64 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

5. It should be able to deliver requisite quantity of

1 Coal delivery
coal at the destination during peak periods.
6. There should be minimum wear in running the
equipment due to abrasive action of coal particles.
2 Unloading
3.8.3. Coal Handling Systems
“Mechanical handling” of coal is preferred over “manual
handling” due to the following reasons : 3 Preparation
1. Higher reliability.
2. Less labour required.
4 Transfer
3. Economical for medium and large capacity plants.
4. Operation is easy and smooth.
5. Can be easily started and can be economically 5 Outdoor storage
adjusted according to the need.
6. With reduced labour, management and control of
the plant becomes easy and smooth. 6 Covered storage
7. Minimum labour is put to unhealthy condition.
8. Losses in transport are minimised.
7 Inplant handling
Disadvantages :
1. Needs continuous maintenance and repair.
2. Capital cost of the plant is increased. 8
Weighing and
measuring
3. In mechanical handling some power generated
is usually consumed, resulting in less net power available
for supply to consumers. 9 Furnace firing
3.8.4. Coal Handling
Fig. 3.8. Various stages in coal handling.
Refer to Fig. 3.8.
The following stages/steps are involved in handling the coal :
1. Coal delivery 2. Unloading
3. Preparation 4. Transfer
5. Storage of coal 6. Inplant handling
7. Weighing and measuring 8. Furnace firing.
Fig. 3.9 shows the outline of coal handling equipment.

Horizontal conveying Belt scraper

types pivoted
bucket
Vertical Conveying
Bucket elevator
Bucket conveyors Live storage
Belt, 20° or less
Stocking out & Reclaiming Winch and bucket
Flight conveyor Coal scales
Drag line scraper Inclined loader
Bulldozer Lorry
Skip hoist
Cranes
Loader and truck
Point of delivery Hopper Hopper
Railway car Stokers
Dead storage
Feeder Unloading Motor truck
Barge
Grab bucket
Gravity flow to
pile or feeder
Car dumper
Shovels

Fig. 3.9. Outline of coal handling equipment.

 STEAM POWER PLANT 65

1. Coal delivery. From the supply points the coal (iii) Coal towers
may be delivered to power station though rail, road, river or (iv) Unloading bridges
sea. (v) Self unloading boats.
— Plants situated near the river or sea may make 3. Preparation. If the coal when delivered is in
use of navigation facilities. the form of lumps (not of proper size), the coal preparation
— Stations which cannot make use of navigation may be carried out by :
facilities may be supplied coal either by rail or (i) Breakers (ii) Crushers
trucks. Transportation of coal by trucks is usually
(iii) Sizers (iv) Dryers
used in case the mines are not far off or when
the necessary railway facilities are not available. (v) Magnetic separators.
In case rail transport is to be adopted, the 4. Transfer. ‘Transfer’ means the handling of coal
necessary siding for receiving the coal should be between the unloading point and the final storage point
brought as near the station as possible. from where it is discharged to the firing equipment. The
2. Unloading. The type of coal unloading equipment following equipment may be used for transfer of coal :
used in the plant depends upon the type of out-plant 1. Belt conveyors
handling mode as road, rail or ship. If coal is delivered by 2. Screw conveyors
trucks, there is no need of unloading device as the trucks
may dump the coal to the outdoor storage. Coal is easily 3. Vee bucket elevator and conveyor
handled if the lift trucks with scoop are used (see Fig. 3.10). 4. Pivoted bucket conveyor
5. Grab bucket conveyor
6. Flight conveyers (or scrapers)
7. Skip hoists
8. Mass flow conveyor
9. Chutes.
(i) Belt conveyor. Refer to Fig. 3.11. A belt conveyor
is very suitable means of transporting large quantities of
coal over large distances. It consists of an endless belt (made
of rubber, convas or balata) running over a pair of end drums
or pulleys and supported by a series of rollers (known as
idlers) provided at regular intervals. The return idlers which
support the empty belt are plain rollers and are spaced wide
apart. The initial cost of the system is not high. The
Fig. 3.10. Lift truck with scoop. inclination at which coal can be successfully elevated by belt
conveyor is about 20°. Average speed of the belt conveyor is
When the coal is transported by sea, the unloading 60 to 100 metres per minute. The load carrying capacity of
equipment normally used is given below : the belt may vary from 50 to 100 tonnes/hour and it can
(i) Portable conveyors easily be transferred through 400 metres. It is used in
(ii) Coal accelerators medium and large power plants.

Belt
Drive Tripper (if used) Belt loader
pulley

+ ++
+
Over-end Tripper Carriers
discharge discharge Idlers

Fig. 3.11. Belt conveyor.

Advantages : 3. Repair and maintenance costs minimum.

1. Most economical method of coal transport in 4. Large quantities of coal can be discharged
medium and large capacity plants. quickly and continuously.
2. Its operation is smooth and clean. 5. Power consumption minimum.
 66 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

6. The rate of coal transfer can be easily varied by transfer coal at considerable heights as involved in modern
just varying the belt speed. stations, the length of the conveyor becomes excessive.
7. Coal being transferred is protected. (ii) Screw conveyor. Refer to Fig. 3.12. It consists
of an endless helicoid screw fitted to a shaft. The driving
Disadvantages :
mechanism is connected to one end of the shaft and the
1. Not suitable for greater heights and short other end of the shaft is supported in an enclosed ball
distances. bearing. The screw while rotating in a trough/housing
2. As the maximum inclination at which coal can be transfers coal from one end to the other end. The following
transferred by this arrangement is limited, in order to particulars relate to this conveyor.
Coal in

Ball
bearing
Driving
mechanism

Shaft Screw Trough/housing

Coal out
Fig. 3.12. Screw conveyor.

Diameter of the screw ......15 to 50 cm Advantages :

Speed ......70 to 120 r.p.m. 1. Low operational cost.
Maximum capacity ......125 tonnes/hour. 2. High capacity.
(iii) Vee bucket elevator. In this type of elevator, 3. Less floor area requirement.
steel V-shaped buckets are rigidly fastened to an endless Disadvantages :
chain going round sprockets. The buckets are equally
spaced on the chain, and receive their load by dipping into High initial cost of the equipment.
coal pocket at the lower end of the system. The material
elevated in V-buckets is discharged either by centrifugal
force at the top of the elevator or by drawing back the
buckets on the discharged side.
Advantages :
1. Less power is required for operating the
equipment (as the coal is carried not dragged). Coal
2. Coal can be discharged at elevated places. out
3. Less floor area is required.
Disadvantages :
Its capacity is limited and hence not suitable for large Bucket
capacity stations.
Fig. 3.13 shows a ‘bucket elevator’ which is used
for moderate lifts. The material is continuously handled
and can be both hoisted and conveyed.
Coal in
(iv) Pivoted bucket conveyor. This conveyor
consists of malleable iron buckets suspended by pivots
midway between the joints of two endless chains, which
are driven by a motor located at some convenient point,
usually at the top of a vertical rise. While travelling
horizontally, buckets maintain their position due to gravity
and support the joints. The conveyor is loaded by passing
below a crusher. The coal is charged into the bunker by a Fig. 3.13. Bucket elevator.
tripping device.
 STEAM POWER PLANT 67

(v) Grab bucket conveyor. Refer to Fig. 3.14. It Disadvantages :

is a form of hoist which lifts and transfers the load on a 1. Excessive wear due to dragging action.
single rail or track from one point to another. This is a 2. High maintenance cost.
costly machine and is justified only when other 3. The speed is limited to 30 m/min. to reduce the
arrangements are not possible. Capacity of a grab bucket abrasive action of material handled.
may be about 50 tonnes per hour. 4. Power consumption is more (due to dragging
action).
(vii) Skip hoist. Refer to Fig. 3.15 (a). It is used for
high lifts and handling is non-continuous. This
arrangement is simple and cheap and operation costs
including labour and maintenance are low. The skip hoist
is the oldest and simplest means of elevating coal or ash
and is favourite of engineers particularly in ash handling.
5. Storage of coal. It is very essential that adequate
quantity of coal should be stored. Storage of coal gives
protection against the interruption of coal supplies when
there is delay in transportation of coal or due to strikes in
coal mines. In regard to storage of coal the following points
should be considered :
(i) There should be no standing water near the
storage area.
(ii) At a place where a well-drained area is not
available, drainage ditches should be installed.
Fig. 3.14. Grab bucket conveyor. (iii) Storage area should be solid and not loose or
(vi) Flight conveyor (or Scraper). It is generally porous.
used for transfer of coal when filling of number of storage (iv) Piles should be built up in successive layers and
bins situated under the conveyor is required. It consists of as far as possible compact.
one or two strands of chain, to which steel scrapers are (v) Conical piling should be avoided.
attached. The scraper scraps the coal through a trough and (vi) In order to protect against wind erosion, piles
the coal is discharged in the bottom of the trough as shown should be sealed.
in Fig. 3.15. Capacity of a conveyor of this type may range
from 10 to 100 tonnes per hour. It is used extensively for
conveying coal horizontally and for inclinations up to 35°.

Scrapper

Roller Chain

Coal

Fig. 3.15. Flight conveyor. Chute

Advantages :
1. It has a rugged construction.
Skip
2. Requires little operational care.
3. It can be used for transfer of coal as well as ash.
4. Its speed can be easily regulated.
5. It needs small headroom. Fig. 3.15. (a) Skip hoist.
 68 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

3.8.5. Layout of a Fuel Handling Equipment

Fig. 3.17 shows a schematic layout of a fuel handling
equipment of a modern steam power plant where coal (a
solid fuel) is used. Brief description is given below :
Wagon balance
To fuel
store
Transfer
tower
D Hoppers
H
Conveyor Conveyor

Crusher

45°
Automatic
weigher

Conveyor
Boiler hoppers

Fig. 3.16. Cylindrical bunker. Transfer

Conveyor
(vii) Storage should be done in such a way that the tower
handling cost is minimum. Fig. 3.17. Layout of a fuel handling equipment.
(viii) At storage site fire fighting equipment should — Coal is supplied to the power plant in railway
be easily available. wagons.
‘Live storage’ is a covered storage provided in plants, — After weighing on wagon balance the coal is then
sufficient to meet one day requirement of the boiler. Bunkers unloaded into underground hoppers or bunkers.
(Fig. 3.16) made of steel or reinforced concrete are used to The wagon can be unloaded either manually or
store the coal ; from here the coal is transferred to the boiler through rotary wagon tipplers.
grates. — From the bunkers, the coal is lifted by conveyor
6. Inplant handling. It may refer to any one of the to the transfer tower from where it can be
following : delivered either to the fuel store or by a conveyor
(i) Coal handling between the final storage and the to a crusher.
firing equipment. — The coal is then passed through the magnetic
(ii) A conveying system to feed coal from any bunker separators and screens and crushed in crushers
section to any firing unit and to move coal from one bunker into pieces 25 to 30 mm in size for stoker firing
section to another. and 10 to 20 mm when pulverished fuel is fired
(iii) Inplant handling may mean no more than chutes in boiler furnaces. The crushed coal in the later
to direct flow into individual firing units and gates or valves case is milled to a fine powder and then it is
to control the flow. carried through automatic weigher to a transfer
Inplant handling may include the equipment such tower where fuel is lifted and distributed
as belt conveyors, screw conveyors, bucket elevators etc. to between boiler hoppers by a conveyor.
transfer the coal. Weigh lorries, hoppers and automatic
scales are used to record the quantity of coal delivered to 3.9. COMBUSTION EQUIPMENT FOR
the furnace. STEAM BOILERS
7. Weighing and measuring. To weigh the
quantity of coal the following equipment is used : 3.9.1. General Aspects
(i) Weigh bridge (ii) Belt scale The combustion equipment is a component of the steam
(iii) Weigh lorry (iv) Automatic scale. generator. Since the source of heat is the combustion of a
8. Furnace firing. Refer to Articles 3.9 and 3.10. fuel, a working unit must have, whatever, equipment is
 STEAM POWER PLANT 69

necessary to receive the fuel and air, proportioned to each Depending on the type of combustion equipment,
other and to the boiler steam demand, mix, ignite, and boilers may be classified as follows :
perform any other special combustion duties, such as 1. Solid fuels fired :
distillation of volatile from coal prior to ignition. (a) Hand fired
— Fluid fuels are handled by burners ; solid lump (b) Stoker fired
fuels by stokers.
(i) Overfeed stokers
— In boiler plants hand firing on grates is
(ii) Underfeed strokers.
practically unheard of now-a-days in new plants,
although there are many small industrial plants (c) Pulverised fuel fired
still in service with hand firing. (i) Unit system
— The fuels are mainly bituminous coal, fuel oil (ii) Central system
and natural gas mentioned in order of (iii) Combination of (i) and (ii).
importance. All are composed of hydrocarbons,
2. Liquid fuel fired :
and coal has, as well, much fixed carbon and little
sulphur. To burn these fuels to the desired end (a) Injection system
products, CO2 and H2O, requires (i) air in (b) Evaporation system
sufficient proportions, (ii) a good mixing of the (c) Combination of (a) and (b).
fuel and air, (iii) a turbulence or relative motion
3. Gaseous fuel fired :
between fuel and air. The combustion equipment
must fulfil these requirements and, in addition, (a) Atmospheric pressure system
be capable of close regulation of rate of firing the (b) High pressure system.
fuel, for boilers which ordinarily operate on
3.9.2. Combustion Equipment for Solid Fuels—
variable load. Coal-firing equipment must also
have a means for holding and discharging the Selection Considerations
ash residue. While selecting combustion equipment for solid fuels the
following considerations should be taken into account :
The basic requirements of combustion
equipment : 1. Initial cost of the equipment.
1. Thorough mixing of fuel and air. 2. Sufficient combustion space and its ability to
withstand high flame temperature.
2. Optimum fuel-air ratios leading to most complete
combustion possible maintained over full load range. 3. Area of the grate (over which fuel burns).
3. Ready and accurate response of rate of fuel feed 4. Operating cost.
to load demand (usually as reflected in boiler steam 5. Minimum smoke nuisance.
pressure). 6. Flexibility of operation.
4. Continuous and reliable ignition of fuel. 7. Arrangements for thorough mixing of air with
5. Practical distillation of volatile components of fuel for efficient combustion.
coal.
3.9.3. Burning of Coal
6. Adequate control over point of formation and
accumulation of ash, when coal is the fuel. The two most commonly used methods for the burning of
coal are :
Natural gas is used as a boiler fuel in gas well
1. Stroker firing
regions where fuel is relatively cheap and coal sources
comparatively distant. The transportation of natural gas 2. Pulverised fuel firing.
over land to supply cities with domestic and industrial heat The selection of one of the above methods depends
has made the gas in the well more valuable and the gas- upon the following factors :
fired steam generator more difficult to justify in comparison (i) Characteristics of the coal available.
with coal, or fuel cost alone. Cleanliness and convenience (ii) Capacity of the boiler unit.
in use are other criteria of selection, but more decisive in (iii) Load fluctuations.
small plants in central power stations.
(iv) Station load factor.
Transportation costs add less to the delivery price
of oil than gas ; also fuel oil may be stored in tanks at a (v) Reliability and efficiency of the various types of
reasonable cost, whereas, gas cannot. Hence although fuel combustion equipment available.
oil is usually more costly than coal per kg of steam 3.9.3.1. Stoker firing
generated, many operators select fuel oil burners rather
than stokers because of the simplicity and cleanliness of A “stoker” is a power operated fuel feeding mechanism and
storing and transporting the fuel from storage to burner. grate.
 70 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Advantages of stoker firing : 3. There is always a certain amount of loss of coal

1. A cheaper grade of fuel can be used. in the form of riddling through the grates.
2. A higher efficiency attained. 4. Sudden variations in the steam demand cannot
3. A greater flexibility of operations assured. be met to the same degree.
4. Less smoke produced. 5. Troubles due to slagging and clinkering of
5. Generally less building space is necessary. combustion chamber walls are experienced.
6. Can be used for small or large boiler units. 6. Banking and stand by losses are always present.
7. Very reliable, maintenance charges are reason- 7. Structural arrangements are not so simple and
ably low. surrounding floors have to be designed for heavy loadings.
8. Practically immune from explosions. 8. There is excessive wear of moving parts due to
abrasive action of coal.
9. Reduction in auxiliary plant.
10. Capital investment as compared to pulverised Classification of stoker firing :
fuel system is less. Automatic stokers are classified as follows :
11. Some reserve is gained by the large amount of 1. Overfeed stokers
coal stored on the grate in the event of coal handling plant
2. Underfeed stokers.
failure.
In case of overfeed stokers, the coal is fed into the
Disadvantages : grate above the point of air admission and in case of
1. Construction is complicated. underfeed stokers, the coal is admitted into the furnace
2. In case of very large units the initial cost may below the point of air admission.
be rather higher than with pulverised fuel.
1. Overfeed stokers
Principle of operation. Refer to Fig. 3.18. The principle of an overfeed stoker is discussed below :

CO2 + O2 + N2 + H2O
Flame Secondary air

Green coal VM + CO + CO2 + N2 + H2

(VM = Volatile matter)
Incandescent CO + CO2 + N2 + H2
coke
Ash

Grate

Primary air + H2O

Fig. 3.18. Principle of overfeed stoker.

The fuel bed section receives fresh coal on top Fresh fuel undergoing distillation of its volatile
surface. The ignition plane lies between green coal and matter forms the top-most layer of the fuel bed. Heat for
incandescent coke. distillation and eventually ignition comes from the
The air (with its water vapour content from following four sources :
atmosphere) enters the bottom of the grate under pressure. (i) By conduction from the incandescent coke below.
In flowing through the grate opening the air is heated while (ii) From high temperature gases diffusing through
it cools the grate. The warm air then passes through a layer the surface of the bed.
of hot ashes and picks up the heat energy.
(iii) By radiation from flames and hot gases in the
The region immediately above the ashes contains a furnace.
mixture of incandescent coke and ash, coke content
(iv) From the hot furnace walls.
increasing in upward direction. As the air comes in contact
with incandescent coke, the oxygen reacts with carbon to The ignition zone lies directly below the raw fuel
form carbon dioxide. Water vapour entering with the air undergoing distillation.
reacts with coke to form CO2, CO and free H2. Upon further To burn the combustible gases, additional secondary
travel through the incandescent region some of the CO2 air must be fed into the furnace to supply the needed
reacts with coke to form CO. Hence no free O2 will be oxygen. The secondary air must be injected at considerable
present in the gases leaving the incandescent region. speed to create turbulence and to penetrate to all parts of
 STEAM POWER PLANT 71

the area above the fuel bed. The combustible gases then The rate of burning with this stoker is 200 to
completely burn in the furnace. 300 kg per m2 per hour when forced draught is used.
Fuel, coke and ash in the fuel bed move in direction Advantages of chain grate stoker :
opposite to that of air and gases. Raw fuel continually drops
1. Simple in construction.
on the surface of the bed. The rising air feed cools the ash
until it finally rests in a plane immediately adjacent to the 2. Initial cost low.
grate. 3. Maintenance charges low.
Types of overfeed stokers 4. Self-cleaning stoker.
The “overfeed stokers” are used for large capacity 5. Gives high release rates per unit volume of the
boiler installation where the coal is burnt with pulverisation. furnace.
These stokers are mainly of following two types : 6. Heat release rates can be controlled just by
1. Travelling grate stoker controlling the speed of chain.
(a) Chain grate type (b) Bar grate type Disadvantages :
2. Spreader stoker. 1. Preheated air temperatures are limited to 180°C
1. Travelling grate stoker maximum.
These stokers may be chain grate type or bar grate 2. The clinker troubles are very common.
type. These two differ only in the details of grate 3. There is always some loss of coal in the form of
construction. fine particles through riddlings.
Fig. 3.19 shows a “Chain grate stoker”. 4. Ignition arches are required (to suit specific
A chain grate stoker consists of flexible endless chain furnace conditions).
which forms a support for the fuel bed. The chain travels 5. This cannot be used for high capacity boilers
over two sprocket wheels one at the front and one at the (200 tonnes/hr or more).
rear of furnace. The front sprocket is connected to a variable
speed drive mechanism. The speed of the stroker is 15 cm 2. Spreader stoker. Refer to Fig. 3.20.
to 50 cm per minute. — In this type of stoker the coal is not fed into
The coal bed thickness is shown for all times by an furnace by means of grate. The function of the
index plate. This can be regulated either by adjusting the grate is only to support a bed of ash and move it
opening of fuel grate or by the speed control of the stoker out of the furnace.
driving motor. — From the coal hopper, coal is fed into the path of
The air is admitted from the underside of the grate a rotor by means of a conveyer, and is thrown
which is divided into several compartments each connected into the furnace by the rotor and is burnt in
to an air duct. The grate should be saved from being suspension. The air for combustion is supplied
overheated. For this, coal should have sufficient ash content through the holes in the grate.
which will form a layer on the grate. — The secondary air (or overfire air) to create
Since there is practically no agitation of the fuel bed, turbulence and supply oxygen for thorough
non-coking coals are best suited for chain grate stokers. combustion of coal is supplied through nozzles
located directly above the ignition arch.

Over fire or
secondary Coal
air parts hopper

Feeder Over fire

air
Adjustable
Spreader
fuel gate

Refuse Pit Air Air duct

Primary air
Ash Exhaust
Fig. 3.20. Spreader stoker.
Fig. 3.19. Chain grate stoker.
 72 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

— Unburnt coal and ash are deposited on the grate 8. As the depth of coal bed on the grate is usually
which can be moved periodically to remove ash limited to 10 to 15 cm only, fluctuating loads can be easily
out of the furnace. met with.
— Spreader stokers can burn any type of coal. Disadvantages :
— This type of stoker can be used for boiler 1. It is difficult to operate spreader with varying
capacities from 70000 kg to 140000 kg of steam sizes of coal with varying moisture content.
per hour. The heat release rate of 10 × 106 kcal/ 2. Fly-ash is much more.
m2-hr is possible with stationary grate and of 3. No remedy for clinker troubles.
20 × 106 kcal/m2-hr is possible with travelling
4. There is a possibility of some fuel loss in the
grate.
cinders up the stack because of the thin fuel bed and
Advantages : suspension burning.
1. A wide variety of coal can be burnt. 2. Underfeed stokers
2. This stoker is simple to operate, easy to light up Principle of operation. Refer to Fig. 3.21 (a).
and bring into commission. — The underfeed principle is suitable for burning
3. The use of high temperature preheated air is the semi-bituminous and bituminous coals.
possible. — Air entering through the holes in the grate comes
4. Operation cost is considerably low. in contact with the raw coal (green coal). Then it
passes through the incandescent coke where
5. The clinking difficulties are reduced even with reactions similar to overfeed system take place.
coals which have high clinkering tendencies. The gases produced then pass through a layer
6. Volatile matter is easily burnt. of ash. The secondary air is supplied to burn the
7. Fire arches etc. are generally not required with combustible gases.
this type of stokers.
The underfeed stokers fall into two main groups, the single retort and multi-retort stokers.

CO2 + O2 + H2 + H2O

Flame Secondary air

Ash
Incandescent VM + CO + CO2 + N2 + H2
coke (VM = Volatile matter)
Green
coal

Tuyere Green coal

Green coal

Primary air Primary air + H2O

Fig. 3.21 (a) Principle of underfeed feeders.

Multi-retort underfeed stokers : vacated by the rain. On the inward stroke the
Refer to Fig. 3.21 (b). ram forces the coal into the retort.
— The stoker consists of a series of sloping parallel — The height and profile of the fuel bed is controlled
troughs formed by tuyere stacks. These troughs by secondary, or distributing rams. These rams
are called retorts. Under the coal hopper at the oscillate parallel to the retort axes, the length of
head end of the retorts, feeding rams reciprocate their stokes can be varied as needed. They slowly
back and forth. With the ram in the outer move the entire fuel bed down the length of the
position coal from the hopper falls into space stoker.
 STEAM POWER PLANT 73

Incandescent zone Tuyeres 3. The grate is self cleaning.

Distillation zone 4. Part load efficiency is high particularly with
Green coal multi-retort type.
Stoker
ram 5. Different varieties of coals can be used.
Extension 6. Much higher steaming rates are possible with
grate this type of stoker.
Draft gauge 7. Grate bars, tuyeres and retorts are not subjected
connection to high temperature as they remain always in contact with
Pushers fresh coal.
Wind box
8. Overload capacity of the boiler is high as large
Damper Draft
amount of coal is carried on the grate.
gauge
9. Smokeless operation is possible even at very light
discharge

Inlet connection
damper load.
Ash

Forced 10. With the use of clinker grinder, more heat can
air duct be liberated out of fuel.
11. Substantial amount of coal always remains on
Fig. 3.21 (b) Multi-retort underfeed stokers.
the grate so that the boiler may remain in service in the
— At the rear of the stoker the partly burned fuel event of temporary breakdown of the coal supply system.
bed moves onto an extension grate arranged in 12. It can be used with all refractory furnaces
sections. These sections also oscillate parallel to because of non-exposure of stoker mechanism to the
the fuel-bed movement. The sharp slope of the furnace.
stoker aids in moving the fuel bed. Fuel-bed
movement keeps it slightly agitated to break up Disadvantages :
clinker formation. From extension grate the ash 1. High initial cost.
moves onto ash dump plate. Tilting the dump 2. Require large building space.
plate at long intervals deposits the ash in the
3. The clinker troubles are usually present.
ashpit below.
4. Low grade fuels with high ash content cannot be
— Primary air from the wind box underneath
burnt economically.
the stoker enters the fuel bed through holes in
the vertical sides of the tuyeres. The extension 3.9.3.2. Pulverised fuel firing
grate carries a much thinner fuel bed and so
In pulverised fuel firing system the coal is reduced to a
must have a lower air pressure under it. The air
fine powder with the help of grinding mill and then projected
entering from the main wind box into the
into the combustion chamber with the help of hot air current.
extension-grate wind box is regulated by a
The amount of air required (known as secondary air) to
controlling air damper.
complete the combustion is supplied separately to the
In this stoker the number of retorts may vary from combustion chamber. The resulting turbulence in the
2 to 20 with coal burning capacity ranging from 300 kg to combustion chamber helps for uniform mixing of fuel and
2000 kg per hour per retort. air and thorough combustion. The amount of air which is
Underfeed stokers are suitable for non-clinkering, used to carry the coal and to dry it before entering into the
high voltatile coals having caking properties and low ash combustion chamber is known as ‘Primary air’ and the
contents. amount of air which is supplied separately for completing
the combustion is known as ‘Secondary air’.
Advantages :
The efficiency of the pulverised fuel firing system
1. High thermal efficiency (as compared to chain mostly depends upon the size of the powder. The fineness
grate stokers). of the coal should be such as 70% of it would pass through
2. Combustion rate is considerably higher. a 200 mesh sieve and 90% through 50 mesh sieve.
 74 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Fig. 3.22 shows elements of pulverised coal system. 4. The maintenance of furnace brickwork is costly.
5. Special equipment is needed to start this system.
6. The skilled operators are required.
Bunker 7. A separate coal preparation plant is necessary.
8. High furnace temperatures cause rapid
deterioration of the refractory surfaces of the furnace.
9. Nuisance is created by the emission of very fine
Secondary particles of grit and dust.
air duct
10. Fine regular grinding of fuel and proper
Primary air
Furnace
distribution to burners is usually difficult to achieve.
to coal
Pulverised Fuel Handling
Basically, pulverised fuel plants may be divided into
the following two systems :
Burner 1. Unit system
Feeder
2. Central system.
Unit system :
A unit system is shown in Fig. 3.23.
Fig. 3.22. Elements of pulverised coal system.

Advantages : Raw coal Burner

1. Any grade of coal can be used since coal is bunker
powdered before use.
Furnace
2. The rate of feed of the fuel can be regulated Separator
properly resulting in fuel economy. Exhaust
Feeder
3. Since there is almost complete combustion of the fan
fuel there is increased rate of evaporation and higher boiler
efficiency. Pulveriser
Preheated air or
4. Greater capacity to meet peak loads.
flue gas for coal
5. The system is practically free from sagging and drying (Primary air) Preheated air
clinkering troubles. (Secondary air)
6. No standby losses due to banked fires.
Fig. 3.23. Unit system.
7. Practically no ash handling problems.
8. No moving part in the furnace is subjected to Most pulverised coal plants are now being installed
high temperatures. with unit pulveriser.
9. This system works successfully with or in The unit system is so called from the fact that each
combination with gas and oil. burner or burner group and the pulveriser constitute a unit.
Crushed coal is fed to the pulverising mill at a variable
10. Much smaller quantity of air is required as
rate governed by the combustion requirements of the boiler
compared to that of stoker firing.
and furnace. Primary air is admitted to the mill and
11. Practically free from clinker troubles. becomes the transport air which carries the coal through
12. The external heating surfaces are free from the short delivery pipe to the burner. This air may be
corrosion. preheated if mill drying is desirable.
13. It is possible to use highly preheated secondary
Advantages :
air (350°C) which helps for rapid flame propagation.
1. The layout is simple and permits easy operation.
14. The furnace volume required is considerably less.
2. It is cheaper than central system.
Disadvantages : 3. Less spaces are required.
1. High capital cost. 4. It allows direct control of combustion from the
2. Lot of fly-ash in the exhaust, which makes the pulveriser.
removing of fine dust uneconomical. 5. Maintenance charges are less.
3. The possibility of explosion is more as coal burns 6. There is no complex transportation system.
like gas.
 STEAM POWER PLANT 75

7. In a replacement of stokers, the old conveyor and 5. The large storage is protection against
bunker equipment may be used. interruption of fuel supply to the burners.
8. Coal which would require drying in order to 6. Less labour is required.
function satisfactorily in the central system may usually
7. Power consumption per tonne of coal handled is
be employed without drying in the unit system.
low.
Disadvantages : 8. Burners can be operated independent of the
1. Firing aisle is obstructed with pulverising operation of coal preparation plant.
equipment, unless the latter is relegated to a basement.
9. Fans handle only air, as such, there is no problem
2. The mills operate at variable load, a condition of excessive wear as in case of unit system, where air and
not especially conducive to best results.
coal both are handled by the fan.
3. With load factors in common practice, total mill
capacity must be higher than for the central system. Disadvantages :
4. Flexibility is less than central system. 1. Driers are usually necessary.
Central system : 2. Fire hazard of quantities of stored pulverised coal.
This system is illustrated in Fig. 3.24. 3. Central preparation may require a separate
building.
4. Additional cost and complexity of coal
Raw coal
bunker transportation system.
5. Power consumption of auxiliaries is high.
Cyclone
Central storage Pulveriser. Coal is pulverised in order to increase
bin of pulverised its surface exposure, thus promoting rapid combustion
coal without using large quantities of excess air. A pulveriser
Burner is the most important part of a pulverised coal system.
feeder
Pulverisers (sometimes called mills) are classified as
Burner follows:
Primary
Feeder Pulverising air fan 1. Attrition mills
mills (i) Ball and race mills.
Alternative flue (ii) Bowl mills
gas for coal drying 2. Impact mills
Fig. 3.24. Central system. (i) Ball mills
A central pulverising system employs a limited (ii) Hammer mills.
number of large capacity pulverisers at a central point to Pulverisers are driven by electric motors with the
prepare coal for all the burners. Driers, if required, are feeders either actuated by the main drive or by a small
conveniently installed at this point. From the pulverisers D.C. motor, depending upon the control used.
the coal is transported to a central storage bin where it is
deposited and its transporting air vented from the bin Ball and race mill. This a low speed unit in which
through a “cyclone”. This bin may contain from 12 to 24 grinding pressure is maintained by adjustable springs. The
hours supply of pulverised coal. From the bin the coal is coal passes between the two rotating elements again and
metered to the burners by motor-driven feeders of varied again until it has been pulverised to the desired degree of
design. Primary air, added at the feeders, floats the coal to fineness. Fig. 3.25 shows a ball and race mill. Mill, feeder
the burners. and fan require up to 14 kWh per tonne of coal pulverised.
Advantages : Bowl mill. The bowl mill grinds the coal between a
1. Offers good control of coal fineness. whirling bowl and rolls mounted on pivoted axes. Coal fed
2. The pulverising mill may work at constant load into the centre is thrown by centrifugal force against the
because of the storage capacity between it and the burners. sides of the bowl where it is pulverised between the sides
of the bowl and the grinding ring. The fine and intermediate
3. The boiler aisels are unobstructed.
sizes are picked up from the top by an air current and
4. More latitude in the arrangement and number carried into the separator above for classification. It
of burners is allowed to the designers. consumes about 5 kWh of electricity per tonne of coal.
 76 POWER PLANT ENGINEERING

Fine discharge
Raw coal feed
Rotating
classifiers
Spring

Fig. 3.27. Principle of impact mill.

Grinding 3.9.4. Burners

elements
Primary air that carries the powdered coal from the mill
to the furnace is only about 20% of the total air needed for
Upper race
combustion. Before the coal enters the furnace, it must be
mixed with additional air, known as secondary air, in
Lower race burners mounted in the furnace wall. In addition to the
prime function of mixing, burners must also maintain stable
Ball
Hot primary Hot primary ignition of fuel-air mix and control the flame shape and
air supply Gear air supply travel in the furnace. Ignition depends on the rate of flame
propagation. To prevent flash back into the burner, the
coal-air mixture must move away from the burner at a rate
equal to flame-front travel. Too much secondary air can
cool the mixture and prevent its heating to ignition
temperature.
Fig. 3.25. Ball and race mill. The requirements of a burner can be summarised
Ball mill. The ball mill operates something like a as follows :
foundry tumbling barrel. The large rotating drum (i) The coal and air should be so handled that there
(100–200 r.p.m.) contains a quantity of iron balls mixed is stability of ignition.
with the coal. As the drum turns balls are carried upward (ii) The combustion is complete.
to be dropped on the coal while others, remaining in the
agitated mixture, grind the coal at random between them. (iii) In the flame the heat is uniformly developed
The coal is fed into one end and reduced in size by this avoiding any superheat spots.
action until it can be swept out of the mill by a current of (iv) Adequate protection against overheating,
air. Fig. 3.26 shows the principle of ball mill. internal fires and excessive abrasive wear.
Hammer mills. These mills have swinging 3.9.4.1. Pulverised fuel burners
hammers or bars, into the path of which is fed the coal to
be pulverised. Grinding is done by a combination of impact Pulverised fuel burners may be classified as follows :
on the large particles and attrition on the smaller ones. 1. Long flame burners
Hot air is given to dry the coal. These mills are excellent 2. Turbulent burners
dryers. It is compact, low in cost and simple. Its
3. Tangential burners
maintenance is costly and the power consumption is high
when fine powder is required. Its capacity is limited. 4. Cyclone burners.
Fig. 3.27 shows the principle of impact mill. 1. Long flame burners. These are also called
U-flame or steamlined burners. In this type of burner coal
is floated on a portion of air supply (primary air) and
supplied to the burner in one stream. Secondary and
tertiary air supplies are maintained as shown in Fig. 3.28.
The length of flame is increased in the combustion chamber
by downward initial flow of the flame. The flame produced
is stable, long and intense but it can be made short and
intense by adding much secondary air. Tertiary air enters
through the burner and forms an envelope around the
Fig. 3.26. Principle of ball mill.
primary air and fuel and provides better mixing.