COURSE

HAND-OUT 2024
Measurement limitations
for JHS science teacher trainees
Joseph Amihere Kwofie
Department of Science
Akrokerri College of Education
2
Contents

Contents 3

1 Measurement limitations 5
1.1 Measurement of physical quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Limitations in scientific measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.1 Measurement error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Uncertainty in measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Significant figures and decimal places . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.4 Accuracy and Precision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Scientific notations and unit prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.1 Unit prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.2 Rules of using the metric system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

3
4 CONTENTS
Chapter 1

Measurement limitations
In science, measurement is inevitable. Science students carry out simple measure-
ments to verify what they are learning or to practice acquiring the skills in doing
science during their practical sessions. Researchers design and perform experiments
that involve collecting large number of measured data. They would later analyze the
data, look for pattern in the data or derive an equation and draw conclusions that
can be compared with an initial hypothesis. Engineers also carry out measurement
in designing and building infrastructure, devices and machines.
We are going to discuss some difficulties associated with measurement, how to
analyze and report the uncertainty around the measurements of physical quantities.

1.1 Measurement of physical quantities

We measure physical quantities. A physical quantity is a property of matter that

may vary continuously from one instance (time or matter) to another. For example,
mass and temperature are physical quantities that can be measured because they
are properties of material (matter), for a given time, it may vary from one material
(an instance) to another material (another instance), or for a given matter, it may
change from time (an instance) to time (another instance). Also, these variation of
masses and temperature can take any value (i.e. continuous). We cannot consider
the cost of an item as a physical quantity. Love, hatred and intelligent quotient are
other non physical quantities.
We can now describe measurement as the procedure of using calibrated instru-
ment for determining and assigning a numerical value to a physical quantity. To
measure the length of a pencil means to take a ruler (the calibrated instrument) and
align it with the pencil and record the marks at the ends (the procedure or technique).
The value of the length is the difference between the recorded marks. Measuring
density would involve measuring the mass and volume first and then finding the
quotient (mass ÷ volume). There is no dedicated instrument for measuring density of
solids.

5
6 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

1.2 Limitations in scientific measurements

Every measured physical quantity has a true value. The purpose of using instrument
and prescribed procedure is to obtain the true value. However, the measured value
is always an estimate of the true value. This is because neither the instrument nor
the procedure is perfect. This is to say that, measurement setup, instruments and
procedure are limited in giving us the true value. Any effort is aimed at obtaining
a value close to the true value. The reliability of the measured value are often of
interest to readers of scientific reports.

1.2.1 Measurement error

A measurement error is a mistake in the measurement procedure or fault in the
measuring instrument. Measurement error reflects in the measured value as it
deviates from the true value. To put in mathematical expression, if X is the measured
value, T is the true value and e is the error, then

T = X ± e or X = T ± e. (1.1)
This shows that the smaller the error, the closer the measured value will be to the
true value. That is why it’s very important to take necessary precautions to minimize
errors in measurements.
In the following paragraphs, common measurement errors are described. As you
read, consider some precaution that you can take to reduce the errors.
Parallax error may occur in using the measuring cylinder, thermometer and
other instruments using the dial mechanism. This comes about due to the relative
motion between the calibrated marks and the dial depending on the observers line
of sight. Parallax error can be minimized when the observer sets the line of view
perpendicular to the surface of the calibrated scale.
Zero error may arise due to a fault in the instrument. Normally, students will
read and record the final mark on the instrument as the measured value. This would
not be a problem if the initial mark was zero. However, some faulty instrument
may show initial reading (i.e. zero error) that is not zero. For such instruments, the
measured values will be more, or less, the actual value. Nevertheless, zero error can
easily be corrected by adjusting the instrument to zero mark before using it or by
deducting the initial mark (zero error) from the final mark.
Other kinds of errors may occur in measurements. Consider the following:

1. When a number of time keepers measure the time an athlete runs a race, it
would be realize that they all measure different times. Even if one time keepers
measurement is accurate, that of the others will be wrong due to errors in the
measurement. This is due to human response time; between the time they
observe and decide to start/stop the clock and the actual action by the fingers.
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 7

2. A ball drops from a height and bounces to a second height lower than the
initial height and repeatedly bounces to reducing heights. A student is tasked
to measure the loss in the gravitational potential energy (PE=mgh) in each
bounce. He will need to measure the height of each rebounce by using a ruler
vertically oriented. The student will be able to measure the initial height more
accurately because the ball would be stationary. However, since the ball would
be changing direction in a short period, the student will have have difficulty
making accurate measurement of the rebounce height. He can only rely on
their judgment and estimate the new height that are prone to errors.
3. The spring in measuring instruments such as spring balance, analogue amme-
ter/voltmeter or analogue clocks may be weak or more stiff compared to when
they were first manufactured due to repeated use. Hence, the calibrated scale
may no longer be accurate. If an experimenter used a new instrument and
an old one of the same kind to measure the same quantity, they may obtain
different values indicate an error in one .of the measurements (possibly in that
of the old instrument). The old instrument may need re-calibration.
4. It is a common knowledge that the resistance of a wire depends on the tempera-
ture of the wire and that current in a conductor produces heat. An experimenter
wants to determine the resistance of a piece of wire at a given temperature with
a circuit. If the experimenter closed circuit for a long time before taking the
readings they may be rather measuring the resistance of the wire at a different
temperature. The measured resistance would far away from the correct value
if the measurement had been taken shortly after closing the circuit. Ignorant
of the temperature change in the wire, the experimenter may record the wrong
value.
Measurement errors may be classified as systematic or random. Systematic
error refers to the same error value that appears in every instance of measurement
with the same instrument or procedure. To make this clear, consider an instrument
with a zero error of 0.5 g (meaning when there is no mass put on the instrument, it
reads an initial mass of 0.5 g). If we then put 20 g mass on the instrument, it will
read 20.5 g. Similarly, a mass of 15.7 g, 23.4 g and 51.2 g masses will read 16.3 g,
23.9 g and 51.7 g respectively – 0.5 g more than the correct mass in each instance
of measurement. 0.5 g is the systematic error because it causes the measured value
to deviate from the true value by the same amount. As another example, if one
keeps reading the volume of liquid in measuring cylinder by viewing the top part
of the liquid adhesion to the wall of the cylinder instead of reading the bottom of
the meniscus he will be committing systematic error especially if he does so in every
instance of measurement.
Systematic error can be corrected by deducting the error value from every instance
of measurement. The challenge of the experimenter is identifying the systematic
error and its value.
8 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

Random error occurs randomly, as the name suggests – One cannot predict the
error value and when it will occur. Unlike the systematic error, the random error
value differs from one instance of measurement to another. Random errors may be
reduced by repeating the measurement and finding the average value.
The total error ( e T ) in measured value is the sum of the systematic error ( e s ) and
the random error ( e r ). That’s
eT = es + er (1.2)
Measurement errors are unavoidable. Nevertheless, with better instruments,
proper procedure and careful precautions, measured values can be made more accu-
rate and reliable.

Worked example 1.1. In an experiment to verify Ohm’s law in a practical session,

Abdullai needed to measure the voltage across a resistor and the current in it. He felt
the ammeter readings were not accurate because it looked old and rusty. Nevertheless,
he went on to take six ammeter readings for pre-set voltages across the resistor. The
laboratory instructor later provided a reliable ammeter with which Abdullai repeated
the experiment. He recorded his results in the table below.

V /V I /mA (Old) I /mA (New)

1.5 156 151
2.0 205 201
3.0 303 298
4.5 456 449
5.0 508 502
6.0 607 603

Table 1.1

Assume that the measurements taken with the new ammeter are the true values
of the current.

(a) Find the error in each of the measurements taken with the old ammeter and
record them in another column of the table.

(b) What evidence points to systematic errors in the measurements taken with the
old ammeter?

(c) Suggest the value of the systematic error in the old ammeter. Use it to de-
termine the random error in each of the measurements taken with the old
ammeter and record them in another column of the table.

(d) In the next practical session, Abdullai had to use the same old ammeter to
measure current. The reading on the display was 86 mA. What better value of
the current can Abdullai use in subsequent calculations?
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 9

Solution

V /V I /A (Old) I /mA (New) I e /mA ( e T ) I r /mA (or e r )

1.5 156 151 5 0
2.0 205 201 4 -1
3.0 303 298 5 0
4.5 456 449 7 +2
5.0 508 502 6 +1
6.0 607 603 4 -1

Table 1.2

(a) The completed table is shown in table 1.2.

(b) The errors are

i. all positive,
ii. and about the same value

Systematic errors add on to every instance of measurement or reduce every

instance of measurement. For a given instrument, setup or procedure, sys-
tematic cannot be positive in one instance of measurement and be negative in
another instance. Also, the amount by which a systematic type of error adds
onto or reduce the measured value is the same in all instances of measurement.
Random error is responsible for the slight differences in the error.

(c) The average of the errors will be good idea of the systematic error. That’s

5+4+5+7+6+4
es = = 5.167 ≈ 5 mA
6

Using this value of systematic error, the random errors for each instance of
measurement is determined using equation 1.2 and recorded in table 1.2.

(d) If the fault in the ammeter giving rise to the systematic error is not corrected,
then every measurement taken with this ammeter will have to be corrected by
removing the systematic error. Hence, applying equation 1.1 a better measure-
ment will be
T = X − e s = 86 − 5 = 81 mA.

Worked example 1.2.

10 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

1.2.2 Uncertainty in measurement

Even though systematic errors such as the zero error may be identified and corrected,
in practice, overall error in any measurement is unknown. Experimenters do well
to use the good instruments and follow best practices (precautions) with the aim of
reducing errors in the measurements. Nevertheless, they will want to keep in mind
the limitations of the instruments, setup and procedure and report, together with
their measured / calculated values, the uncertainty - a fair suggestion of what the
error could be. Uncertainty in measurement refers to the range of values within
which the true value of the quantity may fall. You may want to consider uncertainty
as an estimated idea of how close the measured value is to the true value. Researchers
are expected to report the uncertainty associated with their measured /calculated
values to reflect their honesty in carrying out their experiment and also allow readers
to decide for themselves, the extent to which they can rely on the research results.
A measured value reported as 12.4 ± 0.5 V means that the true value is around
12.4 V; not less than 11.9 V and not greater than 12.9 V. The number ±0.5 V is termed
absolute uncertainty. Note that it is written with the unit of the quantity. It may
be expressed as a fraction (or percentage) of the measured value, i.e. 0.5 ÷ 12.4 = 0.04
or 4% (termed as fractional / percentage uncertainty). The measurement, will
then be reported as 12.4 V ± 4%. Measured values that have small uncertainty are
more reliable than ones with large uncertainties.
Even though the uncertainty of measured values are just estimated values by
the experimenter, there are some useful guidelines that must be followed (see the
uncertainty values for some measuring instrument in table 1.3).

1. Normally, the measurement uncertainty would be the least count of the in-
strument used. Using the meter rule to measure the length, there is 0.5 mm
uncertainty at both ends making a total uncertainty of ±1 mm or ±0.001 m,
the same as the least count of the instrument.

2. For the laboratory thermometer with least count of 1 ◦ C, the uncertainty is

0.5 ◦ C. This is because, unlike the meter rule, thermometer reading is a single
value and not a difference of two values, hence the uncertainty is taken from
one end on the liquid thread. That is half of the least count.

3. For the stop clock, the least count is 0.01 s. However, due to the response time
of the human experimenter, it is best to increase the uncertainty of measuring
time to 0.1 s.

4. If a single quantity is measured a number of times, the mean value of the

recorded values would be used as an instance of the measurement and the
range of values would become the uncertainty of the measurement.

5. Some measurement procedure may call for the need to increase the uncertainty
regardless of the least count of the instrument. In the case of measuring
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 11

the height of a bouncing ball, the experimenter may consider the difficulty in
reading the new heights and honestly increase the uncertainty to ±0.01 m.

Instrument Uncertainty Remarks

Meter rule ±1 mm Least count of the instrument
Stop clock ±0.1 s Based on reaction time
Thermometer ±0.5 ◦ C Half of least count

Table 1.3: Uncertainties for some laboratory instruments

Worked example 1.3. The figure 1.1 below shows the displays of some laboratory
measuring instruments. For each instrument, write the measured value with its
uncertainty.

Figure 1.1: Some laboratory measurements

Solution
12 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

• 19.0 ± 0.5 ◦ C (thermometer). The least count (calibration interval) of the

instrument is 1 ◦ C but measurement is taken from one end only. The one
decimal place in 19.0 is significant, very important to correspond with the
uncertainty.

• 70 ± 1 cm3 (measuring cylinder). The least count for the instrument is 2 cm3 .
However, uncertainty may only happen when reading the meniscus on top. Note
that the recorded valuehas no decimal place, consistent with the uncertainty
which is a whole number.

• 3.4 ± 0.4 mA (milliammeter). The least count (calibration interval) is 0.4 mA

and the measurement displayed is the reading between two points.

• 1 min 40.1 ± 0.1 s (stop clock). This is better written as 100.1 ± 0.1 s. Even
though the least count is 0.01 s, humans using the clock respond slowly to the
start and stop time necessitating the need for increase in the uncertainty to ±
0.1 s.

Worked example 1.4. Mengyila needed to measure the diameter of a long copper
wire in order to determine its resistance. He decides to measure the diameter at
several points along the length of the wire. His measurements are

diameter /mm 0.66 0.71 0.67 0.69 0.63 0.65

(a) Why was it good that he took several measurements?

(b) What single value most accurately represent the diameter of the wire?

(c) What is the uncertainty in the measurement?

Solution

(a) Taking several measurements and averaging reduces random error. In other
words, the results from this practice is more accurate.

(b) liable value for the measurement is the average.

0.66+0.71+0.67+0.69+0.63+0.65
i.e. 6 = 0.6683 (to 4 dp)

(c) The uncertainty is the difference between the maximum and minimum mea-
sured values. i.e. 0.71 − 0.63 = 0.8 mm. Hence the diameter of the wire should
better be written as 0.67 ± 0.08 mm. Note that the number of decimal places for
the main value corresponds with that of the uncertainty.
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 13

Combining uncertainties
As already indicated, there are some quantities that cannot be measured directly
with an instrument made for that purpose. To determine the density of an object,
the mass and the volume will have to be determined separately, and the ratio is
calculated. How can the uncertainty of the derived quantity be determined?
For the kind of physical measure that we will handle, few simple rules can be
followed. Assume that w, x, y and z are four physical quantities with respective
uncertainties ´w, ´ x, ´ y and ´ z. That is the measurements are recorded as

x ± ´x
y ± ´y
z ± ´z
1. If a quantity is obtained by adding or subtracting other quantites then the
uncertainty of the new quantity is the sum of the dependent quantities. Thus,
if w is obtained from x, y and z such that
w = Ax + B y − Cz
where A , B and C are constant factors, then, the uncertainty ´ x is calculated as
´w = A ´ x + B´ y + C ´ z (1.3)

2. If the new quantity is obtained by multiplying or dividing dependent variables,

then the fractional uncertainty of the new quantity can be obtained by the sum
of the fractional uncertainties of the dependent quantities. That is, if
xy
w=k
z
where k is a constant factor, then
´w ´ x ´ y ´ z
= + + (1.4)
w x y z

Note: The constant factor does not contribute to the new uncertainty.

3. In addition to the 2nd rule above, if any of the quantities has an index, then
their respective fractional uncertainties will be multiplied by a factor of the
index before the addition. For example, if
xb yc
wa = k
zd
where a, b, c and d are indexes, then
´w ´x ´y ´z
a = b +c +d (1.5)
w x y z
14 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

Worked example 1.5. The sides of a rectangle are 21.301 ± 0.001 m and 7.012 ±
0.001 m. Determine the perimeter of the shape with its uncertainty.

Solution
Perimeter = 2L + 2B = 2 (21.301) + 2 (7.012)
Perimeter = 28.313 m

The uncertainty with this new quantity (perimeter) is

´ Perimeter = 2´L + 2´B
´ Perimeter = 2(0.001) + 2(0.001) = 0.004 m

Hence, the perimeter will be recorded as

Perimeter = 28.313 ± 0.004 m

Worked example 1.6. A student is performing an experiment in the laboratory

to verify the acceleration due to gravity ( g) using the pendulum. She is aware of
the relationship between acceleration due to gravity, the length of the pendulum ( l )
and the period of oscillation (T ). She records the following measurement from her
practical work:
l = 0.550 ± 0.005 m

T = 1.5 ± 0.1 s

l
g = 4π 2
T2
(a) What value of the acceleration due to gravity does she obtain from this exercise?

(b) What is the range of values g is the "true value" likely to fall?

Solution

(a) Combine the physical values as usual. The acceleration is obtain by substituting
the values.
0.550
g = 4π 2 = 9.650 ms−2
1.52

(b) The equation that was used to obtain g has both quotient and power. Hence, it
would be handled as in equation 1.5

´ g ´l ´T
= +2
g l T
´ g 0.005 0.1
µ ¶
= +2 = 0.07 or 7%
g 0.550 1.5
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 15

The absolute uncertainty ´ g = 0.07 × 9.650 = 0.7 ms−2 . Hence the acceleration
due to gravity will have to be reported as

g = 9.7 ± 0.7 ms−2

or
g = 9.7 ms−2 ± 7%

Summary − Uncertainty

Take a break and review all the values we have worked with in this section.
Now take note of the following rules for reporting measured or derived values
with their uncertainties.

• Absolute uncertainties are written with only one significant digit. There-
fore, ±0.15 mV, ±23 kg and ±1.01 gcm−3 are not acceptable.

• The main value is written to the same decimal places as the uncertainty.
When your calculator gives you more decimal places than needed, round
it up. If ou have less number of decimal places, add zeros to make up
for the same number of decimal places as the uncertainty. So we write
19.0±0.5◦ C instead of 19±0.5◦ C (see example 1.3) and 0.67 ± 0.08 mm
instead of 0.6683 ± 0.08 mm (see example 1.4)

• When the uncertainty is written in absolute terms, it will bear the same
unit as the main quantity. For example, 1.5 + 0.1 s, (3.4 ±0.4) mA and 70
cm3 ± 1 cm3 are acceptable. In terms of the fractional uncertainty, only
the main value bears the unit; the uncertainty is written as percentage.
For example, g = 9.7 ms−2 ± 7%.

1.2.3 Significant figures and decimal places

Significant figures are the digits in a recorded value that are meaningful or make
sense. Suppose Afiba measured the height of a table with a 1m ruler and recorded
his value as 0.73285 m. This is the same as 732.85 mm. We can only rely on the
0.732 m or 732 mm because a meter rule is limited to millimeter calibration; It is the
meaningful part or the significant figures. We cannot imagine how Afiba could divide
a millimeter interval into 100 and could see that the height of the table extended
by 85 of these hundreth divisions. The 0.85 mm extension does not make sense, not
meaningful, not significant.
The issue of significant figures become more important when obtain a new value
from other value recorded with their uncertainties. Take a look, again, at worked
16 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

example 1.6. The acceleration due to gravity g was determined from two other
measured quantities l = 0.550 ± 0.005 m and T = 1.5 ± 0.1 s. The l and the T have 3 s.f.
and 2 s.f. respectively. The final result, g = 9.7 ± 0.7 ms−2 , has 2 s.f. corresponding to
that of T . Note, also, that, the 1 d.p. of the result g agrees with that of its uncertainty.
This is how we determine the number of significant figures and the decimal places
whenever we multiply or divide other quantities.
When we find the product (multiply) or quotient (divide) of values the result
must be left in the same number of significant figures as the factor with
the least number of significant figures.
For derived quantities that are obtained by finding the sum or difference of other
quantities, the number of significant figures is determined by the addend with the
least number of decimal places. Suppose the length of the college sport field is
measured with a stroll meter as 152.3 ± 0.1 m and the width is measured with a
surveyor’s tape as 80.337 ± 0.001 m. The perimeter would be 465.3 ± 0.2 m.
When we find the sum (add) or difference (subtract) of values the result must
be left in the same number of decimal places as one of the values used in
the operation with the least number of decimal places.
Worked example 1.7. A rectangular shaped piece of land measures 271cm by 12m.
Determine (a) the area (b) the perimeter.
Solution: (a) 12m=1200cm (2sf).
Area of a rectangle = 271× 1200 = 330,000 cm2 (2sf)
(b) Perimeter = 2×(271cm +1200cm)=2,900 cm

1.2.4 Accuracy and Precision

These are terms for describing measurements. Accuracy is a measure of how close the
measured value is to the true value. The closer they are, the greater the accuracy. The
sum total of measurement errors determines how much the measured value deviate
from the true value, hence, it is appropriate to use the term "accurate" in reference
to the measurement procedure or instrument depending how best they can reduce
errors.
Precision in measurement is the level of smallest details in the value. Supposed
we measured the width of a small block with a ruler and in turn, with a micrometer
screw gauge. The rule gives 0.011 m. This value tells us that the width of the block is
not up to a meter but it is 1 cm and 1 mm. It cannot give use any further smaller
detail than a millimeter. The micrometer screw gauge gives 0.01082 m (10.82 mm).
We know from this measured value that the width more than 1 cm but the extra
length is less than 1 mm. The extra length is 82 parts of a millimeter divided into
100. This later measurement with the micrometer is giving smaller details than that
of the ruler. We say the value measured using the micrometer is more precise.
Precision is also used to describe the level of consistency in measurements. Con-
sider a teacher asking three students to measure the masses of their pens. The
1.2. LIMITATIONS IN SCIENTIFIC MEASUREMENTS 17

students report their measurements as 7.4 g, 7.9 g and 7.2 g. The maximum differ-
ence among the measurements is 0.7 g. The teacher also asks four other students to
measure the masses of their notebooks and they reported the masses as 23.7 g, 27.3,
27.7 and 19.6 g. The maximum difference in this set of measurement is 8.1 g. The
measured values of the masses of pens are closer to each other − the measurement
is consistent and so are more precise than the measurement of the masses of the
notebooks.

How does measurement accuracy differ from precision? Figure 1.2 is an aid to
distinguishing between the two terms. Each dot is an instance of measurement. The
true value to be measured is the centre. The set of measurement at the bottom-left

Figure 1.2

are spread out widely. They are not precise. They are also not close enough to the
centre where the true value is located. The measurements are not accurate. For
the set of measurements displayed at the bottom-right, the values are clustered
together indication high precision but by no means closer to the true value. They are
not accurate. With this eye opener, you should be able to describe and explain the
accuracy of the upper sets of measurements.
18 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

1.3 Scientific notations and unit prefixes

Sometimes, scientific values are too large or too small to be represented with string of
decimal digits. Such numbers would better be represented with the scientific notation
(also known as the power−of−ten notation).
When representing numbers in the scientific notation, the significant figures are
usually written such that only the first number comes before the decimal point. Then
it is multiplied by a power of ten (×10 x ). The index x represent the number of decimal
places moved by the point; it is positive when the decimal point moves to the left and
negative when it moves to the right. For example, the distance between the earth
and the moon is
384, 000, 000 m = 3.84 × 108 m.

1.3.1 Unit prefixes

Another convenient way of representing scientific numbers is the use of unit prefixes.
They are words that precede the unit and stand for the power−of−ten or part of it.
For example, the diameter of a red blood cell is ≈ 0.00001 m. This may be represented
as

0.00001 m =1 × 10−5 m (scientific notation)

=10 × 10−6 m
=10µm (unit prefix).

The symbol µ (representing the prefix micro) replaces ×10−6 before the unit of
measure. Refer to table 1.4 for the common unit prefixes for scientific reporting.

1.3.2 Rules of using the metric system

Here are useful guidelines for reporting and presenting scientific data in SI or metric
system.

1. Leave a space between the number and the unit. Example, 27.1 K, 3.15 ×103
m3 , 13.8 mV.
Exception to this rule are the plane angular degree, minutes and seconds (◦ ,′ ,′′ ).

2. Symbols of units named after famous scientist are in upper cases. Example, N
(for Newton), V (for Volt), J (for Joules).

3. Normally, units do not have appended punctuation unless grammatical rule

demand so.
1.4. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 19

Powers of ten Prefix Symbol

1018 exa E
1015 peta P
1012 tera T
109 giga G
106 mega M
103 kilo k
10−1 deci d
10−2 centi c
10−3 milli m
10−6 micro µ
10−9 nano n
10−12 pico p
10−15 femto f
10−18 alto a

Table 1.4: Scientific notation, unit prefixes and symbols

4. A prefix is part of the unit and it is prepended to the unit without any separator.
Example, kilogram, milliseconds, MPa, nF.
Also, a prefixed unit is atomic in expression. Example, cm3 = (cm)3 or (10−2
m)2 .

5. Unit symbols are written using upright Roman type regardless of the font type
used in the surrounding text.

1.4 Dimensional Analysis

On many occasions, a physicist may to

• check whether the left-hand side of an equation agrees with right-hand side,
i.e. for consistency in the formula

• or derive the unit of a resulting quantity.

The person may not be sure of the details of how the formula was derived. A very
simple but useful procedure commonly referred to as dimensional analysis may be
applied.
In this procedure, basic quantities are assigned symbols representing their di-
mensions. The dimension for length is L, for time T and for mass M. We use square
brackets ([ ]) around the name or symbol of the physical quantity as a short hand
20 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS

mathematical statement in place of the words "the dimension of ..." For example
[radius] = L means the dimension of radius is L (same as length) and [ A ] = L2 means
the dimension for area is L2 . The dimensions of some quantities have been provided
in table 1.5.

Physical quantity Dimension

Constants or coefficients 1
Length L
Mass M
Time T
Area L2
Perimeter L
Speed velocity LT−1

Table 1.5: Dimensions of some quantities

When you are require to derive the dimension of a quantity, you will have to
start from its mathematical definition (in terms of quantities with known dimensions).
Then replace all the dependent quantities with their dimensions. Finally, simplify
what you have using algebraic rules.
Worked example 1.8. Derive the dimension of pressure
Solution

F 1
Definition: p = =F×
A A

v 1
... in known dimensions: p = m ×
t A

[ v] 1
Substitute dimensions: [ p] = [ m] ×
[ t] [ A ]

LT−1 1
[ p] = M × 2
T L

Simplify: [ p] = M × LL−2 × T −1 T −1

[ p] = ML−1 T −2
Hence, the dimension of pressure is ML−1 T −2
1.4. DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS 21

Sometimes you may be asked to check whether the dimension of an equation

or formula is consistent or valid. An equation or a formula is consistent (valid)
when the dimension of the LHS is the same as the dimension of the RHS. Solve such
problems by substituting the dimension for each side of the equation, simplify LHS
and RHS independently; you don’t need to move dimensions from one side to the
other. Finally, compare your results and conclude.

Worked example 1.9. Aba is proving an equation of motion. She gets to a point
where the equation shows v = u + as, where the variables have their usual meanings.
Advise Aba on her work based on dimension consistency check.

Solution

Worked example 1.10. For a certain situation, the position of a particle moving
with uniform acceleration is x = ka m t n , where k is a constant and all other variables
have their usual meanings. Show that this equation only makes sense when m = 1
and n = 2.

Solution [ x] = L, [ k] = 1, [a] = LT−2 , [ t] = T.

L = (L T−2 )m × Tn

L = Lm T−2m × Tn

L = Lm T−2m+n

For the equation to be consistent, LHS = RHS.

=⇒ L = Lm and 1 = T0 = T−2m+n

=⇒ m = 1 and 0 = −2 m + n

=⇒ m = 1 and n = 2
22 CHAPTER 1. MEASUREMENT LIMITATIONS