NUTRITION

High Yield Notes

 NOTES
NOTES
Nutrition
Nutrition is the process by which
organisms obtain energy to
maintain functions of life.
Autotrophic And
Heterotrophic Nutrition:
Autotrophic organisms prepare
their own food from the raw
materials
Heterotrophic organisms obtain
the prepared food. E.g. animals,
fungi and bacteria.

Autotrophic Nutrition
There are two methods of Chemotrophic Nutrition:
autotrophic mode of nutrition: No light is used.
1. Phototrophic Energy is produced by the
2. Chemotrophic oxidation of certain inorganic
substances such as ammonia,
nitrates, nitrite ferrous ions and a
Phototrophic Nutrition:
number of metallic and non
These organisms have the
metallic materials available in the
capability to convert solar energy
environment
into food energy.
Chemosynthetic organisms are
Other types of photosynthetic
mainly bacteria
autotrophs
These bacteria grow in sulfur
springs where H25 and sum
light is used as source of energy.
These pincers take place at low
expenditure of energy
These bacteria are without
chlorophyll a
Purple sulfur bacteria : They
have bacteria and carotenoid
Green Sulfur bacteria: They have
chloroform chlorophyll.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Mineral Nutrition in Plants: Potassium:
Mainly responsible for opening
The inorganic elements are and closing if stomata
called mineral nutrients. found in highest concentration in
These are essential for proper meristematic region of the plants
growth of the plant.
Symptoms are any bodily sign
Symptoms:
which shows disorder in proper
Leaves may turn dull bluish
functioning of the body.
Leaf margins turn brownish
Irregular chlorophyll occurs
Nitrogen: followed by necrosis at the tip
In soil it is found in the form of and margin of the leaves
nitrites and nitrates.
It is an essential constituent of Magnesium:
proteins, nucleotides, nucleic acids Essential for fat synthesis
and many other organic molecules Important for metabolism of
like chlorophyll. carbohydrates and phosphorous

Symptoms: Symptoms:
Cause chlorosis in which leaves Deficiency symptoms first
turn yellow develop in the older leaves and
Prolonged dormancy and early then they proceed towards the
leaf senescence. young parts of plants
Veins turn purple or yellow due Chlorosis occurs
to development of Necrotic spots
anthocyanins pigments e.g. Shedding of severely affected
tomato and apple leaves. leaves

Phosphorus:
Plants do not get phosphorous in
soluble forms like H3PO4 and
HP4
Present abundantly in growing
and storage organs such as fruits
and seeds
Essential part of coenzyme like
NAD and NADP.

Symptoms:
Cambial activity is checked
Prolonged dormancy
Retarded growth
Necrotic spots appear on leaves,
petioles and fruits.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES
Heterotrophic Nutrition
Parasitic Plants:
Organisms which are unable to Pitcher Venus Fly Sundew
Plant Trap
prepare their own food
Heterotrophic plants are of
following types: Scientific Sarracenia Dionaea Drosera
Name purpurea muscipula intermedia
Plants which depend upon living
plants and animals for their
Leaves Leaf is Tiny leaves
nutritional requirements are Leaf modified beloved bear
called Parasitic plants into a sac with numerous
Modification or a midriff hair-like
Parasites which completely pitcher, between tentacles,
partly them. each with
depends on other organisms for filled with There is a a gland at
food are called Obligate and total water.Lea row of its tip.
f end is long stiff The
parasites modified bristles insects,
to form a along the
Parasites which partially depend hood, attracted
margins by plants
upon on other organisms for food which of each odor, are
partly lobe. entangled.
are called facultative and partial covers the Bristles
open interlocked
mouth of upon
Carnivorous Plants the touch of
pitcher insects.
(Insectivorous):
Partially autotrophic and Bacteria Digestion Proteins
partially heterotrophic plants are or by of insects
Digestion enzymes enzymes are
carnivorous. break secreted digested by
They grow in soils which are proteins from the enzymes.
of insects glands on
deficient in nitrogen thus they that are the Leaf
prevented surface
depend on insects synthesizing climbing and the
proteins out of a products
pitcher are then
plant. absorbed.
Saprophytic Plants:
Plants which depend upon dead
or rotten remains of plants and
animals.
They may be total or partial
parasites. E.g. Neotia, Monotropa

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Special Modes of
Heterotrophic Nutrition:

Detrivores:
The animals that feed upon Filter Feeders:
fragments of decomposing Organisms that feed by
materials (detritus) and straining suspended matter
contribute to the process of and food particles from water.
breakdown such as scavengers.
Fluid Feeders:
Carnivores: Organisms that feed on fluid of
Organisms that feed on other other organisms such as honey
organisms. bee and mosquitoes.

Omnivores: Microphagous Feeders:

Organisms that eat nothing meat Filter feeder animals that feed
and vegetables. on small sized food particles.
Herbivores: Macrophagous Feeders:
Organisms that feed on
Filter feeder animals that feed
vegetables.
on large sized food particles.
Fugivores:
Organisms that feed on fruits.

Holozoic Nutrition:
Nutrition in which complex, non-
diffusible is taken, digested into
diffusible molecules, absorbed and
assimilated.

Stages in Holozoic Nutrition:

Ingestion
Digestion
Absorption
Assimilation
Egestion

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Digestion and Absorption
Digestion: 2. Tube-like Digestive System
The mechanical breakdown of (Complete Digestive
large complex insoluble organic
System):
molecules into soluble form.
Digestive cavity is separate from
Need for Digestion: body cavity.
There is a need for digestion for Ingestion occurs through mouth
the conversion of large food and egestion through anus.
molecules into diffusible forms.
3. Ingestion:
Types of Digestion: Taking in food by phagocytes (
Extracellular Digestion: (out=exit) Intracellular digestion: Amoeba,
It takes place outside the cells Paramecium) or via mouth
but within the digestive tract. (extracellular digestion: Mytilus,
Intracellular Digestion: Daphnia, large animals)
(intra=inside)
Absorption:
It takes place inside the cells.
Uptake of soluble molecules from
Both types of digestion include digestive region, across a
mechanical and chemical membrane into the cytoplasm (in
digestion: protozoans) the body cells
Mechanical digestion: directly or via blood/ lymph (in
It is manual breakdown of food metazoans).
by churning or mastification
Assimilation:
Chemical digestion-:
Utilization of absorbed food
It is enzymatic hydrolysis of
within the cells either to provide
mechanically digested food into
energy or materials synthesis into
diffusible form.
the body.
Types of Digestive System Egestion:
for Extracellular Digestion: Elimination of undigested body
Digestive System- constituted through temporary anus/
by organs involved in all stages permanent bal openings mouth.
of holozoic nutrition.

1. Sac-like digestive system

(Incomplete Digestive
System):
Mouth opens into a large sac-like
body cavity where the food is
partially digested by the help of
digestive juices.
The undigested food is also
egested through the mouth, anal
opening in absent.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Nutrition in Amoeba:

Feeding Habitat: Absorption:

Microphagous feeder for e.g. feeds Soluble food particles are
on bacteria, flagellates and ciliates diffused into the cytoplasm by
micropinocytosis
Ingestion:
Form a food cup from it
Assimilation:
pseudopodia to engulf food Exocytosis on the rear end
particles along with some water by
turning into food molecule

Digestion:
Lysosome discharge its contents(
protease, amylase and lipases into
food vacuole for Intracellular
digestion ( vacuole loses water pH
5.6. pH 7.3)

Nutrition in Hydra:
Heterotroph, extracellular digestion 2. Mechanical Digestion:
within the body cavity. It occurs by flagellated cells
Feeding Habitat: where they are completely
Macrophage feeder (e.g. feeds on digested.
crustaceans, small Anneliese and Intracellular Digestion:
body cavity). It occurs by the action on semi
digested food, phagoby
Extracellular Digestion: flagellated cells where they are
It has two modes of action. completely digested.
Ingestion: Absorption:
The prey is paralyzed by the Soluble food is diffused through
contents discharged by the mesoglea into epidermal cell.
projecting cnicodills of
Assimilation:
nematocysts situated on tentacles
Digested food is utilized within
and is ingested by the help of
the cells.
tentacles
1. Chemical Digestion : Egestion:
It occurs due to the action of Undigested food is eliminated
proteolytic enzymes secreted by through mouth.
glandular cells located in the
endoderm of coelenteron.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Nutrition in Planaria: Absorption:
Absorption and distribution of
Feeding Habitat: food is by enzymes. Digestion is
Carnivorous e.g. feeds on both extracellular and
worms, crustaceans, snails, and intracellular. Partially digested
dead animals food is particles are taken into
Ingestion: the cells lining the diverticulitis
where they are completely
Prey is entangled by mucus. It
digested
is paralyzed abd ingested by
the Everson of pharynx. Egestion:
Undigested food is thrown out
Mechanical Digestion:
directly by the mouth.
by pumping action of pharynx
and food is forced into the
richly branched intestine ( 3
main branches give off
numerous branching
diverticulitis which ramify and
penetrate through the body
tissues.

Nutrition in Cockroach: Hindgut/ Proctodeum:

Ileum, colon, rectum further
Omnivorous, digestive system
absorbs and conserves water
is tabular and complete.
from undigested food.
Anus expels the faces out
Foregut:
of proteins and fats.
Mouth- bounded by mouth
Digested food is absorbed in
parts i.e.
midget.
Pharynx
Oesophagus (Crop):
Grizzard- grinds the food by
the help of inner through
cuticle lining)

Mid gut/Mesenteron:
It's a narrow tube with eight
hepatic caeca to produce
enzymes which flow back into
the crop for the digestion of
proteins and fats.
Digested food is absorbed in
midget.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Human Digestive System
Man is the most advanced Teeth:
"heterotroph" with perfect In adult human beings, the oral
extracellular digestion carried out cavity is equipped with 32 teeth.
in Gastrointestinal Tract(GIT) Different teeth are adapted to
which extends from mouth to handle food in different ways.
anus (tube-like). Diphyodont and heterodont.
Digestive system means
alimentary canal plus associated Name of Shape of No. of Function
glands. Teeth Teeth Teeth of Teeth
Associated glands are salivary chisel
Incisors Used to
glands, liver and pancreas. shaped bite off
(front with 8 relatively
teeth) sharp large
edges pieces of
Chemical Mechanical food
Parts
Digestion Digestion
Canines Cone- 4 Useful in
shaped grasping
Oral Salivary Mastification
cavity amylase by teeth

Gastric Churning by
Stomach juice gastric
smooth
muscles
Pancreatic Emulsification
Small
and by bile salts
intestine
intestinal
juices

Sites of Digestive System:

There are three main sites of
digestion in digestive system of
man:
Oral Cavity:
t bears a pair of jaws (upper fixed;
lower movable attached to crush
food).
It performs 4 important functions:
1. Selection of food
2. Grinding or mastication of food
3. Lubrication of food
4. Enzymatic digestion of food

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Digestive System of Humans:

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 NOTES Dental Formula:
Components Function
(i2/2 + c1/1 + pm2/2 + m3/3) x 2 = 32

Plaque and Dental Diseases: vWater Moisten and

Plaque is a mixture of bacteria and mucus lubricate food
and salivary materials (glycoprot
Periodontal disease - destruction ein)
of periodontal layer due to
plaque accumulation
Dental caries - dissolution of
Sodium Stabilizes pH
enamel in the acid formed from
bicarbonate and is slightly
sugar by the bacteria present in antiseptic
and other
Plaque
salts
Tongue:
Contains taste buds and tongue
papillae
Helps in mixing the masticated Salivary
food with saliva amylase and
Starch/
glycogen
Maltose
→
Saliva is secreted by 3 pairs of ptyalin (only about
salivary glands: 3-5%)

Glands Location Secretions Opening

ducts
of

Parotid In front Saliva Posterior Saliva prevents bacterial

glands of ears with part of
amylase oral cavity infection in the mouth
(largest) as it contains lysozyme
and antibodies that
Sub- Behind Saliva Floor of
mandibular/ jaws with oral cavity destroy pathogens.
Sub-
amylase Muscular action of
and mucus
maxillary tongue pushes the
glands 'bolus' into the pharynx

Sublingual Below Saliva Floor of

tongue with oral cavity
glands mucus
(smallest) only

Saliva is alkaline with pH nearly 8,

quickly loses carbon dioxide anf
gets to pH 6. It has 3 major
components.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Anatomy of Physiology of Oral Bolus:
food mixes with saliva in the
Oral Cavity Cavity
mouth during the process of
Teeth Mastication/ chewing and forms ball-like mass.
mechanical digestion of
food It has the same color as food before
chewing.
Communication, hold
Lips food in position Stomach:
Stores food
Tongue Manipulation of food, Involved in mechanical digestion by
hold food, cleansing of
teeth, communication, peristalsis
swallowing, mucus, Involved in chemical digestion by
serous fluid
production enzymes

Soft Prevents entry of

food in nasal cavity Divisions of Stomach:
palate
Cardiac Region
Salivary Chemical digestion of Pyloric Region
Glands food nasal cavity It produces mucus.
Fundus Region
Hard Palatine bones It contains gastric glands that are
palate made up of 3 major cell types.

Cells Secretions Functions

Pharynx and Swallowing:
Soft palate helps in
Mucous cells Mucus Thick secretion
swallowing during which Covers inside of
stomach
epiglottis is pushed flat over Protects small
the glottis by the upward intestine
movement of larynx and the Parietal HCl and Maintains pH
intrinsic between 2-3
food us passed down into (oxyntic) factors Provides acidic
the oesophagus. cells medium for
enzyme action
Softens food
Kills
Oesophagus: microorganisms
Converts inactive
After the food is broken pepsinogen into
pepsin
down, it is swallowed to Inactivated
pass through the pharynx salivary amylase
Low pH
which connects with denatures/
misfold many
esophagus proteins which
The food is swallowed in the help in their
digestion
pharynx as a reflex and Intrinsic factors
help in the
under voluntary control. absorption of
The food is now called bolus. vitamin B12 in the
ileum
Zymogen Pepsinogen Hydrolyses proteins
(Chief,Princi into peptones and
polypeptides
pal) cells
Endocrine Stimulates gastric
cells Gastrin juice production,
Secretion and stomach
(G- cells) motility

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Food in the stomach is now acidic
paste called chyme. A mass of food
formed in the stomach that passes
into the duodenum through a pyloric
sphincter.

Bolus Chyme

Food that is Repeatedly

mashed in the digested food in
mouth the stomach

Along conc. Acidic

gradient
Teeth and saliva Stomach digests
act on food to food by peristalsis
form bolus to form chyme
Soft round
Liquefied
ball of chewed
food
food
Food going Food going from
from mouth stomach to small
to stomach intestine.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Sphincters of Digestive System:

Name Location

Cardiac Between
sphincter esophagus and
stomach

Pyloric Between stomach

sphincter and duodenum

Ileocolic Between ileum and

sphincter large intestine

Small Intestine: Jejunum:

Small intestine consists of the Completes digestion of food by
following 3 parts: numerous enzymes such as
sucrose, lactase and
Duodenum: aminopeptidase.
Chyme in the duodenum meets The food is now called chyle.
bile from liver and pancreatic
juice from pancreas
Pancreatic juice contains
Chyle:
It is food in true solution form. It
enzymes for digestion of
contains emulsified fats and
carbohydrates, proteins and fats
other products of digestion. It is
Trypsinogen is an inactive form of
formed in small intestine.
enzyme trypsin. It is activated by
enterokinase
Ileum
Trypsin hydrolyses polypeptide
chains → peptides
Chymotrypsin hydrolysis casein
and some other proteins and
converts them to short chains of
amino acids (peptides and
peptones)
Amylase hydrolysis starch →
maltose
Lipase changes fats → fatty acids
and glycerol
Peptidases breaks peptides →
amino acids

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Absorption of Food in Small
Intestine:

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Large Intestine:
Rectum:
It absorbs water and inorganic
Finally, the digested food is
nutrients.
absorbed and reaches the large
intestine.
Liver:
Large intestine is the last part of
alimentary canal. Largest gland of the body
It is divided into caecum, colon Has two main lobes, a right and
and rectum left lobe joined by a ligament.
Left lobe is further divided into
Caecum:
two lobes.
It gives off vermiform appendix
(vestigial organ) from its lower
Gall Bladder:
position.

Colon: A pear shaped gall bladder lies

on the under surface of the
It is the largest part that absorbs
liver. The pancreas lies behind
inorganic salts, vitamins and water.
the stomach horizontally within
It has 3 divisions
the curve of the duodenum.
1. Ascending colon
Exocrine in function
2. Transverse
3. Descending

Pancreas:

Exocrine part produces Pancreatic juice contains

pancreatic juice that flows sodium bicarbonate which
through pancreatic duct into partly neutralizes the chyme.
the duodenum If bile pigments are prevented
Endocrine part produces insulin from leaving the digestive tract,
and glucagon hormones. they may accumulate in blood
causing a condition known as
jaundice.

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Liver:

Pancreas:

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES
Anus and Egestion:

Egestion of faeces through anus

is controlled by two sphincters:
Internal sphincter is made up of
smooth muscles Enzymes Substrates Products
External sphincter is made up of
striated muscles. It is under the Aminopepti Polypeptides Dipeptides
control of autonomic and dase
voluntary nervous system
Erypsin Dipeptides Amino acids
Organ of Type of Digestive Type of
food
digestive movement secretions broken
Lipase Fats Fatty acids,
system added down
glycer
Mouth Chewing Saliva Starch
Maltase Maltose Glucose
Esophagus Peristalsis None None

Stomach Muscles Stomach Proteins

acid and Lactase Lactose Glucose and
move
digestive Galactose
enzymes
Small Peristalsis Small Starches,
intestine intestine proteins Hormones of Alimentary Canal:
and
digestive
carbohyd
juices rates Produced by glands in
Gastrin stomach walls.
Pancreas None Pancreatic Carbohyd
juice rates, It stimulates flow of gastric
fats and juices.
proteins
produced by walls of
Liver None Bile Fats Secretin duodenum.
It stimulates Secretion of
Bacteria
Large Peristalsis pancreatic juice.
in large
intestine None
intestine produced by duodenal cells.
may also Cholecystoki
It causes gallbladder to
break nin
release bile.
down
food
particles

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES
Some Common Diseases
Related to Nutrition
Symptoms Symptoms
Disorder Description Causes and Treatment Disorder Description Causes and Treatment
complicatio complicatio
ns ns

Incomplete Acidity in Abdominal Antibiotics AccumulatiOvereating May cause Reducing

or stomach discom- Cimecidine on of Eating too hypertensi fatty
Dyspepsia Obesity
imperfect faulty fort abnormal much on food
digestion function Flatulence fats in the fatty Cardiac Regular
of Heartburn body food disease exercise
stomach Nausea Hormonal Diabetes Eat
Insuffivie Vomiting mellitus balanced
nt Stomach diets
quantity disorders Hormonal
and therapy
quality of
bile
Illness Clostridiu Illness Illness
from m from from Loss of Psychologic WeightlossPsychiatri
indigestion botulism indigestion indigestion appetite al with Metabolic c therapy
of food Salmonella of food of food due to fear onset of disorders Feeding
contamina spp contamina contamina puberty through
Food Anorexia of losing
ted with Camylobac ted with ted with and some
poisoning Nervosa weight
toxins ter spp toxins toxins sexuality alternative
/
Severe Entering Severe Severe route
botulism through
form of form of form of
food unpasteuri food food
poisoning zed milk or poisoning poisoning
improperly
cooked
meat

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Symptoms Symptoms
Disorder Description Causes and Treatment Disorder Description Causes and Treatment
complicatio complicatio
ns ns

Characteri Neurotic Self Overcome Sore Excess Developme

Antacid
zed by the disorder induced effects of produced gastric nt of hole
Bulimia bouts of Milk
vomitting weightloss Ulcers by eating HCl Splilling
Nervosa over eating Fasting away of section of
fattening walls of contents
food stomach into
or abdominal
duodenum cavity
by digestive
enzymes

Improves Painful Overeating Pain in theDecrease in

Masses of Unhygienic Bleeding
hygiene Eating
dilated conditions Constipati buring chest acidity
on Increases sensation fatty food region Avoid
tortuous
Depreesed roughage in chest Lying down eating
Piles veins in Pyrosis
urge to in food associated immediatel spicy food
anorectal
mucosa defecation Use of with y after
Distension laxatives backflush meal
of rectum Avoid of acidic Alcohol and
sitting on chyme in caffeine
hard esophagus consumpti
surfaces on
Surgical Smoking
removal

PreMed.Pk
 NOTES Parasitic Nutrition: Obligatory:
a parasitic organism that cannot
A parasite is an organism that lives
complete its life-cycle without
upon or within another organism,
exploiting a suitable host.
called the host, for obtaining food.
It is an association in which a
parasite obtains food and shelter
Facultative:
from the host. an organism that may resort to
They maybe: parasitic activity, but does not
absolutely rely on any host for
Ectoparasite: completion of its life cycle.
a parasite, such as a flea, that lives
on the outside of its host.

Endoparasite:
a parasite, such as a tapeworm,
that lives inside its host.

Endoparasites in Man:

Bacteria:
It causes tuberculosis, typhoid,
cholera, plague, tetanus etc

Fungi:
It causes Athlete's foot and other
skin diseases

Virus:
It causes influenza, rabies, yellow
fever, poliomyelitis, measles etc.

Protozoa:
Malaria is caused by plasmodium,
trypanosoma, leishmania,
Amoebiasis by Entamoeba
histolytica

Helminths:
It is caused by Taenia saginata
hookworm disease caused by
Ancylostoma. Round worm is a
common inhabitant of intestines in
children

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