UNIT – I BASIC ELECTRIC PARAMETERS

ELECTRIC CURRENT
Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor or wire.
If a charge (Q) passes through a conductor in time t, then

The rate of flow of charge

The unit of electric current is C/sec or Ampere (A).
One Ampere - Definition
One Ampere is defined as current flows when one coulomb of charge is transferred in one second
through any section of conductor or wire.

Battery
 Electric Voltage (or) Electric Potential (or) Electromotive Force
An amount of electrical work done in moving an electrical charge from one point to another point against the
electrical field is called as Electric Voltage (or) Electric Potential(or) Electromotive Force.
If one joule work is done to move a charge of one coulomb between two points, then the potential of the
first point is said to be 1 V with respect to the second point. Unit is Joules/sec or Volt
(i) Direct Voltage
A direct voltage maintains the same polarity at all times
(Absence of frequency)
(ii) Alternating Voltage
In an alternating voltage, the polarity of voltage reverses its
direction periodically and a combination of one positive half and one
negative half of waveform is called a cycle. The number of complete 5V 0V
cycles per second is called frequency.
By ohms law, V = IR
The unit of electric Voltage is Volt. 10
5V
One Volt Definition V
One volt is defined as one coulomb of charge is carried
through one ohm of resistance in one second
5V 5V
 Electrical Power

The rate at which electrical work is done in an electrical circuit is called electrical power. Hence, power in
electric circuits is obtained as the product of voltage (V) and current (I).

Electrical Power = Electrical Voltage x Electrical Current

P = VI
Using Ohm’s law, it could be written as:

The unit of electrical Power is joule per second or Watt (W)

One watt – Definition

One watt is defined as electric power consumed by an electric circuit, if one volt of Electric potential
causes one ampere of current flow in an electrical circuit.
 Electrical Energy
The product of electrical power and time is called as electrical energy.
Electrical Energy = Electrical power x Time

The unit of electrical energy is Watt-hour or Joule.

In practice, electrical energy is measured in kilowatt hour (kWh). One kWh is also called 1 unit.

Unit - Definition
Electrical energy is said to be one joule if one watt of electrical power is consumed in an electrical
circuit in one second.
 Basic Circuit Elements

Passive Element
The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it into heat (R) or
stores it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive element.

Ex: Resistance, Inductance and Capacitance. On the other hand, transformer is not an active element
because it does not amplify the power level and power remains same both in primary and secondary sides.
Transformer is an example of passive element.

Active Element
The elements that supply / deliver power to the circuit is called active element.
Ex: voltage and current sources, generators, and transistor is an active circuit element, meaning that it
can amplify power of a signal.
 Resistance (R)
Resistance is a fundamental property of materials that opposes the flow of electric current. It is measured in
ohms (Ω). The higher the resistance, the more difficult it is for current to flow through the material.

If a current of I amperes flows through the resistor, it dissipates energy in the form of heat.
The power absorbed by the resistor is given by

Material that offers high opposition to the flow of electrons called insulators or poor conductors. Mica, Glass,
Rubber, Dry wood are called as insulator.
One Ohm - Definition
when a current of one ampere flows between the two terminals with a voltage of 1 volt applied across it.

Resistor:
It is a circuit element in which the voltage across the element is linearly proportional to the current flowing
through it.

conductance

Unit of conductance is mho(℧) or siemen(S)

 Ohm’s law

George Simon Ohm find/discovered the relationship between voltage, current, and resistance in electric
circuits. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.
Ohm’s law states that at constant temperature, the potential difference across the conductor is
directly proportional to current flowing through the conductor.
V I
It is mathematically represented as
V  IR
V
I 
R

where V is the potential difference across the conductor, I is the current flowing through the conductor
and the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance. The unit of resistance is ohms, which is 1 V/A and
it is represented as omega, (Ω).
Applications of Ohm’s Law
· Ohm’s law is applicable for solving simple series and parallel circuits to calculate its equivalent
resistance, current and voltage of an electric circuit.

Limitations / Disadvantages of Ohm’s Law

· It does not apply to all non metallic conductors.
· It also does not apply to non linear devices such as zener diode, vacuum tubes etc.
· Ohm’s cannot be applicable for non-constant temperature materials like Arc Lamp, Electronic Valve,
and Electrolyte
· It is true for metal conductors at constant temperature. If the temperature changes, the law is not
applicable.
Problem on Ohm's Law:1

If 0.6A current flows through a resistor as shown I = 0.6 A

in Figure. Voltage across the two points of the 12 V
resistor is 12V. What is the resistance of the
resistor?

R=?
Solution

Here, Current, I = 0.6A, Potential difference or Voltage, V = 12V, Resistance, R =?

According to ohm's law, V = IR (or) R = V / I

R = 12V / 0.6A

R = 20 ohms
Problem on Ohm's Law:2

Resistance of an electric iron is 50Ω. Supply voltage

is 210 Volts. Find the current through the resistance.

Solution:
Here, Resistance, R = 50 Ω, Voltage, V = 210V, Current, I =?

According to ohm's law, V = IR or I = V / R

I = 210V / 50

I = 4.2 Amps
 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
RESISTANCES IN SERIES
The circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that the same current
flows through all resistances is called a series circuit.
By ohm’s law, voltages across various resistances are
Fig.1
V1  IR1 (1)
V2  IR2 (2)
V3  IR3 (3)
Total voltage drop is V  V1  V2  V3 (4)
Substitute Equation (1), (2) and (3) in Equation (4) Fig.1a

V  IR1  IR2  IR3 From Eqn (5) RT  R1  R 2  R 3

V  I ( R1  R2  R3 ) Hence when a number of resistances are
connected in series, the total or equivalent
V
 RT  R1  R2  R3 (5) resistance is equal to the sum of individual
I
resistances.
V is the total resistance R between points A and B. R is called
T T
I the total or equivalent resistance of the three resistances is i.e., RT = R1 + R2 + R3 + . . . . . RN
Total resistance is always greater than the individual
shown in Figure 1a.
higher value.
Characteristics of series circuit
· Current is same throughout all the elements.
IT = I1 = I2 = I3 = . . . . . IN
· Voltage drop across each element depends upon the individual resistance value.
· Voltage drops are additive. The sum of all the volt drops in the circuit is equal to the applied
voltage.
VA = V1 + V2 + V3 + . . . . . VN
· The voltage drops are proportional to the values of the resistors in the circuit.
· Total power in the circuit is the sum of power in the individual circuit element.
· An example of a series circuit is a Christmas tree lighting set.

Disadvantages of series circuit

· Any break occurs at one point of the circuit, will break current flow in the rest of the circuit.
· Current ratings of all the electrical appliances are not the same and so they cannot be connected in
series.
· Voltages are additive. So it is not suitable for practical lighting load.
 Problem on Series Resistance
1.Three resistors of 270, 330, and 4.7k values are
connected in series. Calculate the equivalent resistance.

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 270 + 330 + 4.7k
= 270 + 330 + 4,700
RT = 5,300 Ω or 5.3K Ω

2.Calculate the total resistance and the total current in

the circuit.

RT = R1+R2 + R3
= 12 + 56 + 82
RT = 150 Ω
I = V/ RT
I = 100/150 = 0.666 Amperes or 666 mA
 Problem on Series Resistance

3. Calculate the value of R3.

There will be three voltage drops: V1 across R1, V2 across R2, V3 across R3
I = 200 mA = 0.2 Amps
From Ohm’s Law:
V1 = I X R1 = 0·2 X 12 = 2·4 Volts
V2 = I X R2 = 0·2 X 15 = 3·0 Volts
In a series circuit:VS = V1 + V2 + V3
12 = 2·4 + 3·0 + V3
12 = 5·4 + V3
V3 = 12 - 5.4 = 6.6 Volts
R3 = V3 / I = 6.6 / 0.2 = 33 Ω
RESISTANCES IN PARALLEL
• If one end of each resistance connected to one common point and the other end of each resistance
connected to another common point, there will be a many paths for current flow as the number of
resistances. This is called parallel circuit.
• Let three resistances R1,R2,R3 be connected in parallel across a battery of V volts as shown in
Figure.
• The total current divides into three parts, I1 flowing through R1, I2 flowing through R2, I3 flowing through R3.
The voltage across each resistance is same.
• By Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is

V
I1  ; I2  V ; I3  V ; (1)
R1 R2 R3 From Eqn (3) the total resistance is
Total current I  I 1  I 2  I 3 (2) 1
RT 
Sub Eqn (1) in Eqn (2) 1 1 1
 
V V V R1 R2 R3
I  
R1 R2 R3 • Hence, when a number of resistances are connected in
1 1 1 parallel, the total or equivalent resistance is equal to
I V(   ) the reciprocal of the sum of reciprocal of individual
R1 R2 R3
resistances.
V is the total resistance between the points A and B
• The resistance is always lower than the individual
I and I 1 , I 1 1 1 1
     (3) lower value.
V RT V RT R1 R2 R3
Characteristics of parallel circuit
· In a parallel circuit, same voltage exists across all elements.
· All elements will have individual currents, depending upon the value of resistance.
· Branch currents are additive. The total current IT is equal to the sum of all the individual currents.
IT = I1+ I2 + . . . + IN
· The total or equivalent resistance of a parallel circuit is always less than the resistance of the smallest
resistor in the circuit.
· The total or equivalent resistance is calculated by:

1 1 1 1
— = — + — + ...... — (Applies to all resistors in parallel)
RT R1 R2 RN

Resistor value
RT = -------------------------------------- (Applies to equal values of resistors in parallel)
Total no. of resistors in parallel

Product R 1 x R2
RT = ——— = ——— (Applies to two unequal, or two equal resistors in parallel)
Sum R1 + R2
• An open circuit in one resistor in a parallel circuit results in no current flowing in that resistor, but current flow in
the other resistors is not affected.
• A short-circuit in any resistor in a parallel circuit will result in excessive current flowing in that part of the circuit.
This situation may result in the blowing of a fuse or the tripping of a MCB, otherwise the heat produced by that
excessive current would cause damage.

Advantages of parallel circuit

• The electrical appliances rated for the same voltage but different powers can be connected in parallel without
affecting each other’s performance.
• If break occurs in any one of the branch, it will have no effect on the other branch.

Why are domestic appliances connected in parallel?

When appliances are connected in a parallel arrangement, each of them can be put on and off independently. This
is a feature that is essential in a house's wiring. Also, if the appliances were wired in series, the potential
difference across each appliance would vary depending on the resistance of the appliance.
 Problem on Parallel Resistance
1.Four resistors of 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω, 5Ω respectively are connected in parallel as shown in Figure. Find the equivalent
resistance.

Solution
Total resistance
1 1 1 1 1
   
RT R1 R2 R3 R4

1 1 1 1 1
   
RT 2 3 4 5
1 77
 
RT 60
60
RT 
77
  0.77 
2.Find I1, I2, I3 and IT.
Problem on Parallel Resistance

Solution:

1 / RT = ( 1 /R1) + ( 1 / R2) + ( 1 / R3)

= (1 / 4) + ( 1 / 6) + ( 1 / 12)
= (3 + 2 + 1) / 12
RT = 2 ohm

IT = V / RT = ( 6 / 2) = 3 Amps
I1 = V / R1 = ( 6 / 4) = 1.5 Amps ;
I2 = V / R2 = ( 6 / 6) = 1 Amp
I3 = V / R3 = ( 6 / 12) = 0.5 Amp

Verify:
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 = 1.5 + 1.0 + 0.5 = 3 Amps
 Practice Problem on Parallel Resistance
1. Find the following
(i)Total resistance of circuit
(ii) Total Current
(iii)The currents (a) I2 through R2 and (b) I3 through R3

2. Find Req for the resistive network shown in Figure

 Kirchhoff’s Law
A pair or set of rules or laws are developed to deal with the conservation of current and energy within
electrical circuits. These two rules are commonly known as Kirchhoff’s Circuit Laws with one of the Kirchhoff’s
laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s Current Law, (KCL) while the other
law deals with the voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, (KVL).

1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

 1 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a junction in an electrical circuit is zero.
The sum of currents flowing towards any junction in an electrical circuit is equal to the sum of currents
flowing away from that junction. Kirchhoff’s current law is also called junction rule.

Sum of incoming currents = Sum of outgoing currents

 2 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

In any closed loop network, the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops within the same loop” which is also equal to zero.
In other words the algebraic sum of all voltages in a closed path or loop must be equal to zero.
This idea by Kirchhoff is known as the Conservation of Voltage.
 Circuit Common Circuit Terms Mesh
A circuit is a closed loop It is a loop that does not contain any other
conducting path in which an loop within it. All meshes are loops but all loops
electrical current flows. are not meshes.

Path Short circuit

A single line connecting elements Current maximum and voltage zero
or sources.

Node Open circuit

It is a circuit point where ends (terminals)
Voltage maximum and current zero.
of two or more circuit elements meet.
A node is indicated by a dot.

Branch
It is a path between two adjoining Series circuit
nodes. A circuit which has only one path for the current from
one point to another resulting in same current flowing
through each component/ element.
Loop
A loop is a simple closed path in a circuit. Parallel circuit
It is a closed path starting and ending at A circuit which has more than one path for the
the same node. current and has same voltage across each load.
 Problem on Kirchhoff's law:3
Find the current flowing and voltage across
the 40Ω resistor shown in Figure.

Given
V1 = 10V, V2 = 20V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 20 Ω, R3 = 40 Ω,
VR3 = ?, I3 = I1 + I2 = ?
Solution
The circuit has 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops. Using Kirchhoff’s Current Law, KCL the
equations are given as;
At node A: I1 + I2 = I3 (1)
At node B: I3 = I1 + I2 (2)
Using Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1(cABfc) is given as : 10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3
= 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3
= 20I2 + 40I3
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;

10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2

5I1 + 4I2 = 1 (3)

20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
As I3 = I1 + I2
4I1 + 6I2 = 2 (4)
20I1 + 16I2 = 4 The current flowing in resistor R3 is given as:
20I1 + 30I2 = 10 -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
The voltage across the resistor R3 is given as :
14I2 = 6
0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
I2 = 0.429A (5)
Substitute the I2 in equation 4.
4I1 = 2 - (6 x 0.429)
Hence I1 = - 0.143A
 Problem on Kirchhoff's law: 4
Find the currents through all the resistors in the circuit shown
in Figure. Vb = 12 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω

Given
Vb = 12 V, R1 = 10 Ω, R2 = 15 Ω, R3 = 20 Ω
Solution

V b  i1 R 1  i 2 R 2 Substitute the Value of I2 in equation 1.

10I1 + (15 x 0.55) = 12
12 = 10i1 + 15i2
I1 = 0.369A (4)

The current in all resistors are given below

12 = 15i2 - 20(i1 - i2) I1 = 0.369A,
10I1 + 15I2 = 12 (1) I2 = 0.55A,
-20I1 + 35I2 = 12 (2) I3= I1 – I2 = -0.185A
I2 = 0.554 Amps (Direction b-e),
20I1 + 30I2 = 24 I1 = 0.369 Amps (Direction a-b),
I3 = -0.185 Amps (Direction c - b)
-20I1 + 35I2 = 12
I2 = 0.55A (3)
 Practice Problem on Kirchhoff's law

1.Find the current in 3Ω resistor shown in Figure

using Kirchhoff’s laws.

2.Find the current flowing through 4 Ω resistor in the

given circuit by applying Kirchhoff’s laws.
 Storage Component : Inductance (L)
A wire of certain length when twisted into a coil becomes a basic inductor. When current is passed
through an inductor, an electro-magnetic field is formed.
A change in the magnitude of current changes the electro-magnetic field. Increase in current increases
the electro-magnetic field. Decrease in current reduces the electro-magnetic field.
Therefore a change in current produces change in electro-magnetic field which induces a voltage
across the coil according to Faraday’s law of electro-magnetic induction.
Inductance is the element in which energy is stored in the form of electromagnetic field.
The unit of Inductance is Henry (H)

 Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction states,

“Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying
magnetic field, an electromotive force is induced.

 The induced emf in a coil is equal to the rate of

change of flux linkage.
Definition-One Henry

One Henry is defined as if one Ampere of current is flowing through one turn of coil, then one Weber of
flux is produced.

In inductance, the voltage across it is proportional to the rate of change of current through it.

(or) Voltage across the inductor is

Current flowing through an inductor is

The energy stored in the inductor during a time interval of t is obtained as:
 Storage Component : Capacitance (C)

A Capacitor is a device that is capable of storing charge. It consists of two conducting surface separated by an
insulating material.
The conducting surface is called plates of capacitor and insulating material is called dielectric.
Capacitor is used to store electrical energy in dielectric.
Capacitance is the element in which energy is stored in the form of electrostatic field.
In capacitance, charge q, is directly proportion to voltage v across it.
i.e. Q∞V or Q = CV

The unit of capacitance is Farad,

One Farad-Definition
One Farad is defined as if one coulomb of charge stores in capacitor when one volt is applied across it.
1C
1F  C 
1V

Differentiating Q = CV, we get =C (or) idt = Cdv

Integrating both sides, we get or Voltage across the capacitor is v =

Current flowing through capacitor is

Assuming no initial charge on the capacitor, if current i flows for a period of t seconds, the energy stored in the
capacitor will be
 INDUCTORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Inductors in series Inductors in parallel

Equivalent inductance of ‘N’ inductors connected in

Equivalent inductance of ‘N’ inductors connected in parallel is given by
series is given by

For two inductors in parallel,

 CAPACITORS IN SERIES AND PARALLEL

Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel

Equivalent capacitance of ‘N’ capacitors Equivalent capacitance of ‘N’ capacitors connected in

connected in series is given by parallel is given by

For two capacitors in series,