NATIONAL I NSTITUTE OF T ECHNOLOGY D URGAPUR

D EPARTMENT OF M ATHEMATICS

Course Material for MAC331

Lakshmi Kanta Dey

November 5, 2024

1 C ALCULUS OF R ESIDUES
X X
Definition 1.1. Let f have an isolated singularity at z = a and let f (z) = an (z − a)n + bn (z −
n≥0 n≥1
a)−n be the Laurent series expansion of f about z = a. Then the residue of f at z = a is the coefficient
b1 and denoted by Res(f ; a). Therefore the residue of f at z = a is given by
Z
1
Res(f ; a) = b1 = f (z) dz
2πi γ

where γ is a circle |z − a| = r for some r with 0 < r < R.

1
Example 1.1. Laurent series expansion for f (z) = (z−1)2 (z−3)
valid for 0 < |z − 1| < 2 is

−1 1 1 1
f (z) = 2
− − − (z − 1) − . . .
2(z − 1) 4(z − 1) 8 16
1
Here z = 1 is a pole of order 2 and we see that the coefficient of (z−1) is

−1
b1 = Res(f (z), 1) = .
4
3
Example 1.2. Laurent series expansion for f (z) = e z valid for 0 < |z| < ∞ is

3 3 32 33
ez = 1 + + + + ...
z 2!z 2 3!z 3
1
Here z = 0 is an essential singularity and the coefficient of z is

Res(f (z), 0) = 3.

1
Theorem 1.2. If f has an isolated removable singularity at z0 , then Res(f ; z0 ) = 0.

Theorem 1.3. If f has an isolated singularity at z0 and if f is even in (z − z0 ), i.e., f (z − z0 ) =

f (−(z − z0 )), then Res(f ; z0 ) = 0.

Theorem 1.4. If f has a simple pole at z = z0 , then

Res(f (z), z0 ) = lim (z − z0 )f (z).

z→z0

Theorem 1.5. If f has a pole of order m at z0 , then

1 dm−1
Res(f ; z0 ) = lim {(z − z0 )m f (z)}.
z→z0 (m − 1)! dz m−1

Example 1.3. Find the residue of the function f (z) at a simple pole z = 3 and at z = 1 which is a pole
of order 2. The function
1
f (z) = .
(z − 1)2 (z − 3)
Solution: Since z = 3 is a simple pole, we have

Res(f (z); 3) = lim (z − 3)f (z)

z→3
1
= lim
z→3 (z − 1)2
1
= .
4
Now at the pole of order 2,
1 d
Res(f (z); 1) = lim (z − 1)2 f (z)
1! z→1 dz
d 1
= lim
z→1 dz (z − 3)
−1
= lim
z→1 (z − 3)2
−1
= .
4
Whenever f is not a rational function, calculating residues using Theorem ?? or ?? can sometimes be
tedious. It is possible to devise alternative residue formulas. In particular, suppose a function f can be
written as a quotient
g(z)
f (z) = ,
h(z)
where g and h are analytic at z = z0 . If g(z0 ) ̸= 0 and if the function h has a zero of order 1 at z0 , then
f has a simple pole at z = z0 and
g(z0 )
Res(f (z); z0 ) = ′ .
h (z0 )
Example 1.4. Let us consider the function

g(z) ez
f (z) = = z .
h(z) e −1

2
The function in question has simple poles. Note that e2nπi = 1 for n ∈ N, so by continuity ez − 1 tends
to zero as z → 2nπi and thus the reciprocal tends to infinity.
To show that the poles are simple, note that the denominator ez − 1 has a zero of order 1 at 2nπi and
the numerator is non-zero there so the given function has a simple pole and so the residue is
g(2nπi) ez
Res(f (z); 2nπi) = = at 2nπi = 1.
h′ (2nπi) d z
dz (e − 1)

Theorem 1.6 (Cauchy’s Residue Theorem). Let D be a region and γ a simple closed contour lying
entirely within D. If a function f is analytic on and within γ, except at a finite number of isolated
singular points z1 , z2 , . . . , zn within γ, then
Z n
X
f (z) dz = 2πi Res(f ; zi ).
γ k=1

Corollary 1. Let D be a region and γ a simple closed contour lying entirely within D. Let f : D → C
be a function such that f is analytic except at a finite number of isolated singular points z1 , z2 , . . . , zn .
If no zi lies on γ and z1 , z2 , . . . , zm lie inside γ for m ≤ n. Then
Z Xm
f (z) dz = 2πi Res(f ; zi ).
γ k=1

1.1 S OLVED P ROBLEMS

1. Evaluate I
In = z n dz, n ∈ Z.
|z|=1
Solution: We see that z n is analytic for n = 0, 1, 2, . . ., we have In = 0 for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . .
Similarly, for n = −2, −3, −4, . . . we find that the Res(z n ; 0) = 0; hence In = 0. Now for
n = −1, Res(z n ; 0) = 1 and thus I−1 = 2πi.1 = 2πi.
We write In = 2πiδn,−1 , where δn,k is referred to as Kronecker delta function.
2. Evaluate I
1
dz,
C (z − 1)2 (z − 3)
where
(a) the contour C is the rectangle defined by x = 0, x = 4, y = −1, y = 1;
(b) and the contour C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution: (a) Since both z = 1 and z = 3 are poles within the rectangle, we have from Theorem
?? that I
1
2
dz = 2πi[Res(f (z), 1) + Res(f (z), 3)]
C (z − 1) (z − 3)
We already have calculated these residues in the previous example.Therefore,
 
−1 1
I
1
2
dz = 2πi + = 0.
C (z − 1) (z − 3) 4 4
(b) Since only the pole z = 1 lies within the circle |z| = 2, we have
 
−1 −π
I
1
2 (z − 3)
dz = 2πi = i.
C (z − 1) 4 2

3
3. Evaluate I
2z + 6
dz,
C z2 + 4
where the contour C is the circle |z − i| = 2.
Solution: By factoring the denominator as z 2 + 4 = (z − 2i)(z + 2i), note that the integrand has
simple poles at −2i and 2i. Because only 2i lies within the contour C, it follows from Theorem
?? that I
2z + 6
2
dz = 2πiRes(f (z), 2i).
C z +4
Here,
2z + 6
Res(f (z), 2i) = lim (z − 2i)
z→2i (z − 2i)(z + 2i)
6 + 4i
=
4i
3 + 2i
= .
2i
Therefore, I  
2z + 6 3 + 2i
dz = 2πi = π(3 + 2i).
C z2 + 4 2i

4. Evaluate
ez
I
dz,
C z 4 + 5z 3
where the contour C is the circle |z| = 2.
Solution: Factoring the denominator as z 4 + 5z 3 = z 3 (z + 5) reveals that the integrand f (z)
has a pole of order 3 at z = 0 and a simple pole at z = −5. But only the pole z = 0 lies within the
given contour and so we have,
ez
I
4 3
dz = 2πiRes(f (z), 0)
C z + 5z
1 d2 ez
= 2πi lim 2 z 3 3
2! z→0 dz z (z + 5)
(z + 8z + 17)ez
2
= πi lim
z→0 (z + 5)3
17πi
= .
125

5. Evaluate I
3
e z dz,
C
where the contour C is the circle |z| = 1.
3
Solution: As we have seen, z = 0 is an essential singularity of the integrand f (z) = e z and so
neither of Theorem ?? and ?? are applicable to find the residue of f at that point. Now, using the
Laurent series expansion of f at z = 0, we have Res(f (z), 0) = 3. Hence, we have
I
3
e z dz = 2πiRes(f (z), 0) = 2πi(3) = 6πi.
C

4
6. Evaluate the following integral, where C is the ellipse (counter-clockwise).

zeπz
I  
π
+ ze z dz
C z 4 − 16

Solution: Since z 4 − 16 = 0 at ±2i and ±2, and the first term of the integrand has simple poles
at ±2i inside C, with residues
zeπz −1
Res(f (z), 2i) = = ,
z 4 − 16 16
and
zeπz −1
Res(f (z), −2i) =
4
= ,
z − 16 16
and simple poles at ±2 which lie outside C, so that they are of no interest here. The second term
2
of the integrand has an essential singularity at 0, with residue π2 as obtained from

π2 π3
 
π π
ze = z 1 + +
z + + ...
z 2!z 2 3!z 3
π2 1
= z + π + . + ...
2 z
Hence,
zeπz π2
I      
π −1 1 12
4
+ ze z dz = 2πi − + =π π − i.
C z − 16 16 16 2 4

1.1.1 E XERCISE
1. Find the residues at each of the isolated singularities of the following functions in C or C∞ :
z
(i) z 2 +3z−4
, Ans: 1
 3
z 2 +z+1
(ii) z+1 ,
1
(iii) (z 3 +1)(z+1)2
,
1
(iv) z sin z ,
(v) sec z,
1
(vi) e z Ans: 1
2
(vii) e z2 Ans: 0
ez
(viii) ez −1 .

2. Evaluate the following integrals by residue theorem:

z
R
(i) |z|=1 z 4 −6z 2 +1 dz,

(ii) |z|=1 (ez1−cos z

R
−1) sin z dz,

(iii) |z|=1 z 2 (ez 1−e−z ) dz,

R

(iv) |z|=4 z 2 (ez 1−e−z ) dz,

R

(v) |z−1|=3 (z 2 −1)3z(1+z 2 )2 dz,

R

5
 e1/(z−1)
R
(vi) |z|=3 z−2 dz,
R
(vii) |z|=π cot πz dz,
1
R
(viii) C 1+z 2 dz, where C is any circle enclosing i and −i inside.
R (ez −e−z )2
(ix) |z|=1 z3
dz,
1
R
(x) C (z−1)2 (z−3) dz, where C is the rectangle defined by x = 0, x = 4, y = −1, y = 1,
2z+6
R
(xi) |z−i|=2 z 2 +4 dz,
1
R
(xii) |z−2i|=3 z sin z dz,
1
R
(xiii) |z−3i|=3 z 2 +4z+13 dz,
1
R
(xiv) |z−2|= 23 z 3 (z−1)4 dz,
2z−1
dz, where C is the rectangle defined by x = −2, x = 1, y = − 21 , y = 1.
R
(xv) C z 2 (z 3 +1)
H 1
(xvi) |z|=1 ze dz. Ans: πi.
z

Acknowledgement. This part of the lecture note has been prepared and modified with help of my Ph.D.
students Ankush Chanda. Dr Chanda is currently an Assistant Professor of VIT, Vellore. Further, we use
the following books as reference.

R EFERENCES
[1] E. Kreyszig, Advanced Engineering Mathematics, John Wiley and Sons., United States of America,
2011.

[2] S. Ponnusamy, Foundations of Complex Analysis, Narosa Publishing House, India, 2005.

[3] P.D. Shanahan, D.G. Zill, A First Course in Complex Analysis with Applications, Jones and Bartlett
Publishers, United States of America, 2003.

[4] I. Stewart, D. Tall, Complex Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 2018.