surface, creating volcanoes when
gas pressure is high enough and cracks appear in the crust. when magma erupts, it
becomes lava.

- magma rises due to high pressure from gases and magma in a chamber beneath the
surface.
- deeper magma chambers lead to stronger eruptions.

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Volcanism
- geological phenomena like volcanoes and hot springs
- involves the movement of igneous materials from inside the earth to the surface
through cracks called natural pipes.

- volcanoes form when energy from the earth’s core generates pressure that breaks
through rock layers.
- water vapor in magma helps this process, contributing to the formation of craters and
the high water vapor content (around 80%) released during eruptions.

- when lava cools and crystallizes on the surface, it creates volcanites.

- a type of igneous rock, often characterized by gray or pink basaltic lava with large
crystals and pyroclastic material.

- rocks and large masses can change shape, size, position, or break when they are
squeezed or sheared.

- when rocks or plates are pushed or pulled, they experience stress

WHAT IS A STRESS?
- it is the force applied to a rock over an area
- its three main types of stress are (TE-C-S)
- tension, compression, and shear

THREE MAIN TYPES OF STRESS (TE-C-S)

1. Tensional stress
- pulls rocks apart, making them stretch or break
- common at divergent plate boundaries

2. Compressional stress
- pushes rocks together, causing them to fold or crack
- common stress at convergent plate boundaries
3. Shear stress
- when forces move past each other in opposite directions
- leading to slipping or shifting

GEOLOGIC FORMS
1. Folds
- when rocks undergo compressive stress and bend without breaking three types of
folds
- M-A-S monoclines, anticlines, and synclines

A. Monocline
- a simple bend in rock layers

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- the oldest rocks at the bottom and the youngest at the top.

B.Anticline -
- arches upward
- the oldest rocks in the center and younger rocks covering them.

C. Syncline
- bends downward
- with rocks curving down toward the center.

2. Faults
- when a rock under too much stress cracks, creating a fracture called a joint
- with a block of rock on either side of it
- the footwall is the rock above the fault
- hanging wall is the rock below it
NO-R-S
A. Normal faults
- common at divergent boundaries
- occurs when the hanging wall moves down compared to the footwall
- east african rift

B. Reverse faults
- common at convergent boundaries
- form when the hanging wall moves up
- creates some of the world's highest mountain ranges
- like the Himalayas and the Rocky Mountains.

C. Strike-slip faults
- form when the walls of rock move sideways, either to the right or left
- common at transform plate boundaries
- example: San Andreas Fault

Seafloor Spreading

sonar—a device that uses sound waves to map

underwater.

features-many thought the ocean floor was flat.

- sonar revealed that the seafloor has features like continental shelves, slopes, mid-
ocean ridges, seamounts, and deep trenches, with mountains and canyons taller
and deeper than any on land.

Harry Hess explained seafloor spreading

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- convection currents in earth’s mantle push magma up at mid-ocean ridges to form

new oceanic crust, which then pushes older crust aside.
- the closer the crust is to a ridge, the younger it is; eventually, the older crust is pulled
into trenches and melts back into the mantle.
- also discovered magnetic patterns on the seafloor.
- using magnetometers during worldwar II
- they found that the seafloor magnetic polarity aligns normally at ridges but reverses
in symmetrical patterns away from them.
- these stripes show the periodic flipping of earth’s magnetic poles.

this continuous recycling means the seafloor is much younger (up to 180 million years)
than
Earth's oldest land rocks (up to 3 billion years).

three key pieces of evidence for seafloor spreading:

(a) Molten materials:

- pillow-shaped rocks show repeated eruptions of molten material from cracks along
the mid-ocean ridge that quickly cooled.

(b) Magnetic stripes:

- ocean floor rocks form magnetized stripes that record magnetic field reversals over
time.

(c) Drilling samples:

- core samples reveal that older rocks are found farther from the ridge, while the
youngest rocks are at the mid-ocean ridge.

Seafloor spreading is the process through which new oceanic crust is formed at mid-ocean
ridges, where tectonic plates are moving apart.

- occurs at divergent plate boundaries, particularly along the mid-ocean ridges, such
as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

1. Upwelling of Magma:
- At the divergent boundary, the Earth's lithosphere is pulled apart due to tectonic
forces.
- As the lithosphere separates, the pressure on the mantle decreases, allowing molten
rock (magma) to rise from the Earth's mantle to fill the gap.
- This magma cools and solidifies to form new oceanic crust.

2.Formation of New Crust:

- As new material is added at the mid-ocean ridges, older crust is pushed away from
the ridge, causing the ocean floor to "spread."
- This process occurs continuously, meaning new crust is constantly being created and
older crust is gradually moved away from the ridge.

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3. Magnetic Striping:
- The Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times throughout history.
- As magma solidifies at the mid-ocean ridges, iron-bearing minerals in the rock align
with the current magnetic field.
- When the magnetic field reverses, these minerals record the direction of the
magnetic field at that time, creating a pattern of magnetic stripes on either side of
the ridge.
- This pattern serves as evidence for seafloor spreading.

4. Sea Floor Movement:

- As new crust is created and older crust is pushed away, the seafloor moves outward,
leading to the expansion of the ocean floor.
- This process is slow, usually happening at rates of a few centimeters per year, but it
has a significant long-term impact on the Earth's surface.

Convection currents in the Earth's mantle play a crucial role in the process of seafloor
spreading. These currents are driven by the heat generated within the Earth's interior and by
the cooling of material at the Earth's surface.

1. Heat from the Earth's Core:

The Earth's core is extremely hot, and heat from the core causes the mantle material to heat
up and become less dense. This less-dense, hotter mantle material rises toward the Earth's
surface.

2. Cooling and Sinking:

As the mantle material rises, it begins to cool as it approaches the Earth's surface. When it
cools, it becomes denser and sinks back toward the core. This creates a circular motion of
mantle material, known as a convection current.

3. Movement of Tectonic Plates:

The convection currents in the mantle exert a force on the overlying tectonic plates. At
divergent boundaries, such as mid-ocean ridges, the rising material causes the plates to
move apart. This movement at the ridge allows magma to upwell and form new crust, which
then pushes the older crust away from the ridge, causing the seafloor to spread.
In summary, convection currents in the mantle provide the energy needed to push the
tectonic plates apart, leading to the process of seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges.

EVIDENCES THAT SEAFLOOR SPREADING CONTINOUSLY SPREADS:

Evidence from molten materials-

- rocks shaped like pillows (rock pillows) show that molten materials have erupted
again and again from cracks along the mid ocean ridge and cooled quickly.
- The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is a well-known site where pillow lava formations have been
observed, providing clear evidence of seafloor spreading.
Evidence from magnetic strip

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- rocks that make up the ocean floor lie in a pattern of magnetized stripes which hold a
record of the reversals in magnetic field.
- Studies of magnetic stripes on either side of the East Pacific Rise show a mirror-like
pattern, providing evidence of ongoing seafloor spreading.
Evidence from drilling sample
- core samples from the ocean floor show that older rocks are found farther from the
ridge; youngest rocks are in the mid-ocean ridge
- The Glomar Challenger did a drilling sample.
- They found that the father away the crust was from the ridge, the older it was.
- The youngest ocean crust is at the ridge center.

THE STRUCTURE OF OCEAN BASINS

• The planet's surface is made up of about 70% of ocean basins which are regions that are
below sea level.
• These areas hold the majority of the planet's water. Thus, an ocean basin can be thought of
as a large bow that holds ocean water.

THE STRUCTURES OF OCEAN BASINS

1. MID-OCEANIC RIDGE
— This feature constitutes 23% of theEarth' surface.
- It is normally found rising above the ocean floor at the center of the ocean basins.
- Some volcanic islands are part of the mid-ocean ridge system like Iceland.
Mid-ocean Ridges

2.OCEAN TRENCHES
— They are long narrow,steep-sided depressions that contain the greatest depths in the
ocean.

3. ABYSSAL HILL/PLAIN
This another raised feature found within ocean basins.
— An 'abyss' is something that is very deep.
— Therefore, an abyssal hill is found on the deep ocean floor, meanwhile, abyssal plains are so
flat because they are covered with sediments that have been washed off the surface of the
continents for thousands of years.

4. SEAMOUNTS
— These features can be very large submerged volcanic mountains reaching heights up to
10,000 feet.
—However, they remain submerged under the surface of the water.

5. GUYOT
— It is similar to a seamount, but it is a submerged volcanic mountain with a flat top.
— Guyot's structure is due to erosive processes caused by waves after years.

6. CONTINENTAL RISE

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— This feature found a gently sloping area before the ocean floor and at the base of the
continental slope and formed by emerging accumulated deposits at the mounts of many
submarine canyons.

7. CONTINENTAL SHELF
— A continental shelf is a shallow, gently sloping part of the continental crust.

8. CONTINENTAL SLOPE
— This part of the ocean basin extends and slopes after the continental shelf.
— The boundary between the continental slope and shelf is called continental shelf break.

The Wilson Cycle explains the process of the opening (beginning) and the closing (end) of an
ocean which is driven by Plate Tectonics.

This process is named after the Canadian Geophysicist J. Tuzo Wilson (1908-1993).

It is divided into 6 stages namely:

1. Embryonic Ocean Basin

- The initial phase where continental rifting occurs, creating a small, shallow sea or a
narrow ocean as landmasses begin to separate.
Example: The East African Rift.

2. Juvenile Ocean Basin

- The ocean basin widens as rifting continues, forming a young, expanding ocean.
Seafloor spreading begins, and oceanic crust forms.
Example: The Red Sea.

3. Mature Ocean Basin

- The ocean basin is fully developed, with broad, deep oceans and mid-ocean ridges.
The continents are far apart, and the basin is actively growing.
Example: The Atlantic Ocean.

4. Declining Ocean Basin

- The ocean basin begins to shrink as tectonic plates converge. Subduction zones form,
and oceanic crust is consumed.
Example: The Pacific Ocean (slowly shrinking).

5. Terminal Ocean Basin

- The ocean basin reaches its final stages, with most of the oceanic crust subducted,
and the remaining ocean area is reduced to a narrow body of water.
Example: The Mediterranean Sea (as it nears closure).

6. Suturing (Continental collision)

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- The final stage where continental plates collide, closing the ocean basin entirely and
forming mountains or a new supercontinent. Example: The collision of India with Asia,
forming the Himalayas.

Laws how layers of rocks (stratified rocks) are formed

Stratification
- general term for layering in sedimentary rocks

Law of Superposition
- youngest layer is on the top and the oldest on bottom

Law of Original Horizontality

- states that layers of sediment were originally deposited horizontally under the action
of gravity
- was proposed by Danish geological pioneer

The law of Lateral Continuity

- states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions

Methods of Determining the Age of Stratified Rocks

Methods

•Relative Dating
- Relative age (estimated age)
- Stratigraphy
- Biostratigraphy
- Cross-Dating

•Absolute Dating
- Absolute age (exact age)
- Radiometric Dating
- Amino Acid Dating
- Dendrochronology
- Thermoluminescence

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