Chapter One

The Electromagnetic Model

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 Field

A field is a spatial distribution of a physical quantity, which

may or may not be a function time.
time

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Electromagnetic Models

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 Inductive Approach:
A pprocess of reasoningg from pparticular pphenomena
to general principles.

Deductive Approach:
Postulates are given first which model the physical
phenomena. Physical laws or theorems are then
derived from this model. The validity of the
postulates are checked with experimental
observations.

Deductive approach is used by the textbook.

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Physical principles can
can’tt be violated by the mathematical
models. Principles should be satisfied at all times and under
anyy circumstance, and for electromagnetics
g the followings
g
are basic principles.
-Conservation
Conservation of electric charge.
-Conservation of energy.

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 Rationalized MKSA Maxwell Equations
∂B
∇ × E = − (1 )
∂t
∂D
∇ × H = J + (2)
∂t
∇ ⋅D = ρ (3 )
∇ ⋅B = 0 (4)
** The mathematical model we are based on for future analysis.
Electromagnetic Model
•Maxwell’s theory is a mathematical formulation that relates electric and magnetic
phenomena.
•The
The uniting
niting of electricity
electricit and magnetism resulted
res lted in the Theory
Theor of Electromagnetism.
Electromagnetism
•EM theory predicted that electric and magnetic fields can travel through space as
waves.
waves
•Electromagnetics
l i isi the
h study
d off the
h effects
ff off electric
l i charges
h at rest andd in
i motion.
i
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 Sources involved in Electromagnetism
e=1 60 x 10-19
unit charge e=1.60 19 (C)
Δq
volume charge density ρ = lim Δν (C / m )
Δν→0
3

Δq
g densityy ρ = lim Δs (C / m )
surface charge s
Δs →0
2

Δq
line charge density ρ = lim
Δ
(C / m )
Δ →0

volume current density J (A/m2)

surface current density Js (A/m)

Macroscopic vv.s.
s Microscopic

Mean Value Theorem of Integrals

If f is continuous on [a,b], there is a number c between a and b such
that
b
∫a
f( )d f( )( b)
f(t)dt=f(c)(a-b)

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 Various Systems of Electromagnetic units
M
Maxwell’s
ll’ Equations
E ti in
i Vacuum
V
System Maxwell’s Equations in Vacuum
Electrostatic ∂B 1⎛ ∂E ⎞
∇×E+ =0 ∇iE = 4πρ ∇×B = 2⎜
4πJ + ⎟ ∇iB = 0
(esu) ∂t c ⎝ ∂t ⎠

Electromagnetic ∂B 1 ∂E
∇ E+
∇× =0 ∇iE = 4πc2ρ ∇×
∇ B = 4πJ + ∇iB = 0
(emu) ∂t c2 ∂t

Gaussian 1 ∂B 4π 1 ∂E
∇×E+ =0 ∇iE = 4πρ ∇×B = J+ ∇iB = 0
c ∂t c c ∂t

Heaviside- 1 ∂B 1 ⎛ ∂E ⎞
∇×E+ =0 ∇iE =ρ ∇×B = ⎜ J + ⎟ ∇iB = 0
Lorentz c ∂t c ⎝ ∂t ⎠

Rationalized ∂B ρ 1 ∂E
∇×E+ =0 ∇iE = ∇×B =μoJ + ∇iB = 0
MKSA ∂t εo c2 ∂t

1 μo 1
k1 = k2 = c2 =
4 πε o 4π μoεo

** Only E and B are involved.

involved
** Rationalized systems do not have 4π in the mathematical model.
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 Macroscopic Material Effects
The averaged electromagnetic properties of a material
medium are described byy a macroscopic
p ppolarization P
and a magnetization M. Then we define
D = εoE + λ P
1
H = B − λ ′M
μo
εo, μo, λ,
λ andd λ' are proportionality
i li constants. λ,
λ andd λ' are
assigned to be dimensionless, therefore D(H) and P(M)
will have same dimension,
dimension respectively.
respectively
λ λ'
1 1 Rationalized 4π factors disappear in Maxwell
Maxwell’ss
system equations
4π 4π Unrationalized 4π factors exist in Maxwell’s
system
y equations

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 If we assigned dimensions to εo and μo, the dimension
of D(B) and E(H) would be different.
different By proper choice
of their dimensions and numerical values, the relations
amongg electromagnetic
g variables is analogg to circuit-
theory variables, and make Maxwell equations in a
simple and neat form.
In linear, isotropic media,

P = εo χeE M = χm H
χe and χm are electric and magnetic susceptibility, respectively.
Then
D = ε 0 E + ε 0 χ e E = ε o (1 + χ e ) E = ε o ε r E = ε E
B = μ 0 H + μ 0 χ m H = μ o (1 + χ m ) H = μ o μ r H = μ H
ε(μ):permittivity(permeability) of the material.
εr(μr):relative permittivity(permeability) of the material.
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 Definitions of εo, μo, D,
D HH, Macroscopic Maxwell Equations
Equations, and Lorentz Force
Equation in Various Systems of Units

System εo μo D H
D, Macroscopic Maxwell Equations Lorentz Force
per unit charge
Electrostatic 1 c-2 D = E + 4πP ∂B ∂D
∇×E+ =0 ∇×H= 4πJ + E + v×B
( )
(esu) (t 2 -22
)
2
H = c B - 4π
4 M ∂t ∂t
∇⋅ D= 4πρ ∇⋅ B = 0

Electromagnetic c-2 1 1 ∂B ∂D
D= E + 4πP ∇×E+ =0 ∇×H= 4πJ + E + v×B
((emu)) ((t 2 -2
)
c2 ∂t ∂t
H = B - 4π
4 M ∇⋅ D= 4πρ ∇⋅ B = 0

Gaussian 1 1 D = E + 4πP 1 ∂B 4π 1 ∂D
∇×E+ =0 ∇×H= J+ v
H = B - 4πM c ∂t c c ∂t E+ ×B
c
∇⋅ D= 4πρ
ρ ∇⋅B = 0

Heaviside-Lorent 1 1 D = E+P 1 ∂B 1⎛ ∂D⎞

∇×E+ =0 ∇×H = ⎜J + ⎟ E+
v
×B
z H = B-M c ∂t c ⎝ ∂t ⎠ c
∇⋅ D=ρ ∇⋅B = 0

Rationalized 107 4πx10-7 D = εo E + P ∂B ∂D

∇×E+ =0 ∇×H= J +
MKSA 4πc 2 (I-2 t -2 m ) 1 ∂t ∂t
H= B-M
(I 2 t 4 m-1 -3
) μo ∇⋅ D=ρ ∇⋅B = 0
E + v×B

c: Velocity of light in vacuum with dimension (lt-1). In MKSA εo (farad/meter),μo(henry/meter)

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 Quantity Gaussian MKSA

Velocity of Light c (εoμo)-1/2

Conversion tablefor
El t i field
Electric fi ld (Potential,
(P t ti l Voltage)
V lt ) E(Φ V)
E(Φ,V) 4πεo E(Φ, V) Symbols and Formulas

Displacement D 4π
D The symbols for mass,
εo
length time,
length, time force,
force and
Charge Density (charge, current ρ(q, J, I, P) 1 other not specifically
ρ(q, J , I, P )
density, current, polarization) 4πεo electromagnetic
quantities are unchanged
Magnetic Induction B 4π To convert any equation
B
μo in Gaussian variables to
the corresponding
Magnetic Field H μo H
4πμ equation in MKSA
quantities, on both sides
Magnetization M 4π
M of the equation replace
μo
the relevant symbols list
Conductivity σ σ below under “Gaussian”
4πεo by the corresponding
“MSKA” symboles listed
Dielectric Constant ε ε/εo
on the right.
right The reverse
Permeability μ μ/μo transformation is also
allowed..
Resistance (impedance) R(Z) 4πεo R(Z)
Inductance L 4πεoL

Capacitance 12
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4πεo
 Conversion Table for Given Amounts of a physical Quantity
Physical Quantity Symbol Rationalized MKSA Gaussian
Length l 1 meter (m) 102 centimeters (cm)
Mass M 1 kilogram (kg) 103 gram (gm)
Time T 1 second (sec) 1 second (sec)
Frequency ν, f 1 hertz (Hz) 1 hertz (Hz)
Force F 1 newton 105 dynes
Work/Energy W/U 1 joule 107 ergs
Power P 1 watt 107 ergs.sec-1
Charge
g q 1 coulomb ((coul)) 3x109 statcoulombs
Charge density ρ 1 coul m-3 3x103 statcoul cm-3
Current Ι 1 ampere (amp) 3x109 statamperes
Current density J 1 amp m-22 3x105 statamp cm-22
Electric Field E 1 volt m-1 10-4/3 statvolt cm-1
Potential Φ,V 1 volt 1/300 statvolt
Polarization P 1 coul m-2 3x105 dipole moment
cm-3
Displacement D 1 coul m-2 12πx105 Statvolt cm-1
(
(statcoull cm-22)

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 Conversion Table for Given Amounts of a physical Quantity (continued)

Physical Quantity Symbol Rationalized M KSA Gaussian

Conductivity σ 1 mho m -1 9x10 9 sec -1
Resistance R 1 ohm 10 -11 /9 sec cm -1
Capacitance C 1 farad 9x10 11 cm
M agnetic flux φ 1 weber 10 8 gauss cm 2 or
maxwells
M agnetic induction Β 1 tesla 10 4 gauss
M agnetic field Η 1 ampere-turn m -1 4πx10 -3 Oersted
M agnetization Μ 1 ampere m -11 10 -33 M agnetic
moment cm -3
Inductance L 1 henry 10 -11 /9

All factor of 3 (apart from exponent) should, for accurate work, be replaced by (2.99792456),
arising from the numerical value of the velocity of light. For example, in the row for displacement
(D) the entry (12π x 105) is actually (2.99792
(D), (2 99792 x 4π x105)

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Electromagnetics v.s. Circuit Theory

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 Constitutive Relations
for Linear,
Linear Isotropic Media (MKSA)
Energy storage mechanism Joule-heat loss mechanism

D = εE J = σE
B = μH σ : conductivity
d ti it
Analog to circuit system variables in both equation forms and dimensions.

Energy storage mechanism Joule heat loss mechanism

Joule-heat

Q = CV
I = GV
G
Φ = LI
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 Distributed v.s. Lumped

Electromagnetics Circuit Theory

d V (t )
Q (t ) = C V (t ) → I (t ) = C
D ( x, y , z , t ) = ε ( x, y , z )E ( x, y , z , t ) dt
B ( x, y , z , t ) = μ ( x, y , z ) H ( x, y , z , t ) Φ (t ) = L I (t ) → V (t ) = L
d I (t )
dx
J ( x, y , z , t ) = σ ( x, y , z )E ( x, y , z , t ) V (t ) = R I (t )

•distributed parameters ε,μ,σ •R, L, C lumped-parameter

•System variables are space coordinates •System variables are time dependent.V,I
and time dependent.
p D,B,E,J
, , , •Scalar g
governed byy ordinary
y differential
•Vectors governed by partial differential equations.
equations. •Response through connection.
•Field
Field and wave physical mechanisms.

People learn Electromagnetics should master the manipulation of

vector calculus and partial differential equations.
equations
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• Electromagnetic waves will be produced when a charge
undergoes acceleration.
• If an ac voltage is applied to an antenna,
antenna the charges will
be accelerated up and down and radiate EM waves.
• The radiated waves are made up of electric and magnetic
fields.
fields
• Electromagnetic Waves travel through space without
need for the wires of the circuit.
• Electromagnetic
El i waves travell at the
h speedd off light
li h c = 3
× 108 m/s
• The electric and magnetic fields in the wave are
fluctuating

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Diffraction of Electromagnetic
g Waves
•Circuit theory will predicted
perfect shielding (equal potential)
•EM theory allow spatial
variation equivalent dipole will
variation,
exist in the aperture and the
radiate into the space
p behind the
metal screen. The efficiency of
shielding depends on the relative
size of aperture and operating
wavelength.

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 EM waves can be generated in different frequency bands:
radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, x-rays, gamma rays

Note that the visible portion of the spectrum is relatively narrow.

The boundaries between various bands of the spectrum are not sharp, but instead are
somewhat arbitrary. Different behavior and application in each bands.

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In Summary

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 1
c= (m / s)
εoμo

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