Design Of Com bustion Cham ber Project

Chapter 2
Prof: Ola Rashed Prof: Badiea Hafez

Name SEC BN
Sohila Amr Gamal 1 24
Mohamed Ebrahim Mohamed 2 3
Mohamed Osama AbdulRashid 2 6
Mohamed Rajih Mohamed 2 10
Mohamed Emad Mahmoud 2 20

Due Date: 20. 10. 2024

Chapter2: fuel systems, Aircraft Fuel Tanks, fuel types and fuel control
system
2.1. Fuel systems
All powered aircrafts require fuel on board to operate the engine(s). The functions of the fuel system
are to provide the engine with fuel in a form suitable for combustion and to control the flow to the
required quantity necessary for easy starting, acceleration and stable running, at all engine operating
conditions. To do this, one or more fuel pumps are used to deliver the fuel to the fuel spray nozzles,
which inject it into the combustion system in the form of an atomized spray. Because the flow rate
must vary according to the amount of air passing through the engine to maintain a constant selected
engine speed or pressure ratio, the controlling devices are fully automatic except for engine power
selection, which is achieved by a manual throttle or power lever. A fuel shut-off valve (cock) control
lever is also used to stop the engine, although in some instances these two manual controls are
combined for single-lever operation.
It is also necessary to have automatic safety controls that prevent the engine gas temperature,
compressor delivery pressure, and the rotating assembly speed, from exceeding their maximum
limitations.
Before we discuss fuel control in detail, let's look at a typical engine fuel system and follow the fuel
flow through that system.

Fig (1-2) A Simplified fuel system for turbo-jet engine.

2.1.2. Typical engine fuel system

The fuel flow begins at the aircraft fuel tank and is assisted by wing mounted boost pumps. Fuel is
delivered to the fuel system components as shown in Fig (2-2)
 Fig (2-2) fuel system components

. The fuel passes to the engine driven pump at a fairly low pressure, this ensures an adequate 'head of
pressure' at the inlet to the pump, preventing cavitation of the pump during normal operation. The fuel
flow is then directed through the fuel heater. However, this may be an optional extra depending on the
design requirements of the system. The fuel heater ensures that any ice particles are removed from the
fuel before the fuel reaches the Fuel Control Unit (FCU). Hot air for heating the fuel is drawn from the
engine compressor. The fuel control unit meters and supplies the correct amount of fuel to the engine
burners depending upon throttle position and the various environmental conditions that affect the
engine performance. It is a hydromechanical computer, consisting of two parts, a metering section and
a computing section. The fuel control unit is fitted with a fuel filter.

2.1.3. Fuel system types

2.1.3.1. Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC)
The Digital Electronic Engine Control (DEEC) fuel system is a sophisticated, computer-controlled
system designed to optimize the performance, fuel efficiency, and emissions of modern aircraft
engines. It manages the engine’s fuel supply and oversees various parameters to ensure efficient
combustion, reliable performance, and compliance with safety regulations.
Description
The DEEC is a vital component of a modern jet engine's control architecture. It uses digital electronics
to control the flow of fuel to the engine based on real-time inputs from various sensors. This contrasts
with earlier, more mechanical systems like hydro-mechanical fuel controls, making DEEC more
accurate and adaptable to changing flight conditions.
In essence, the DEEC system fine-tunes the engine's operation by controlling parameters such as fuel
flow, engine speed, and exhaust emissions, contributing to higher fuel efficiency, better reliability, and
safer operations.
Operation
The DEEC operates by receiving continuous data from multiple sensors placed around the engine. It
uses this data to compute the optimal amount of fuel to be delivered to the engine for different flight
conditions (e.g., takeoff, cruising, landing).
This involves several functions:
• Monitoring engine parameters like temperature, pressure, and speed.
• Calculating the required fuel flow to maintain optimal combustion.
• Controlling the fuel flow valve to regulate the precise amount of fuel injected into the
combustion chamber.
• Adjusting thrust settings and optimizing engine performance based on pilot inputs and
environmental conditions.
The system automatically compensates for altitude, speed, and load variations, ensuring the engine
operates within its optimal performance envelope.
Purpose
The primary purpose of the DEEC fuel system is to:
1. Optimize engine performance: It adjusts fuel flow for the most efficient combustion,
improving fuel efficiency.
2. Enhance safety: By continuously monitoring engine parameters, it can detect anomalies early
and make adjustments or notify the crew.
3. Reduce emissions: Optimized combustion reduces the emission of pollutants such as nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and unburned hydrocarbons.
4. Provide precise control: It ensures the engine operates at the right thrust level for various
flight phases without manual intervention.
Components and Functions
The DEEC fuel system is composed of several key components:
1. Digital Engine Control Unit (ECU):
o Function: The brain of the system, it processes input data from sensors and computes
the necessary adjustments for fuel flow, engine speed, and other critical parameters.
2. Fuel Metering Unit (FMU):
o Function: The FMU regulates the flow of fuel to the engine's combustion chamber
based on signals from the ECU. It ensures the fuel is delivered at the right rate for
efficient combustion.
 3. Fuel Pumps:
o Function: These pumps deliver fuel from the fuel tanks to the FMU under high
pressure. They maintain a constant fuel supply regardless of the aircraft’s altitude or
speed.
4. Fuel Injectors:
o Function: These inject fuel into the combustion chamber in a fine spray to ensure
efficient and complete combustion. The fuel injectors are controlled by the FMU.
5. Throttle/Power Lever:
o Function: The pilot’s interface for controlling engine thrust. The position of the throttle
lever is one of the primary inputs to the ECU.
6. Power Supply:
7. Function: Provides electrical power to the entire DEEC system to ensure continuous operation,
typically backed up by an auxiliary power unit (APU) or battery during emergency conditions.
Sensors
The DEEC relies on a variety of sensors to monitor engine and environmental conditions:
1. Inlet Temperature Sensor:
o Monitors: Air temperature entering the engine, which helps adjust fuel flow for varying
air densities at different altitudes.
2. Pressure Sensors:
o Monitors: Both internal and external pressure to ensure the right air-fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
3. Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) Sensors:
o Monitors: Temperature of the exhaust gases, ensuring that the engine operates within
safe temperature limits.
4. Engine Speed (N1/N2) Sensors:
o Monitors: Rotational speeds of various engine components, allowing the ECU to
regulate the power output and fuel flow accordingly.
5. Fuel Flow Sensors:
o Monitors: The rate of fuel flow to ensure it matches the engine's operational
requirements at any given time.
6. Vibration Sensors:
o Monitors: Engine vibrations, helping detect mechanical issues early, such as imbalance
or component wear.
7. Throttle Position Sensor:
 8. Monitors: The position of the throttle, which determines the amount of fuel and air mixture
needed for the engine's power output.
Applications
The DEEC system is widely used in various aviation applications due to its efficiency and safety
benefits. It is primarily found in:
• Commercial jet engines: Nearly all modern large aircraft, such as Boeing and Airbus jets, use
digital control systems for fuel and engine management.
• Military aircraft: Modern fighter jets and transport aircraft use DEEC to ensure optimal
engine performance in combat and high-performance situations.
• Business jets and smaller aircraft: Many high-performance business jets also feature DEEC
systems to ensure smooth, efficient engine performance.
Commercial Airlines Using the DEEC System
Most commercial airliners today utilize engines equipped with DEEC systems. Some of the major
aircraft models that incorporate DEEC include:
• Boeing 737, 747, 777, 787 series: Equipped with GE, Rolls-Royce, or Pratt & Whitney engines
that use digital engine control.
• Airbus A320, A330, A350 series: Use CFM, Rolls-Royce, or Pratt & Whitney engines, all
incorporating DEEC.
• Embraer and Bombardier jets: These regional and business jets also feature engines with
DEEC for enhanced fuel efficiency and performance.
The implementation of DEEC systems in these aircraft has significantly improved fuel efficiency,
reduced emissions, and enhanced operational safety, making them a standard feature in modern
aviation.

2.1.3.2. Full Authority Digital Engine Control(FADEC)

Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) is a system consisting of digital computers known as
Electronic Control Unit (ECU) with auxiliary components for controlling aircraft engines and
propellers. It is produced for both piston engines and jet engines. The term Full Authority indicates
that there is no manual override available, thus placing full authority over operating features on the
computer. This technology with a characteristic feature of single lever control runs the engine in
optimal condition with less consumption of fuel by controlling power and adjusting amount of fuel
injection during the process of combustion. The basic objective is to give optimum efficiency for given
flight condition. It manages starting phase and further engine operation from idle to full throttle.
A full authority digital engine control is a system having electronic control unit and other
secondary components for monitoring the engine performance. The system controls the ignition
timing, fuel injection timing and fuel-air ratio mixture thus, an engine with FADEC doesn’t need
magnetos and there is no requirement for manual air-fuel mixture control. The basic components of
FADEC are two Master Power Control Units (MP1 and MP2) two ECU’s, Health Status Annunciator
(HSA) and sensors for temperature and pressure of manifold, cylinder head temperature(CHT),
exhaust gas temperature(EGT), speed and fuel pressure, low voltage and high voltage harness, throttle
body and fuel injection system. HSA has five lights on its panel and gives information relating to
FADEC’s status. FADEC works by receiving inputs during flight conditions such as density of air,
throttle position, engine temperature and pressure and other parameters. These data from sensors will
go to ECU for processing and analysis. Then the operating parameters of engine such as fuel flow,
position of stator vane and bleed valve along with others are estimated from this data and applied
appropriately. It also controls engine starting and restarting, giving optimum engine efficiency for
given conditions of flight. It not only provides efficient functioning of engine but allows programming
for engine shortcomings and get engine maintenance report .As the term Full Authority indicates there
is no manual intervention available hence it can be programmed to take required measures
automatically without interference of pilot.
The functions of FADEC are engine control, safety and data logging. Through this system the engine
receives the correct fuel amount per cylinder and ignition of spark plug at correct time by RPM, throttle
setting, convenient pressure and temperature leading to fuel savings and smoother running of engine.

Fig (3-2) Different types of FADEC produced by SAGEM

2.1.3.2.1
Main components used in FADEC system are listed below:
• Two Electronic Control Units (ECUs)
• Central Air digital Computer(CADC)
• Health Status Annunciator (HSA)
• FADEC sensor sets
ECUs are the brain of the engine control system. They perform the most important task of receiving
the output from sensors, analyzing it and taking the immediate required action. ECU is divided into an
upper and lower portion. Lower portion contains the Electronic Circuit Board that processes all data
whereas; upper portion contains the ignition coils for the spark plugs. Lower portion of each ECU
contains two microprocessors. One microprocessor is assigned for one cylinder. Let us say, cylinders
1 and 2 are operated by ECU no.1 and cylinders 3 and 4 are operated by ECU no.2. If any problem is
encountered with ECU no.1, cylinder no. 1 and 2 will be operated by ECU no. 2. This is the backup
plan which has been mentioned earlier.
The CADC (Central Air Digital Computer) consists of a analogue to digital converter, several quartz
pressure sensors, and the microprocessor. Inputs to the system includes the primary flight controls, a
number of switches, static and dynamic air pressure (for calculating stall points and aircraft speed) and
a temperature gauge.
The output controls the primary flight controls, wing sweep and the flaps.
FADEC sensor sets are used to detect speed, cylinder head temperature, exhaust gas temperature,
manifold air pressure, manifold air temperature, fuel pressure and throttle position. Health Status
Annunciator(HSA) consists of five lights on panels and WOT .HSA provides information regarding
the status of the FADEC system. Whenever any problem is encountered, the following warnings might
pop up in FADEC windows:
• FADEC WARN: Engine Failure may be imminent, more than one cylinder is affected, land
ASAP
• FADEC CAUTION: 99.9% of installed components are working. No prompt action is required.
• PPWR FAIL: Primary Battery is not being charged, will be accompanied by EBAT FAIL, you
will start draining both batteries and have at least 60 minutes to land. Your secondary battery
will only power FADEC, AI, and Turn Coordinator.
• EBAT FAIL: Backup Battery not being charged; everything can run from Primary Power
Source/Battery.
• FUEL PUMP: illuminates when Fuel Boost Pump Mode Switch is in ON or OFF. If this light
is illuminated it means that you are manually controlling the fuel pump or that the fuel pressure
is out of the 20-40 psi range. Illuminates for electric driven fuel pump as well as engine driven
pump.
WOT: It is situated below HSA panel. Illuminates when Throttle Position Switch (TPS) is contacted
(full throttle), signal sent to ECU that max power is required which causes FADEC to set fuel to air
ratio for Best Power.
2.1.3.2.2 Operation OF FADEC
As the name suggests, these sensors are employed to detect speed, temperature, pressure, throttle
position and they are equipped at particular functional positions. The output from the sensors is flown
to Central Air Data computer (CADC) and then to Electronic Control Units (ECUs) for data processing
and analysis.
Each ECUs has two Central Air Data computer (CADC) inputs. All the sensors mentioned above flow
their outputs to CADC before they are sent to ECUs. There is a cross link between each ECUs and
CADC which helps in normal operation during failure of one CADC inputs. Generally, CADC receives
inputs from five sources:
1.Static pressure sensor
2.Dynamic pressure sensor
3.Analog pilot information
4.Temperature probe and
5.Digital switch pilot input

Fig (4-2) cross link between ECUs and CADCs

Failure of one CADC inputs does not have any effect but when both CADC inputs fail to operate,
FADEC operates in an alternative way. That is, FADEC takes the latest input sensed by CADC to
calculate thrust. Now, FADEC utilizes an internal, fixed routine to determine thrust level for the
selected throttle position. However, internal routine may cause the trust to increase but it will never
cause the thrust to decrease. After the detection of information, ECUs direct the actuator to perform
accordingly.
The FADEC system continuously monitors fuel and ignition conditions. The ECU units receive
information from sensors via the Low Voltage Harness which inter- faces with the MPC units via 50-
pin connectors. The status of the FADEC system is conveyed to the pilot by the HSA. Discrete lamps
in the HSA will illuminate upon detection of system faults and during some normal control actions.
Sensor input to each control channel includes engine speed, crank position, fuel pressure, intake
manifold air pressure, intake manifold air temperature and Wide-Open Throttle (WOT) position. In
addition, each control channel also receives exclusive signals for measuring its cylinder’s head
temperature and exhaust gas temperature.
The ECU units use the signals from sensors to determine the required fuel mixture and ignition timing
for its cylinder’s next combustion event. The required fuel quantity is injected into each cylinder intake
port at the appropriate time, with respect to crank position, by a solenoid style fuel injector. The
injector’s control coil is driven directly by the associated control channel.
FADEC systems are either powered by the aircraft’s main electrical engine or from a separate
generator connected to the engine. However, a backup source of 12 or 24 voltages is available for both
cases because failure of FADEC system could result in complete loss of engine thrust. To eliminate
the loss of thrust, two separate and identical digital channels are installed which are capable of
providing thrust to all engines. Two channels are housed in one assembly but are physically separated.
FADEC comes with an impressive improvement to the electrical system. In the event of an alternator
failure, the automatic bus tie will connect the buses together. This event requires no input from the
pilot and the alternator which still remains online supporting nighttime operations.

2.1.3.2.3 USE OF SENSOR IN FADEC

Sensor is a device that is designed to transform acoustic, biological, chemical, electrical, magnetic,
mechanical, optical, radiation or thermal stimuli into an electrical signal for the purpose of transmitting
information. Sensors and sensing techniques are needed to be integrated into the FADEC. This requires
the addition of signal conditioners and software addition to the control algorithms. Signal conditioning
of the signal may involve amplification, filtering, and may contain some. All the sensors need to be
interfaced with the hardware through analog signal multiplexer and analog-to-digital converters.
 Fig (5-2) Different Sensors and their Locations

FADEC systems employ three types of sensors:

• Control sensor
• Feedback sensor and
• Diagnostic sensors
Control sensors are critical to maintaining stable engine operation including temperatures, pressures,
and speed measurement. Feedback sensors are primarily position sensors for measurement and control
of actuator position. Diagnostic sensors may include all control sensor types and additionally,
vibration, strain, Infrared, and gas measurement.
Control loops are required to maintain safe and stable engine operation. Each sensor is routed to a
central Controller (FADEC). Today’s manufacturer employs dedicated wiring for each measurement
and actuation location. Figure 3 shows typical sensors suits used in a typical turbine engine control.

Fig(6-2) Block Diagram for components and data flow in FADEC

At present, all the FADEC systems are installed in a centralized way. All the information is carried
only after being passed on it.
 Fig (7-2) Centerlized FADEC system

USE OF FADEC IN MODERN AIRCRAFT

Like every electronic good, FADEC are improved and optimized periodically. FADEC are
classified into different generations according to their latest version. Three generations of FADECs
for powerful civilian aircraft engines have been developed one after another.

Table 1.2 Use of FADEC in different Aircrafts

Capable of controlling single or dual channel turboprops, turbo shafts, turbo- jets and turbofans,
FADECs control the various actuators in real time by continuously processing and analyzing data
collected by multiple sensors (oil, kerosene, engine, ignition, alternator, etc.). Equipped with a
comprehensive set of built-in tests, FADECs are designed to resist severe environments
(electromagnetic interferences, lightning, contamination, vibrations, high temperatures, etc.) and
offer lower costs of ownership. Featured in several programs such as CFM56, CF6, GE90, GEnx,
TP400, GP7200 and SaM146 engines, Developed and built along- side BAe Systems within the
framework of the FADEC International joint venture, FADEC 3s processing power is 10 times
higher than its predecessors for the same overall size. Its highly embedded electronic architecture
features several new functions such as maintenance and diagnostic functions, in particular. Among
its multiple tasks, FADEC 3 controls engine thrust, interfaces with the thrust reverser and ensures
electronic engine protection in case of over speed, etc. FADEC 3 equips the GE90-115B, the Boeing
777 Extended Range most powerful aircraft engine in the world.

2.1.3.3. Hydromechanical fuel system

Description
A hydromechanical fuel system is a type of fuel delivery system commonly used in aircraft engines
and some automotive applications. It combines mechanical and hydraulic principles to manage fuel
flow and pressure, ensuring that the engine receives the correct amount of fuel for efficient
operation.
A hydromechanical fuel system is an advanced method for controlling fuel flow in aircraft engines,
combining hydraulic and mechanical components to ensure precise fuel delivery based on engine
requirements. This system is essential for maintaining optimal performance and efficiency in various
aviation applications.

Fig(8-2): Hydromechanical fuel system

Operation
The system operates by using hydraulic principles to regulate fuel flow and pressure, allowing for
responsive adjustments based on engine conditions. When the engine demands more power, the
system increases fuel flow, while reducing it during lower power settings.
1. Fuel Intake: Fuel is drawn from the tank by a pump.
2. Fuel Pressurization: The fuel is pressurized and sent to the fuel control unit (FCU).
3. Fuel Regulation: The FCU adjusts the fuel flow based on inputs from various sensors.
Injection: Fuel is injected into the combustion chamber via injectors, where it is atomized for
efficient combustion.
Purpose
The primary purpose of a hydromechanical fuel system is to provide reliable and precise fuel
delivery to the engine, optimizing performance, efficiency, and emissions under varying operating
conditions. It ensures that the engine receives the correct fuel-air mixture for combustion.
Components and Functions
Components Function Type or Mechanism
Fuel Pump Pressurizes and delivers fuel Typically, a gear or
to the FCU. centrifugal pump
Fuel Control Unit (FCU) Regulates the amount of fuel Uses mechanical linkages
supplied to the engine based and hydraulic feedback.
on throttle position, airflow,
and other parameters.
Injectors Atomize the fuel into a fine Can be multi-point or direct
mist for optimal combustion. injection systems.
Fuel Filters Remove impurities from the Protects engine components
fuel before it reaches the and ensures clean fuel
injectors. delivery.
Return Lines Allow excess fuel to return
to the tank, preventing
pressure build-up and
ensuring a steady flow.
Table 2.2 Components and its Functions of Hydromechanical fuel system

Sensors
Various sensors play a critical role in the operation of hydromechanical fuel systems, including:
1. Pressure Sensors: Monitor fuel pressure to ensure it is within optimal ranges.
2. Temperature Sensors: Measure the fuel temperature to adjust flow and prevent
vaporization.
3. Flow Sensors: Measure the rate of fuel flow to ensure proper delivery.
4. Throttle Position Sensors: Relay information on engine demand to the FCU.
Applications
Hydromechanical fuel systems are primarily used in
• Turboprop Engines: Often found in regional and smaller commercial aircraft.
• Turbojet Engines: Used in larger commercial airliners and military aircraft.
 • High-Performance Automotive Engines: Some performance vehicles utilize similar
systems for precise fuel management.
Commercial Airlines Using the System
Many commercial airlines operate aircraft equipped with hydromechanical fuel systems. Examples
include
• Boeing: Models like the 737 and 747 often use hydromechanical systems in their engines.
• Airbus: Aircraft such as the A320 and A330 may also feature these systems.
• Regional Carriers: Airlines operating regional jets, such as Bombardier Q-Series or ATR
aircraft, utilize turboprop engines with hydromechanical systems.
Advantages
• Reliable and robust design.
• Provides precise fuel delivery under varying operating conditions.
• Minimal electronic components, reducing susceptibility to failure.
2.1.3.4. Mechanical-Hydraulic-Electronic Fuel Control System
Description
A mechanical-hydraulic-electronic fuel control system is an advanced system used in modern aircraft
to precisely manage the delivery of fuel to engines. This hybrid system integrates mechanical,
hydraulic, and electronic control mechanisms to optimize engine performance, reduce emissions, and
ensure safety. It is typically employed in jet engines, where precise fuel delivery is critical to ensure
efficient combustion and thrust generation. By combining multiple technologies, the system provides
high accuracy and responsiveness to varying flight conditions, while ensuring redundancy and
reliability.
Operation
The system operates by using inputs from various sensors, which monitor engine and environmental
parameters such as throttle position, engine speed, air pressure, and temperature. These inputs are
processed by the electronic control unit (ECU), which adjusts the mechanical and hydraulic
components to regulate fuel flow.
In normal operation:
- Electronic control: is the primary mode, where the ECU determines the required fuel flow based on
engine demand and adjusts the fuel metering valve accordingly.
- Hydraulic actuation: assists in moving fuel control components, such as valves and servos, with the
required precision.
- Mechanical backup: provides a fail-safe operation in case of electronic or hydraulic system failure,
ensuring that fuel can still be delivered to the engine, albeit with less precision.
This combination of systems ensures optimal engine performance, smooth acceleration, and safe
operation under various conditions.
Purpose
The primary purpose of the mechanical-hydraulic-electronic fuel control system is to regulate fuel
delivery to the engine in response to the demands of the pilot and the conditions of the flight. It ensures:
- Efficient fuel usage, reducing unnecessary fuel consumption.
- Stable engine operation, avoiding conditions like surge, stall, or flameout.
- Emissions control, ensuring that fuel is burned efficiently to reduce pollutants.
- Safety and reliability, with multiple redundant systems to prevent engine failure.
Components and Their Functions
1. Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
- The ECU processes input from various sensors and makes real-time adjustments to the fuel system.
It is responsible for calculating the optimal fuel flow for efficient combustion and thrust generation.
2. Fuel Metering Unit (FMU)
- This component controls the amount of fuel sent to the engine. The ECU signals the FMU to open
or close, adjusting the fuel flow based on engine requirements.
3. Hydraulic Actuator
- The hydraulic actuator moves various control elements like valves or nozzles. It provides the
mechanical force needed to position components precisely in response to electronic commands.
4. Fuel Pump
- The fuel pump draws fuel from the tank and pressurizes it before sending it to the engine. It ensures
that fuel is delivered at a consistent and sufficient pressure.
5. Throttle Valve
- This valve controls the amount of air entering the engine, which, together with fuel, controls the
thrust produced. It is adjusted by the ECU to maintain proper air-fuel mixture ratios.
6. Fuel Nozzles
- These spray fuel into the combustion chamber in a fine mist, ensuring proper atomization for
efficient burning.
7. Governor
- In mechanical systems, the governor is responsible for maintaining engine speed by adjusting fuel
flow. In the hybrid system, it acts as a backup to the ECU.
8. Fuel Flow Transmitter
- This component monitors and reports the rate of fuel being delivered to the engine, ensuring the
ECU can make necessary adjustments in real-time.
Sensors
The system relies on multiple sensors for real-time data:
1. Throttle Position Sensor
 - Monitors the position of the throttle lever and provides input to the ECU for fuel adjustments.
2. Engine Temperature Sensors (EGT/TIT)
- These sensors monitor exhaust gas temperature or turbine inlet temperature to ensure the engine is
operating within safe limits.
3. Pressure Sensors
- Measure the air pressure at various points (e.g., ambient, compressor inlet) to adjust fuel delivery
based on altitude and flight conditions.
4. Fuel Pressure Sensor
- Monitors fuel pressure in the system to ensure the correct amount is being delivered to the engine.
5. Speed Sensors
- Measure the rotational speed of the engine’s turbine and compressor, which is critical for
determining the required fuel flow.
6. Airflow Sensors
- Detects the amount of air entering the engine to calculate the proper air-fuel mixture.
Applications
The mechanical-hydraulic-electronic fuel control system is primarily used in:
- Commercial Jet Engines: Ensures optimized fuel delivery for efficient long-haul flights, reducing
fuel consumption and emissions.
- Military Aircraft: Provides high precision fuel control for aircraft operating in extreme conditions
and demanding maneuvers.
- Business Jets and Turboprops: Ensures smooth operation and efficiency in smaller aircraft used for
shorter distances or private aviation.
Commercial Airlines Using the System
Many modern commercial airlines rely on aircraft equipped with this advanced fuel control system.
Some examples of airlines operating fleets with such systems include:
- Delta Air Lines, American Airlines, Lufthansa: These carriers operate Boeing and Airbus aircraft
models (such as the Boeing 787 Dreamliner, Airbus A320neo, and Airbus A350) equipped with
mechanical-hydraulic-electronic fuel control systems for their engines.
- Emirates, Singapore Airlines: These airlines operate large fleets of long-haul aircraft like the Airbus
A380 and Boeing 777, which use advanced fuel control systems to ensure fuel efficiency and reliability
over long distances.
These fuel control systems are integral to the efficient, safe, and environmentally-friendly operation
of modern commercial aircraft
2.1.4. Aircraft Fuel Tanks
Logically an aircraft must be able to carry enough fuel to enable the engines to operate over a long
period. To meet this requirement, we must have some means of storing the fuel. In this booklet we will
deal with the various types of fuel tank in general use, including information on their installation and
construction, together with the applicable safety precautions to be followed when working with fuel
tanks. Fuel tanks normally fall into three categories:
• Rigid construction tanks
• Flexible construction tanks
• Integral tanks
We will look at each type in turn, see how they are constructed, and how they are installed in aircraft.

2.1.4.1. RIGID FUEL TANKS

Rigid fuel tanks are normally constructed from metal or plastic materials. They are made in various
shapes and sizes to fit into the appropriate spaces within the aircraft structure, which are dependent on
the design requirements. The most common types are manufactured from aluminium alloy or stainless
steel, and either brazed or riveted together to give a rigid structure.

Fig (9-2) TYPICAL RIGID FUEL TANK STRUCTURE

Large tanks of this category may have internal braces and supports, and additionally may have baffle
ribs within the tank to reduce the effect of large fuel surges due to aircraft manoeuvres. Secure
attachment of the tank within the airframe structure is achieved using bolted brackets or retaining
straps. In some cases, the tank may be fitted into a support cradle, which has the same contour as the
tank; the cradle and tank are then fitted into the aircraft. This system may, for instance, be used for
long range aircraft, where an auxiliary fuel tank 1s required to be fitted into a cargo compartment.
Each tank is constructed with various apertures and internal mounting points for such fuel system
components as fuel pumps, float switches and fuel quantity measuring equipment. Externally we may
have fitted a refuelling orifice and various air and fuel pipes for venting and fuel supply purposes.
Some rigid tanks may have an external covering of self-sealing material. This material tends to swell
when in contact with fuel, and greatly reduces the loss of fuel if a fuel leak were to develop.
Rigid Fuel Tank Installation:
Rigid fuel tanks are designed to fit into tight spaces, so fitting is of paramount importance. The
following are some of the precautions to observe whilst fitting rigid tanks: Handle correctly - do not
damage when fitting. Always consult the Aircraft Maintenance Manual for fitting instructions. Ensure
tanks are clean and the tank space is clear of foreign objects. Ensure pipelines and orifices are blanked
off until the last moment prior to fitting. Ensure correct electrical bonding is carried out.

2.1.4.2. FLEXIBLE FUEL TANKS

Flexible fuel tanks are normally constructed from a thin rubber type material that is not adversely
affected by contact with fuel or air. These tanks are manufactured to fit into small spaces and may be
required to be folded and fitted into
apertures, where normal rigid tanks of
similar capacity could not be fitted.
The compartment that the tank is fitted
into must be made as smooth as
possible to reduce chafing of the tank
material on the aircraft structure. As
the airframe compartment is designed
to take the loads of the fuel tank, it is
normally designed a little smaller in
capacity than the tank. Because of this
feature the flexing of the aircraft
structure and shock loads created by
aircraft landing do not impose an
undue load on the fuel tank.
Once fitted into the airframe cavity,
flexible fuel tanks need some support
to retain their shape, especially when
empty. Various methods are used to
achieve this. The two most common are attaching the tank to the structure using press studs or by
threading cord through holes on the tank and attaching the cords to the tank compartment.
 Fig (10-2) TYPICAL SUPPORT ATTACHMENTS FOR FLEXIBLE TANKS

Because these tanks are constructed from a flexible material, there are a few additional precautions to
observe when fitting this type of tank. These include:
Any protruding rivets or bolts in the tank compartment must be covered with tape or rubber to prevent
chafing of the tank material.
The Maintenance Manual must be consulted for the correct folding sequence if the tank is to be
installed through a small opening.
Ensure the tank compartment is clean.
As fitting may necessitate entry into the tank or compartment, ensure pockets are emptied of loose
articles and rubber soled shoes or overshoes are worn to prevent sparks being generated, thus causing
a fire hazard.

2.1.4.3. INTEGRAL FUEL TANKS

To call this type of tank an integral tank may be a bi t misleading. In fact, it is the aircraft structure that
is the tank. Normally part of the wing structure forms the integral tank. It is the area bounded by the
front and rear spars of the wing and the upper and lower wing surface skins. The tank area is sealed,
and fuel proofed during assembly. Special sealants are used and the structure, rivets, spars etc are
assembled while the sealant is still wet. Another name for this type of tank is a 'wet tank'. (Before
assembly, all the structural parts are cleaned to a certain specification and coated with a layer of sealant.
Then the parts are assembled wet. Once assembled all joints are then coated with a further sealant coat.
This is called filleting. This fillet sealant prevents sealant from cracking if flexing takes place between
assembled parts.
 Fig (11-2) TYPICAL INTEGRAL TANK SEALING

2.2. FUEL TYPES and refuelling system.

The two main types of aircraft fuel are: -
aviation gasolene - AVGAS,
aviation turbine fuel - AVTUR.
There is another type used on certain general aviation aircraft: - motor gasolene - MOGAS.
It is essential that when refuelling an aircraft, the correct fuel for that particular aircraft is used. This
can be either gasolene, (AVGAS or MOGAS) as used by piston engine aircraft or aviation turbine fuel,
(JET Al, JP4 or AVTUR), as used by turbine engine aircraft.
International Markings
The international markings for the two major types of fuel are shown in Fig. .

Fig (12-2) BEXAMPLES OF FUEL FILLING POINT MARKINGS

2.3. REFUELLING
As we have already mentioned, there are two basic types of refuelling system. Let's consider each one
in turn starting with the open orifice type system.
Open Orifice System
The open orifice system may also be known as the 'open vent' or 'overwing' method.
Refuelling is accomplished after removing filler caps mounted on the upper portions of the wings or
fuselage. The main disadvantage of this method is that the process is rather slow and is normally
restricted to smaller types of aircraft with small fuel loads.
However, on larger types of aircraft which utilise the pressure refuelling method, the overwing refuel
system may be used as a backup if the pressure fuelling system should fail.
this aircraft fuel system is replenished from two points and fills a series of fuel tanks throughout.

Fig (13-2) TYPICAL OPEN ORIFICE FUEL SYSTEH

The refuelling cap is normally attached with a lanyard to the refuelling point. Adjacent to the refuelling
point provision is made for bonding to a ground point to eliminate the possibility of fire due to the
static electricity which is generated by the flow of fuel.
Static electricity will be from a safety aspect the most obvious point is to ensure that the fuel cap is
replaced correctly and locked in a closed position.

Fig (13-2) TYPICAL OVERWING REFUELLING PORT

Pressure Refuelling
The term pressure refuelling is used to distinguish between the open vent or overwing system, and a
fuelling system that is completely enclosed and is normally filled under pressure through a special
connector from a fuel tanker.

Fig (14-2) TYPICAL PRESSURE REFUELLING CONNECTION

The main advantages of pressure refuelling are: -

higher refuelling pressures – up to 50 psi, enable a faster refuelling operation
less fuel spillage,
reduces the possibility of fuel contamination
reduces the possible fire risk.
Normally fuel is delivered from the tanker to the aircraft up to a pressure of 50 psi, fuel pressures
more than this figure could cause damage to the aircraft and fuel components. Maximum fuel pressure
for a given aircraft will be found in the Maintenance Manual.