Report Writing

What is a report?

A report is a written account of something that one has observed, heard, done, or investigated. It
is a systematic and well organised presentation of facts and findings of an event that has already
taken place somewhere. Reports are used as a form of written assessment to find out what you
have learned from your reading, research or experience and to give you experience of an
important skill that is widely used in the workplace and of course, in academic environments.

In technical terms, the definition of a report is pretty vague: any account, spoken or written, of
the matters concerning a particular topic. This could refer to anything from a courtroom
testimony to a grade schooler’s book report.

Really, when people talk about “reports,” they’re usually referring to official documents
outlining the facts of a topic, typically written by an expert on the subject or someone assigned to
investigate it. There are different types of reports, explained in the next section, but they mostly
fit this description.

What kind of information is shared in reports? Although all facts are welcome, reports, in
particular, tend to feature these types of content:

 Details of an event or situation

 The consequences or ongoing effect of an event or situation
 Evaluation of statistical data or analytics
 Interpretations from the information in the report
 Predictions or recommendations based on the information in the report
 How the information relates to other events or reports

Reports are closely related to essay writing, although there are some clear distinctions. While
both rely on facts, essays add the personal opinions and arguments of the authors. Reports
typically stick only to the facts, although they may include some of the author’s interpretation of
these facts, most likely in the conclusion.

Moreover, reports are heavily organized, commonly with tables of contents and copious headings
and subheadings. This makes it easier for readers to scan reports for the information they’re
looking for. Essays, on the other hand, are meant to be read start to finish, not browsed for
specific insights.

Types of reports
There are a few different types of reports, depending on the purpose and to whom you present
your report. Here’s a quick list of the common types of reports:
  Academic report: Tests a student’s comprehension of the subject matter, such as book
reports, reports on historical events, and biographies.
 Business reports: Identifies information useful in business strategy, such as marketing
reports, internal memos, SWOT (Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats)
analysis, and feasibility reports.
 Scientific reports: Shares research findings, such as research papers and case studies,
typically in science journals.

Reports can be further divided into categories based on how they are written. For example, a
report could be formal or informal, short or long, and internal or external. In business, a vertical
report shares information with people on different levels of the hierarchy (i.e., people who work
above you and below you), while a lateral report is for people on the author’s same level, but in
different departments.

There are as many types of reports as there are writing styles, but in this course, we will focus on
academic report.

What is the structure of a report?

The structure of a report depends on the type of report and the requirements of the assignment.
While reports can use their own unique structure, most follow this basic template:

 Executive summary/Abstract: Just like an abstract in an academic paper, an executive

summary is a standalone section that summarizes the findings in your report so readers
know what to expect. These are mostly for official reports and less so for school reports.
 Introduction: Setting up the body of the report, your introduction explains the overall
topic that you’re about to discuss, with your thesis statement and any need-to-know
background information before you get into your own findings.
 Body: The body of the report explains all your major discoveries, broken up into
headings and subheadings. The body makes up the majority of the entire report; whereas
the introduction and conclusion are just a few paragraphs each, the body can go on for
pages.
 Conclusion: The conclusion is where you bring together all the information in your
report and come to a definitive interpretation or judgment. This is usually where the
author inputs their own personal opinions or inferences.

If you’re familiar with how to write a research paper, you’ll notice that report writing follows the
same introduction-body-conclusion structure, sometimes adding an executive summary. Reports
usually have their own additional requirements as well, such as title pages and tables of content,
which will be explained in the next section.

What should be included in a report?

There are no firm requirements for what’s included in a report. Every school, company,
laboratory, task manager, and teacher can make their own format, depending on their unique
needs. In general, though, be on the lookout for these particular requirements – they tend to crop
up a lot:

 Title page: Official reports often use a title page to keep things organized; if a person has
to read multiple reports, title pages make them easier to keep track of.
 Table of contents: Just like in books, the table of contents helps readers go directly to
the section they’re interested in, allowing for faster browsing.
 Page numbering: A common courtesy if you’re writing a longer report, page numbering
makes sure the pages are in order in the case of mix-ups or misprints.
 Headings and subheadings: Reports are typically broken up into sections, divided by
headings and subheadings, to facilitate browsing and scanning.
 Citations: If you’re citing information from another source, the citations guidelines tell
you the recommended format.
 Works cited page: A bibliography at the end of the report lists credits and the legal
information for the other sources you got information from.

How to write a report in 7 steps

Now let’s get into the specifics of how to write a report. Follow the seven steps on report writing
below to take you from an idea to a completed paper.

1 Choose a topic based on the assignment

Before you start writing, you need to pick the topic of your report. Often, the topic is assigned
for you, as with most business reports, or predetermined by the nature of your work, as with
scientific reports. If that’s the case, you can ignore this step and move on.

If you’re in charge of choosing your own topic, as with a lot of academic reports, then this is one
of the most important steps in the whole writing process. Try to pick a topic that fits these two
criteria:

 There’s adequate information: Choose a topic that’s not too general but not too
specific, with enough information to fill your report without padding, but not too much
that you can’t cover everything.
 It’s something you’re interested in: Although this isn’t a strict requirement, it does help
the quality of a report if you’re engaged by the subject matter.

Of course, don’t forget the instructions of the assignment, including length, so keep those in the
back of your head when deciding.

2 Conduct research
With business and scientific reports, the research is usually your own or provided by the
company—although there’s still plenty of digging for external sources in both.

For academic papers, you’re largely on your own for research, unless you’re required to use class
materials. That’s one of the reasons why choosing the right topic is so crucial; you won’t go far
if the topic you picked doesn’t have enough available research.

The key is to search only for reputable sources: official documents, other reports, research
papers, case studies, books from respected authors, etc. Feel free to use research cited in other
similar reports. You can often find a lot of information online through search engines, but a
quick trip to the library can also help in a pinch.

3 Write a thesis statement

Before you go any further, write a thesis statement to help you conceptualize the main theme of
your report. Just like the topic sentence of a paragraph, the thesis statement summarizes the main
point of your writing, in this case, the report.

Once you’ve collected enough research, you should notice some trends and patterns in the
information. If these patterns all infer or lead up to a bigger, overarching point, that’s your thesis
statement.

For example, if you are writing a report on the wages of fast-food employees, your thesis might
be something like, “Although wages used to be commensurate with living expenses, after years
of stagnation they are no longer adequate.” From there, the rest of your report will elaborate on
that thesis, with ample evidence and supporting arguments.

It’s good to include your thesis statement in both the executive summary and introduction of
your report, but you still want to figure it out early so you know which direction to go when you
work on your outline next.

4 Prepare an outline

Writing an outline is recommended for all kinds of writing, but it’s especially useful for reports
given their emphasis on organization. Because reports are often separated by headings and
subheadings, a solid outline makes sure you stay on track while writing without missing
anything.

Really, you should start thinking about your outline during the research phase, when you start to
notice patterns and trends. If you’re stuck, try making a list of all the key points, details, and
evidence you want to mention. See if you can fit them into general and specific categories, which
you can turn into headings and subheadings respectively.

5 Write a rough draft

Writing the rough draft or first draft, is usually the most time-consuming step. Here’s where you
take all the information from your research and put it into words. To avoid getting overwhelmed,
simply follow your outline step by step to make sure you don’t accidentally leave out anything.

Don’t be afraid to make mistakes; that’s the number one rule for writing a rough draft. Expecting
your first draft to be perfect adds a lot of pressure. Instead, write in a natural and relaxed way,
and worry about the specific details like word choice and correcting mistakes later. That’s what
the last two steps are for, anyway.

6 Revise and edit your report

Once your rough draft is finished, it’s time to go back and start fixing the mistakes you ignored
the first time around. (Before you dive right back in, though, it helps to sleep on it to start editing
fresh, or at least take a small break to unwind from writing the rough draft.)

We recommend first rereading your report for any major issues, such as cutting or moving
around entire sentences and paragraphs. Sometimes you’ll find your data doesn’t line up, or that
you misinterpreted a key piece of evidence. This is the right time to fix the “big picture”
mistakes and rewrite any longer sections as needed.

If you’re unfamiliar with what to look for when editing, you can read our previous guide with
some more advanced self-editing tips.

7 Proofread and check for mistakes

Last, it pays to go over your report one final time, just to optimize your wording and check for
grammatical or spelling mistakes. In the previous step you checked for “big picture” mistakes,
but here you’re looking for specific, even nitpicky problems.

A writing assistant like Grammarly flags those issues for you. Grammarly’s free version points
out any spelling and grammatical mistakes while you write, with suggestions to improve your
writing that you can apply with just one click. The Premium version offers even more advanced
features, such as tone adjustments and word choice recommendations for taking your writing to
the next level.

Summary Writing
Proficient students understand that summarizing, identifying what is most important and restating
the text (or other media) in your own words, is an important tool for college success.

After all, if you really know a subject, you will be able to summarize it. If you cannot summarize
a subject, even if you have memorized all the facts about it, you can be absolutely sure that you
have not learnt it. And, if you truly learn the subject, you will still be able to summarize it
months or years from now.
Proficient students may monitor their understanding of a text by summarizing as they read. They
understand that if they can write a one- or two-sentence summary of each paragraph after reading
it, then that is a good sign that they have correctly understood it. If they cannot summarize the
main idea of the paragraph, they know that comprehension has broken down and they need to
use fix-up strategies to repair understanding.

What is a summary?

A summary is a general term used to describe any writing that briefly explains, or “summarizes,”
a larger work like a novel, academic paper, movie, or TV show. Summaries are usually short,
from one or two sentences to a paragraph, but if you’re summarizing an enormous work, like all
seven Harry Potter books, they can stretch out over pages.

Summary writing is like a highlight reel, showing only the best parts and ignoring what’s not
strictly necessary.

The key to summary writing is to stick to the facts; do not include opinions, analysis, or bias. If
it’s written for commercial purposes, such as the summaries on Netflix, it might be intentionally
alluring and without spoilers. However, for academic papers and more formal writing, summary
writing leans towards what is factual.

Summaries appear in many different shapes and forms, including book reports and other school
papers. Academics use summaries all the time for research papers when they write an abstract,
which is essentially a summary of an entire research paper.

Really, everyone needs to know how to write a summary at one point or another. Even finding a
job requires you to summarize your own professional background and work experience.

Summary examples: What makes a good summary

Let’s look at some summary examples of famous works to see what constitutes a strong
summary.

On IMDb, the summary for the 2008 movie The Dark Knight is just a sentence long:

When the menace known as the Joker wreaks havoc and chaos on the people of Gotham, Batman
must accept one of the greatest psychological and physical tests of his ability to fight injustice.

Right away, you’ll notice that the specific events of the movie are omitted and replaced by a
general explanation of what happens. The main characters are mentioned—at least the
protagonist and antagonist—and there is some description given about the types of events, such
as “psychological and physical tests.”

However, the details are absent. To summarize a two-hour movie in a single sentence requires
broad strokes; there’s only room for the bare essentials.
Most summaries, though, are longer than a sentence, like this multi-paragraph summary example
for the novel To Kill a Mockingbird from SparkNotes.

As you can see, this summary is about the length of a page. It’s far more detailed, too,
mentioning secondary characters and adding more context to the plot events. Still, to condense
281 pages into one requires a lot of cutting, so each key event is given just a sentence or two,
consisting of only the need-to-know information.

How to write a summary in 4 steps

Summary writing uses the same best tips for all good writing. If you want to know how to write a
summary yourself, we break the process down into 4 basic steps.

1 Read or watch the source material

The first step is fairly obvious: Read or watch whatever it is you’re writing a summary about.

If you’re doing a book report or similar paper, there’s always a temptation to skip this step and
just rely on other people’s summaries. We don’t recommend it, though. For starters, how can you
trust the writer of that summary? What if they just wrote their summary based on another
person’s summary, too? Moreover, you may miss some key points or events that the other
summary overlooked.

The only risk-free way to write a summary is to read or watch the source material yourself.
Otherwise you’re liable to miss something essential.

2 Make a list of the key points

Next comes the outlining phase, where you list out what points to include in your summary. How
many items go on your list depends on the length of both the summary and the source material. If
you’re running long, start cutting items that are less of a priority.

It always helps to use your memory at first. The most significant events will have left an impact
on you, so using what you remember is a good filter for what’s vital. However, learn to separate
what’s truly necessary and what’s just personal preference. Just because you fell in love with a
secondary character doesn’t mean they’re worth mentioning in the summary.

To fill in the gaps of what you’ve missed, you may need to reread or rewatch your source
material. Feel free to skim it to save time; you just need to map out the significant points, not
reread every word.

Here’s a tip: For longer pieces, break the source into sections and make a separate list for each
section. For example, if you’re summarizing a research paper, you might write different lists for
the Methods, Results, and Conclusion sections respectively. This is optional but helps you
organize everything for larger works.
3 Write the summary in your own words

Next, write the first draft of your summary following the lists you made in the previous outlining
stage. If you’re summarizing a book, film, or other media, it’s best to use chronological order
(even if the story is told out of order).

The key here is using your own words. While you’re free to copy the occasional direct quote in
your summary writing, it’s best to use original language to make it your own. Also, keep in mind
the perspective of someone who’s never read or seen the source material. Do you have all the
relevant points they need to understand what’s going on?

Here’s a tip: Pay close attention to transitions. Summaries are naturally fast-paced, where
sentences often jump from one event or point to another in rapid succession. For a reader, this
can be very jarring.

To make your summary writing easier to comprehend, use plenty of transitional words and
phrases, such as however, as a result, and meanwhile. You’ll find a more complete list in our
guide to transition words and phrases.

4 Edit and cut what’s unnecessary

Last comes the proofreading phase, where you reread your summary and correct any mistakes or
awkward wording. For summary writing, watch out for unnecessary information, too; every
word is crucial, so removing unnecessary information gives you more room to elaborate on the
main points.

Grammarly can save you a lot of time in this step. Grammarly marks any grammar and spelling
mistakes you make while you write and provides quick recommendations on how to fix them.
This frees you up to focus on more important aspects of summary writing, like the points you’re
trying to make.

Grammarly even helps with conciseness, which is integral to summary writing. If you’re using
five words to say what can be said in two, Grammarly points it out so you can fix it. That way,
your summaries can be as short and compact as possible – the way summary writing is supposed
to be!

Summary Writing Format

 When writing a summary, remember that it should be in the form of a paragraph.

 A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, author and
main point(s) of the text.
 A summary is written in your own words.
 A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any of your own
opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a summary.
  Put “quotation marks” around extracted words/sentences to indicate that these are not
your own words. Remember to cite the author both as intext citation and in the reference
section at the end of your write-up.
 Write a last sentence that “wraps” up your summary; often, a simple rephrasing of the
main point.

THE RULES OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE CONCORD

Introduction

In the study of the English language and any other language, concord simply refers to the

agreement existing between the various parts of the sentence. According to Baker (2003, p.44)

concord is the agreement in gender, case number or person between different words that share

reference in a sentence. A sentence traditionally is divided into a subject and a predicate; where

the subject is the performer of the action and the predicate refers to the verb and the other

elements that come after it. In this chapter, we are going to consider mainly the agreement

between a subject and the predicate in the sentence. In the sentence, the subject is the performer

of the action or what is being talked about; the action is the predicate in its simplest terms. The

two parts (subject and predicate) need to agree for a grammatically correct sentence.

For example:

The teacher /is teaching.

Subject predicate

The student/ is learning

Subject predicate
As you can see above, the teacher and the student are the ones performing the actions of teaching

and learning that is why they are the subjects and the action is the predicate in the sentences.

Now that we understand what a subject and a predicate are, let us now focus on their agreement.

The simple rule in the English language on how agreement is reached between a subject and

a predicate is: a singular subject takes a singular predicate and a plural subject takes a plural

predicate. A simple demonstration of these rules can be seen in sentences such as:

The boy is here

The boys are here

The boy likes to smoke

The boys like to smoke

When the subject boy is singular, the action (predicate) shown by is and likes are also singular;

when it is boys, the plural forms of are and like are used.

N.B: when a verb takes the s-form as in likes, speaks, eats, sleeps etc, they are for singular

third person. Examples:

He sleeps a lot. Mary sleeps too much.

I sleep a lot. We sleep a lot. They sleep a lot.

Now, let us focus on the other rules that govern the subject verb agreement in a sentence. These

other rules are more of exceptions to the general rule stated above. This is because the rules that

follow are not in conformity to the above rule. And these are the more complex rules.

Rule 1:
When any other conjunction apart from and is used to link two subjects, the verb agrees with the

first subject of the sentence. Examples of these conjunctions are: together with, as well as, along

with, no less than, including, not mention, in collaboration with etc. When a sentence is

constructed in this way, using any of the conjunctions above, it simply means that the first

subject of the sentence is giving more relevance to determine the verb form.

Examples:

1. Jane with her husband……here now. (a) is (b) are (c) was (d) were. The correct

answer is A.

2. The principal as well as the teacher…… plantain chips.(UME, 94, Q59) (a) like (b)

likes (c) are liking (d) is liking. The answer is option B

If and was used for joining the sentences above, the answer would have been are and like
respectively.

You, including the driver_____ a car each. A. has b. have c. is having d. had had

The driver, including you _____ a car each. A. has b. have c. is having d. had had

More examples:

The chairman together with his executives is here to see you.

The chairman as well as the wife was here early.

The chairman and the wife were here early

RULE 2:
When and is used to join two singular subjects which refer to the same person or things or are

titles of the same person, the singular form of the verb is used.

Examples:

The Emir and Conqueror of the enemy territories_________ next week (UME 97 Q.74) (a)

arrives (b) are to arrive (c) arrive (d) are arriving

The answer is option A.

Our Pastor and General Overseer of my church______ just arrived (UME 92 Q. 85) (a) has (b)

having (c) have (d) had. The answer is option A.

Other Examples:

Time and tide waits for no one

Bow and arrow was used to kill the cat

Bread and butter is his special food

The novelist and poet, Elechi Amadi is dead

Please, note that when the article the comes before the second item in the subject, it means

you are referring to two different persons or things and as such, a plural subject is used.

Examples:

The Principal and English teacher is kind

The Principal and the English teacher are kind

RULE 3:
When two different subjects are linked by the correlative conjunction

Either…or and Neither… nor, the verb agrees with the subject that is closer to it. This is called

the rule of proximity (closeness or nearness).

Examples:

Neither the men nor the boy……. here now (a) are (b) is (c) will (d) would. The answer is B.

Neither Agbor nor his parents….. the meeting now. (UME 2001 Q.77) (a) attended (b) are

attending (c) attends (d) has attended

The answer is option B.

Either Ekaette or you…… to go. (UME 95 Q.69) (a) was (b) are (c) has (d) is

The correct option is B.

In my opinion, neither the players nor the coach………………the praise for the result of the

match. (UME 1987, Q. 82) (a) deserves (b) deserve (c)are deserving (d) is deserving. Answer: A

In order to answer questions like the ones above during the examination, it is simpler and

easier to detach the other part that comes before the first part.

For examples:

1. (Either Ekaette or) you are to go

2. (Neither my friends nor) I am at the party now

3. (Either the girls or) the boy knows my name

RULE 4:
The nouns and the pronouns that come before the relative pronouns: who, what, and that,

determine the verb form that follows. That is, if the noun or pronoun is singular, the verb will

also be singular and verse versa.

Examples:

The teacher ran from the boy who was smelling.

The teacher ran from the boys who were smelling.

Mr Japhet is one of the teachers who teach in my school

Mr Japhet is the teacher who teaches in my school.

Ahmed is one of the boys who always……….good work. (UME 92, Q.75). (a) does (b) would do

(c) do (d) done

The correct answer is C

You who……. Convicted, should appeal (UME 2005, Q.85). (a) has been (b) is (c) was (d) are

The correct option is D because the verb are agrees with the pronoun you; which will give you

are convicted. This goes to prove the fact that in answering questions like this, you assume the

relative pronoun is not present. You omit to aid easy answering.

It is I who………. to blame for the accident. (a) is (b) are (c) am (d) were

The correct answer is C because it will give us a sentence like I am to blame for the accident.

Also note that it is only the verb am that agrees with the pronoun I.

RULE 5:
When the phrase one of is used, it is usually followed by a plural noun or pronoun and a singular

verb.

Examples:

One of my teachers is coming

One of my sisters travels every time

The idea behind these constructions is that you have many teachers but you are talking about the

action of one of them.

One of the_______ selective marking of errors (UME 92 Q. 88).

(a) School of thought suggests

(b) Schools of thought suggest

(c) School of thought suggested

(d) Schools of thought suggests

The correct option is D

One of the vice………….. in an interim capacity. (UME95 Q. 98).

(a) President acts

(b) President act

(c) President acted

(d) Presidents acts

The correct option is D

RULE 6: When adjectives like: rich, poor, helpless, blind, young, privileged, handicapped etc

are used in a sentence with the definite article coming before them, they take the plural verb.

For example:

The rich deserve respect

The poor live in misery

The helpless……………… our sympathy

(a) Require (b) requires (c) does require (d) do requires. (UME 93 Q90). The correct answer

is A

Rule 7: When the phrase “a number of” is used in a sentence, it is usually followed by a plural

verb while the phrase “the number of” is followed by a singular verb.

Examples:

A number of students………. missed the opportunity to register. (UME 92 Q.66). (a) is (b) has

(c) have (d) do. The option C is the correct answer.

The police claim that a number of stolen cars…… recovered. (a) has being (b) is being (c) has

been (d) have been. (UME 2004 Q.44). The correct answer is D.

The number of students that pass the examination yearly is increasing. Here, the singular verb

“is” has been chosen and not a plural verb.

Rule 8: The expression many a/an is followed by singular noun and a singular verb.

Examples:
Many a candidate ……. to realize the difference between written and spoken English. (a) fails

(b) fail (c) have failed (d) are failing. (UME 87 Q 66). The correct answer is A

Many a man …….done without milk in…… tea these days. (a) had/their (b) has/his (c) have/their

(d) had/his. (UME 89.Q. 83). The correct option is B.

RULE 9: when the expression more than is used as a subject of a sentence, the verb to be used is

determined by the noun that comes after it. If the noun that comes after more than is singular, the

verb will be singular and if plural, the verb will be plural too.

For examples:

More than two players were given a red card

More than one person has paid the levy

RULE 10: Each and every are followed by a singular noun and a singular verb.

For examples:

Each singer was given a prize

Every man loves women

However, each of and every one of is followed by a plural noun and a singular verb. Examples:

Each of the houses…… a new look (a) have got (b) have (c) has (d) were given. (UME 2004 Q.

38). The correct option is C.

We are not surprised he was elected, every one of his constituents…… that he is reliable.

(a)know (b) knows (c) will know (d) do know (UME 1990 Q. 71). The correct option is B.
Note that when every or each comes before singular subjects that are joined by and, a

singular verb will still be used. For examples:

Every knife, fork and spoon has to be counted

Each player and coach was rewarded

RULE 11: When a fraction or a percentage refers to a singular word, it requires a singular verb.

When it refers to a plural word, it requires a plural verb.

Note that you will know that the percentage or fraction refers to a singular form when the

NOUN that comes after the of is singular and verse versa.

For Examples:

Sixty Percent of the skilled workers…… yearly by the company. (a) are retain (b) is retained (c)

were retained (d) are retained. (UME 94 Q.90). The correct option is D.

Three quarters of the people in the village……. Killed but only half of their huts…… Affected.

(a) were/were (b) was/was (c) were /was (d) was/were. (UME 2003 Q.99). The correct option is

A.

Ten percent of my income belongs to God. Here, income is seen as a single entity (singular

noun); consequently, a singular verb “belongs” is used here.

RULE 12: When units of measurement, money, distance or time is used as the subject of the

sentence, a singular verb is always used though it looks like plural in appearance.

For examples:

Fifty litres is enough for the night

Ten million naira is too small for me

Four weeks….. enough for the police to conclude their investigation. (UME 2003 Q. 38). (a)

were (b) is (c) are (d) has being. The correct option is B.

RULE 13: There are words that denote items that have two equal sides. That is, they appear in

two forms but they are used together. They include scissors, trousers, pliers, pants pajamas,

shorts, spectacles etc. When any of these is used as the subject of a sentence, it takes the plural

verb always.

For Examples:

My trousers are stolen

Her spectacles have been broken

My scissors need a replacement

NOTE that if any of the words are preceded with the phrase my pair of or a pair of, a singular

verb will be used.

My pair of scissors is lost

A pair of trousers is all I need

Two pairs of trousers are on the hanger

RULE 14:

There are some categories of words which end in alphabet S but must always go with singular

verb. These categories of words are:

Names of Diseases: measles, mumps, shingles, tuberculosis, AIDS etc.

Measles…………. no longer impossible to manage these days (UME 94 Q.60) (a) is (b) are (C)

were (d) was. The correct option is A.

Names of Games: Billiards, Darts, Table Tennis, Chess, Bowls, Snakes, and Ladders Etc.

Names of subjects: Mathematics, Economics, Statistics, Linguistics Physics Etc

Examples:

Mathematics seems difficult for Arts students

RULE 15:

The real subjects of a sentence should determine the verb of the sentence not the nouns that are

introduced by phrases like as well as, along with in addition to which are used after the first

subject in the sentence. These phrases are known as intervening words. The subject in this type

of construction is found in the beginning of the sentence.

Example:

Knowledge of figures of speech as well as idioms and lexical items……. in this section (a) is

tested (b) have been tested (c) are tested (d) were tested. The correct option is A.

The students, as well as the teacher, are excited. Here, it is the first subject ‘students’ that

determines the verb and not the other subject ‘teacher’

His wife along with his children comes to spend the weekend with him. Here, it is the first

subject ‘wife’ that determines the verb and not the subject introduced by the phrase ‘along with’
Conclusion: In all, we have been able to look at some of the various rules guiding the formation

of sentences in the English language. As you learn each of the rules, be conscious of the fact that

you need to use them in your everyday conversation in the Language in order to gain mastery of

them. They are not for exam purpose alone but to help you in your communication in the

language.

OUTLINING
WHAT IS OUTLINING?

An outline is a formal system used to think about and organize your

paper. It is the road map for the essay. American writer Tom Wolfe said, “By writing an
outline you really are writing in a way, because you’re creating the structure of what you’re
going to do. Once I really know what I’m going to write, I don’t find the actual writing takes all
that long.” Critical thinkers use outlines to organize their ideas and check the organization of
their drafts throughout the writing process. Outlines represent an important element of the
writing process not only for English essays, but also for essays in history, philosophy,
economics, political science, etc.

Common Outlining Myths

Outlining wastes time.
You have to use complete sentences.
You must stick to an outline.

Common Outlining Facts

Outlines aid in draft quality.
Multiple formats exist.
Outlines are guides and are not rigid templates

WHY OUTLINE?
Just like we need a road map when traveling to an unfamiliar destination, good writers create
preliminary or rough outlines after they have generated enough ideas through prewriting to
organize and develop their essays. Strong, thorough prewriting should develop more ideas than
you can actually use in your essay so that you are able to select the most relevant and convincing
ideas for your essay.

Outlines also help writers with the following:

 Make the writing process easier since you have a road map for your essay to follow.
 Break through writer’s block—for people who struggle with writer’s block, it helps to
first set up a structure with lower stakes and less pressure.
 Save time writing your essay since you have a clear, focused plan to follow for your
essay.
 Ensure each part of your essay relates to the essay prompt.

As the “road map” of the essay, outlines should do the following:

 Provide the thesis and most important details of the essay.

 Demonstrate a clear, logical organization of main ideas and supporting details.
 Your main points are on-topic and directly support your thesis.
 Your main points are logically organized.
 Your most important ideas are emphasised, and your less important ideas are
subordinated.
 Your main points have sufficient and relevant supporting evidence.

Outline Organization
When deciding how to order your points, your first consideration should be logic. How does one
point lead up to or build upon another? Here are some different ways to logically organize your
points:
 Climax: Present your ideas so they build to a climax, ending with your most dramatic
examples.

 Complexity: Start with simpler ideas and build to more complex ones.

 Familiarity: Start with more familiar ideas and move towards newer ones.

 Audience appeal: Start with “safe” ideas and move to more challenging ones.
 Chronological: Present ideas in the time order in which they occurred.

 Compare/Contrast: When looking at similarities or differences, it may be ordered in one of

two ways:
Block style: look first at one item and then the next, Point-by-point: Look at the two items
using the same criteria each time. For example: simultaneously, comparing them using the
I. Frederick Douglass same criteria. For example:
A. Philosophies I. Philosophies
B. Activism A. Frederick Douglass
C. Accomplishments B. Martin Luther King, Jr.
II. Martin Luther King, Jr. II. Activism
A. Philosophies A. Frederick Douglass
B. Activism B. Martin Luther King, Jr.
C. Accomplishments III. Accomplishments
A. Frederick Douglass
B. Martin Luther King,
How to make an outline
1. Identify the topic/thesis. The topic of your paper is important. Try to sum up the point of
your paper in one sentence or phrase. This will help your paper stay focused on the main point.
2. Identify the main categories. What main points will you cover? The introduction usually
introduces all of your main points, then the rest of paper can be spent developing those points.
3. Create the first category. What is the first point you want to cover? If the paper centers
around a complicated term, a definition is often a good place to start. For a paper about a
particular theory, giving the general background on the theory can be a good place to begin.
4. Create subcategories. After you have the main point, create points under it that provide
support for the main point. The number of categories that you use depends on the amount of
information that you are going to cover; there is no right or wrong number to use.

Topic/Thesis:

I. (Main Idea 1)
A. (Supporting Detail 1)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
B. (Supporting Detail 2)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
II. (Main Idea 2)
A. (Supporting Detail 1)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
B. (Supporting Detail 2)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
 III. (Main Idea 3)
A. (Supporting Detail 1)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
B. (Supporting Detail 2)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
IV. (Main Idea 4)
A. (Supporting Detail 1)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2
B. (Supporting Detail 2)
1. Sub-detail 1
2. Sub-detail 2

Television and Children's Violence

I. Introduction
A. Does television cause violence?
1. Brief mention of previous areas of research
2. Identify causation dilemma
B. Present studies on both sides
1. Some studies are "for"
2. Some studies are "against"
C. After weighing evidence it appears that TV does not cause violence

II. Research "For"

A. First study "for"
1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. insufficient sample size
b. but representative sample
B. Second study "for"
1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. faulty instructions
b. poor control group
III. Research "Against"
A. Study "against"
1. Method
2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Perfect controls
b. No unwarranted generalizations
B. Second study "against"
1. Method
 2. Results
3. Analysis of their conclusions
a. Large sample size
b. Real world setting
c. But typical problems with external validity

IV. Conclusion
A. Studies "for" all have poor methodology
B. Studies "against" all have good methodology
C. Research doesn't support that TV causes violence
D. More research needed

Types of Outlines
The Scratch Outline
This outline is usually used when you need an outline in a hurry. During essays tests, these
outlines allow you to organize your ideas without spending vast amounts of time on structure.
These outlines also work for short papers, as in fewer than two pages. Typically, instead of
using a formal structure, students underline the main point or draw circles around their main
ideas, and they may also use other symbols to distinguish details or examples of their ideas.

The Topic Outline

This is the most commonly used outline. Although this type possesses the formal numeric and
alphabetical structures, each line contains only a few brief words to guide the writer during the
drafting process. These outlines are perfect for papers of all sizes and can be adapted easily if
needed.

The Full Sentence Outline

This outline comes with a bad reputation. When people think of this outline, they usually
picture a monstrously large outline they had to write in high school and that took forever.
Please, do not associate horrible things with this outline form. This type of outline is best
reserved for completed drafts. Although it can be used when getting started, writers have to
spend significant time on this stage of the writing process. This form is ideal for checking
organization in a finished draft. If you begin applying the Roman numerals to your paper and
you cannot reach the 1 and 2 level, then, you will see points of weakness in your draft.
The Paragraph Outline
This is the most unknown outline form. It is reserved for completed drafts and allows writers
to check their paragraph organization. This works great for narrative papers or for papers when
you have a substantial number of dates to keep straight. This outline can be constructed two
different ways. The first is to record your topic sentences, as seen here, and you can see the
relationship between your main ideas. An alternative option is to write a one sentence
summary of each paragraph, so you will be able to see if your ideas come together. There is
not one correct form of outlining. Use whichever form suits your needs and the occasion.

Let us consider the following styles of outline around book banning in schools.
Scratch outline
Book Banning in Schools
 Fewer Classics
-Hamlet by Shakespeare
-The Diary of a Young girl by Anne Frank
 Brainwashing in Education
-Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury
-1984 by George Orwell
Book Banning & the Community

Topic Outline
I. Book Banning in Schools
A. Fewer classics
1. Hamlet by Shakespeare
a. Robert’s quote
2. The Diary of a Young girl by Anne Frank
a. Stratman paraphrase
B. Brainwashing in education
1. Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury
a. Website quote
2. 1984 by George Orwell
a. Paraphrase Hughes
II. Book Banning & the Community

Full sentence outline

I. Today, book banning in schools increases every year.
A. With every banned book, students receive less reading instruction and have restricted
access to classic literature.
 1. Frequently, Shakespeare becomes banned from schools because critics believe his
plays possess too many sexual innuendos.
a. John Hughes, a concerned parent, argues, “. . .” (794).
B. The projection of brainwashing has fostered the banning of some literary works
1.George Orwell’s 1984 novel is an example that is noted for projecting
brainwashing in education.

Paragraph outline

Paragraph 1: Today, book banning in schools increases every year. (Ex. Shakespeare’s Hamlet
George Orwell’s 1984).

Paragraph 2: As censorship increases, community members lose public library diversity.

From the above samples, it is clear that there are several ways to go about your outline; however,
it is important to note that there is not one correct form of outlining. Use whichever form suits
your needs and the occasion.

LETTER OF COMPLAINTS

Making complaints about someone is always a sensitive issue and writing about it is a much
more difficult task as everything would be documented. Writing a complaint letter is, therefore,
something that should be done with utmost care.

A complaint letter is a type of formal letter that is written to address any type of wrongdoing,
offence, grievance, or anger that arises from a product, service, or other resources. There could
be a variety of reasons for submitting a complaint letter, including potholed roads, hospitals that
do not provide enough medical care to their patients, officials accepting bribes, and numerous
other flaws in our system. Every citizen has the right to speak out against these violations by
sending a complaint letter and bringing these matters to the attention of the appropriate
departments.

A complaint letter is designed solely to anticipate rectification for a certain subject. However, if
the authorities appear to be unresponsive, the individual has the right to file additional lawsuits
or court cases against the firm provided the substance of the complaint is legitimate.

Guidelines to Write a Complaint Letter

 Be formal and prevent using harsh or offensive or abusive language.

 Concentrate on the most critical details. Provide no unnecessary background information.
 The objective of writing should be obvious.
 Do not stray from the topic and write concisely.
 It is critical to introduce the person authoring the letter.
 The date the letter was written, as well as the recipient’s information, should be included.
 The subject line should be mentioned clearly.
  Proofread your message to ensure that there are no grammatical or glaring faults.
 Make a great presentation and use straightforward language.

How to Write a Complaint Letter?

Complaint letters are written to the concerned authorities when you are not satisfied with some
service, or you have a problem that needs to be addressed. See to it that you write the letter in a
polite manner. The format of a complaint letter follows the format of a formal letter. To write a
complaint letter, you can start with the sender’s address followed by the date, the receiver’s
address, the subject, salutation, body of the letter, complimentary closing, signature and name in
block letters.

Sender’s address

___________

___________

___________

DD/MM/YY

Receiver’s address

___________

___________

___________

Subject: ___________________________

Sir/Ma’am, (Salutation)

Body of the Letter explaining the reason for your letter and the complaint.

Thank you .....

Yours faithfully, (Complimentary Closing)

Signature

NAME in block letters

Complaint Letter Samples

Here are a few complaint letter samples to help you understand the format of the complaint letter
and help you write a complaint letter on your own.

Complaint Letter Sample 1 – Poor Maintenance of the Garden and Improper

Waste Disposal

45 B, Rory Lane

Damsel Street

Mumbai – 400056

29th December, 2021

The Secretary

Residential Association

Mumbai – 400056

Subject: Complaint letter regarding the poor maintenance of the garden and improper waste
disposal

Sir,

I am Shawn Mendez, a resident of Rory Lane. I am writing to bring to your notice the poor
maintenance of the garden around our residential area and the improper disposal of waste. The
garden around the residential area was watered regularly, and grass shrubs were trimmed and
maintained neatly in the beginning. It has been more than a month now since any kind of
maintenance is done in the garden. We have tried contacting the person in charge, but every
effort has just been in vain.

Another growing issue is the problem of waste disposal. There were people from the corporation
collecting garbage for disposal every two days, but it has been more than a week now since they
have collected any garbage from our area. This has led to the accumulation of waste, and people
have started dumping it in the corner of the street as they have no other choice. Kindly look into
this and the maintenance of the garden as it will become a huge mess if this continues. It would
be highly appreciated if you could also inform the residents that all garbage would be collected
and not to throw them out around the street corners.

Thank you in advance.

Yours faithfully,

Signature

SHAWN MENDEZ

Complaint Letter Sample 2 – Damaged Product Received

5/652, SNV Street

VKL Colony

Hyderabad – 500025

November 26, 2021

The Manager

Customer Service Department

Taurus Shop

New Delhi – 110023

Subject: Complaint about a damaged product received

Sir/Ma’am,

I had purchased a black top from your online store. I received the product today, and I tried filing
a return request as the size is smaller than the one I had ordered, and the cloth is torn on the left
side. For some reason, the return request is not being filed. The page is either getting redirected
or stuck. I have tried multiple times, and I could not go through with it. Can you please check
and let me know if the return request has been filed for the order no. 3049. If not, kindly let me
know what I should do to return the product.

I am attaching herewith photographs of the damaged portion of the top and the opening video for
your reference.

Thank you
Yours sincerely,

Signature

SINDHU SHANKAR

Complaint Letter Sample 3 – Installation of New Street Lights

12B, Nelson Manickam Road

Nungambakkam

Chennai – 600045

13/12/2021

The Councillor

Ward No. 26

Chennai – 600052

Subject: Installation of new street lights in our area

Sir,

I am writing to bring to your kind attention that there are no street lights in my area and it has
become a huge problem as it has started raining. It is very difficult for people who travel through
this area because it is very dark at night, and with continuous rains, the place floods up. It
becomes really difficult to drive as the roads are damaged, and there have been constant
accidents because of this.

Therefore, I request you to kindly take some action at the earliest and install street lights in my
area as it is a danger if left like this.

Thank you for your time and cooperation in advance.

Yours faithfully,

Signature

DERRICK RAJ
Complaint Letter Sample 4 – Complaint Letter for Incorrect Delivery of Books

XYZ School,

Delhi

10th January, 2022

Oxford Publication House

Consumer Complaint Division

Mumbai

Subject: Complaint regarding incorrect delivery of wrong set of books

Sir/Madam,

I ordered a book set (Order No. 001458) to be supplied to XYZ School in Delhi on January 1,
2022. To my dismay, I did not receive the set I requested and instead received the incorrect book
set. I am quite disappointed.

To fix the issue, I would appreciate it if you could please replace the incorrect book set with the
one that was initially requested. Please notify me what action you intend to take as soon as
feasible. I hope to hear from you within the next ten days.

Copies of the transaction paperwork and the receipt are enclosed. I eagerly await your response
and a resolution to my situation.

Yours faithfully,

Signature

KAPIL JOSHI
 PARAGRAPHS AND PARAGRAPHING

PARAGRAPHS & TOPIC SENTENCES

A paragraph is a series of sentences that are organized, coherent and are all related to a single
topic. Almost every piece of writing you do that is longer than a few sentences should be
organized into paragraphs. This is because paragraphs show a reader where the subdivisions of
an essay begin and end, and thus help the reader see the organization of the essay and grasp its
main points.

Paragraphs can contain many different kinds of information. A paragraph could contain a series
of brief examples or a single long illustration of a general point. It might describe a place,
character, or process; narrate a series of events; compare or contrast two or more things; classify
items into categories; or describe causes and effects. Regardless of the kind of information they
contain, all paragraphs share certain characteristics. One of the most important of these is a topic
sentence.

TOPIC SENTENCE

A well-organized paragraph supports or develops a single controlling idea, which is expressed in

a sentence called the topic sentence. A topic sentence has several important functions: it
substantiates or supports an essay’s thesis statement; it unifies the content of a paragraph and
directs the order of the sentences; and it advises the reader of the subject to be discussed and how
the paragraph will discuss it. Readers generally look to the first few sentences in a paragraph to
determine the subject and perspective of the paragraph. That’s why it’s often best to put the topic
sentence at the very beginning of the paragraph. In some cases, however, it’s more effective to
place another sentence before the topic sentence—for example, a sentence linking the current
paragraph to the previous one, or one providing background information.

Although most paragraphs should have a topic sentence, there are a few situations when a
paragraph might not need a topic sentence. For example, you might be able to omit a topic
sentence in a paragraph that narrates a series of events, if a paragraph continues developing an
idea that you introduced (with a topic sentence) in the previous paragraph, or if all the sentences
and details in a paragraph clearly refer—perhaps indirectly—to a main point. The vast majority
of your paragraphs, however, should have a topic sentence.

PARAGRAPH STRUCTURE

Most paragraphs in an essay have a three-part structure—introduction, body, and conclusion.

You can see this structure in paragraphs whether they are narrating, describing, comparing,
contrasting, or analyzing information. Each part of the paragraph plays an important role in
communicating your meaning to your reader.

Introduction: the first section of a paragraph; should include the topic sentence and any other
sentences at the beginning of the paragraph that give background information or provide a
transition.

Body: follows the introduction; discusses the controlling idea, using facts, arguments, analysis,
examples, and other information.

Conclusion: the final section; summarizes the connections between the information discussed in
the body of the paragraph and the paragraph’s controlling idea.

The following paragraph illustrates this pattern of organization. In this paragraph the topic
sentence and concluding sentence (CAPITALIZED) both help the reader keep the paragraph’s
main point in mind.

SCIENTISTS HAVE LEARNED TO SUPPLEMENT THE SENSE OF SIGHT IN

NUMEROUS WAYS. In front of the tiny pupil of the eye, they put, on Mount Palomar, a great
monocle 200 inches in diameter, and with it see 2000 times farther into the depths of space. Or
they look through a small pair of lenses arranged as a microscope into a drop of water or blood,
and magnify by as much as 2000 diameters the living creatures there, many of which are among
man’s most dangerous enemies. Or, if we want to see distant happenings on earth, they use
some of the previously wasted electromagnetic waves to carry television images which they re-
create as light by whipping tiny crystals on a screen with electrons in a vacuum. Or they can
bring happenings of long ago and far away as colored motion pictures, by arranging silver atoms
and color-absorbing molecules to force light waves into the patterns of original reality. Or if we
want to see into the center of a steel casting or the chest of an injured child, they send the
information on a beam of penetrating short-wave X rays, and then convert it back into images we
can see on a screen or photograph. THUS, ALMOST EVERY TYPE OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION YET DISCOVERED HAS BEEN USED TO EXTEND
OUR SENSE OF SIGHT IN SOME WAY.

PARAGRAPHING

Why do people slice pizzas into pieces? Well, if they don’t do this then the pizza would be too
big for them to hold and eat. Without slices, they might bite off more than they can chew.
Similarly, writers cut their writing up into smaller pieces so that it is more digestible for their
readers. This process is called paragraphing.

Paragraphing is the act of breaking writing into sections called paragraphs. Paragraphing is a
critical step of the writing process. Writers divide their writing into paragraphs in all types of
writing, including academic essays, short stories, and novels.

IMPORTANCE OF PARAGRAPHING

Paragraphing is important because breaking writing into small sections helps writers stay
organized when conveying their thoughts. Paragraphing is also important because it helps
readers follow the logical development of a writer’s ideas.

For instance, imagine reading an essay without paragraphs in it. The text would be one long
piece without any breaks, and it may be confusing and hard to understand how the writer's ideas
connect to one another.

TYPES OF PARAGRAPHING

There are three main types of paragraphs. Each type requires writers to visually format their
paragraphs a bit differently.

Blocked Paragraphing

Blocked paragraphing is when every line of a paragraph starts at the same place—the left margin
of the page. Blocked paragraphing is commonly seen in business letters. For instance, this
paragraph is an example of blocked paragraphing.

Indented Paragraphing

Also called semi-blocked paragraphing, indented paragraphing is when a writer indents the first
line of each new paragraph. To create the indent, writers can hit the space bar several times, use
the tab button, or use the indentation feature on their writing software. Indented paragraphing is a
common type of paragraphing for students who write academic essays.

The beginning of this paragraph is indented. Standard paragraph indentation is about five
spaces or one-quarter to one-half of an inch, depending on which style guide you follow. In
online writing, if your software doesn't allow indentation, insert a line space to indicate a new
paragraph.
Hanging Paragraphing

Hanging paragraphing is when the first line of text starts from the left margin but the lines
underneath it are indented, like in the following example: Examples of this kind of indentation
are found in résumés, outlines, bibliographies, glossaries, and indexes. For example:

This is a hanging paragraph. The

second and subsequent lines are
all indented from the left like
this paragraph.

NEW PARAGRAPHS, NEW IDEAS

A new paragraph is usually used to introduce a new idea or a new point. This gives readers a bit
of a break between ideas and helps them understand the main points of each idea without getting
confused or distracted by unrelated information.

Introductory and Concluding Paragraphs

Introductory and concluding paragraphs are important types of paragraphs that bookend many
forms of academic writing. Understanding how to craft an introduction and a conclusion is an
important part of learning how to use paragraphing to ensure effective writing.

Introduction

The first paragraph of an academic essay is called the introduction. The introduction should
engage the reader by hooking their attention. Methods for hooking the reader include opening the
essay with the following:

 A short, striking quote

 A significant statistic
 A relevant, impactful anecdote

After hooking readers’ attention, the writer should introduce the main point in their body
paragraph. This often includes adding some context about the topic, such as why it is important,
and then stating the thesis statement.

Conclusion

A conclusion is the last paragraph of an essay. It wraps up the main points for the reader and
does not introduce any new information. Writers should do all of the following things when
crafting a conclusion:
 Restate their thesis statement or main point with new phrasing
 Summarize the supporting points from their body paragraphs
 Sum up the overall significance of the paper