4. GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT.

1
Definition of terms. 3. Differentiation – It refers to
1. Growth- this is the modifications of cells to perform
irreversible/permanent quantitative specific functions.
increase in the size of an organism. It  Differentiation is important
is brought about by multiplication because cells become specialized
and elongation of cells in the process to enable the organism perform
of cell division. specific functions.
 It is measurable e.g. increase in height, 4. Morphology refers to the body
length, width e.t.c. form of an organism. Morphology
2. Development- this is the is as result of growth and
qualitative growth which involves development.
differentiation of cells and formation  In animals, growth takes place all
of new tissues to be able to perform over the body but in plants it takes
specialized functions. place in specialized/localized
 It is not measurable but can be assessed regions called meristems.
through complexity e.g. development
of leaves, flowers and roots.

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 2
Differences between growth Processes involved in growth.
and development. 1. Assimilation -Cells of
 Growth is quantitative while organisms make/synthesize
development is qualitative. new cellular substances from
 Growth is measurable while food nutrients hence increase
development can only be assessed in mass.
through increased complexity. 2. Cell division (mitosis)- that
lead to increase in the number
of cells.
3. Cell expansion - that leads
to enlargement an increase in
the volume and size of the
organism.

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 Differences in growth between plants and animals.
3

Plants Animals

i. Growth occurs at i. Growth occurs throughout

specific/localized parts. the animal body.
ii. Growth takes place ii. Growth takes place in early
throughout the life cycle. stages and stops at maturity.
iii. Growth is mainly influenced iii. Growth is mainly influenced
by environmental factors. by hormones.

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 Measurement of growth.
4
 Growth can be estimated by  Dry mass has limitation in
measuring some aspect of an estimating growth because it kills
organism e.g. volume, height the organism hence cannot be
and mass and in unicellular used over a period of time to
organisms, the number of cells estimate growth.
over a period of time.  If the measurements so obtained
 Dry mass is the best indicator of are plotted against time, the
growth because it gives the actual curve obtained is a growth
amount of living matter in an curve (S-shaped curve /sigmoid
organism. curve).
 Fresh mass is dependent on the
amount of water present in an
organism hence it is not the best
indicator of growth.

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 5
Limitations of measuring 5. Use of dry mass involved killing
growth using the above the organism.
parameters. 6. The use of mass or size may be
1. Difficulty in choosing the right inaccurate because different
growth parameter. parts of an organism mature at
2. The use of a single growth different times.
parameter does not take into 7. Irregularities in the growth of
account growth in other an organism due to fluctuation
directions. in the environment / diet.
3. Volume cannot be used for
those organisms with irregular
shape.
4. Mass of an organism is usually
affected by variation in the fluid
content of the organism.

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© Sam obare 6 4-Jan-21
 PARTS OF A SIGMOID CURVE.
7
a) Lag phase - region A. ii. Cells have adjusted to the new
 Growth is slow because: environment.
i. The number of cells dividing iii. Food and other factors are not
are few. limiting hence cells are not
ii. The cells have not yet adjusted competing for resources.
to the surrounding iv. The rate of cell increase is higher
environmental factors. than the rate of cell death.
b) Exponential phase (or log
phase) - Region B.
 There is rapid/ exponential growth
because:
i. There is increase in the number of
dividing cells.
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 8
c) Decelerating phase - Region d) Stationary (plateau) phase -
C. Region D.
 Growth is slow because of the  There is no growth/ growth is
following: constant because:
i. Most cells are fully differentiated. i. The rate of cell division equals
ii. Fewer cells are still dividing. the rate of cell death.
iii. Shortage of oxygen and nutrients ii. Cells have fully differentiated
due to high demand by increased hence no increase in number of
number of cells. cells.
iv. Space is limited due to high
number of cells.
v. Accumulation of metabolic waste
products which inhibit growth.
vi. Limited acquisition of carbon (IV)
oxide in plants.

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 Structure of a seed.
9

Coleorhiza

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 10

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 PARTS OF A SEED.
11
1. Seed coat- This is the outer 2. Hilum - This is the point where
covering of the seed formed the seed had been attached to the
from the integuments of embryo seed stalk or funicle.
sac. 3. Micropyle. This is a pore
 It consists of : which allows water and air into
i. Testa- thick outer layer. the embryo.
ii. Tegmen- inner transparent 4. Endosperm- this is the swollen
membranous layer. part of the seed which stores
Role/ function of seed coat food for growing radicle
(testa and tegmen) and plumule. It is prominent
in monocot seeds.
 Protect the seed from bacteria,
fungi and other organisms which
may damage it.

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 12
 Some seeds store food in the ii. Plumule (embryonic shoot)- it
cotyledons e.g. dicot seeds hence are grows to form a shoot.
called non- endospermic seeds.  It is connected to the cotyledon by
 Seeds that store food in the endosperm the epicotyl.
are called endospermic seeds e.g.
 The tip of the plumule is protected
monocot seeds like maize, wheat,
by the coleoptile.
rice e.t.c.
iii. Radicle (the embryonic root)-
5. Embryo- it is made up of:
it grows to form a root.
i. One or two seed leaves
(cotyledons)- they store food for  It is connected to the cotyledons by
the growing plumule and radicle (in the hypocotyl.
dicots). Dicot seeds have 2  The tip of the radicle is protected
cotyledons while monocot by the coleorhiza.
seeds have 1 cotyledon.

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 SEED DORMANCY.
13
 This is a period when seeds fail to Importance/significance of
germinate even if all the favorable seed dormancy.
environmental conditions for 1. It provides the seeds with
germination are provided. enough time for dispersal so
 This is because the embryo may that they can germinate in a
not undergo further development suitable environment.
before germination. 2. It enables seeds to survive
 The seed performs its during adverse environmental
physiological processes slowly conditions without depleting
and utilizes little food. their food reserves.
3. Provides time for the embryo
to develop until favorable
conditions are available e.g.
availability of water.

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 14
CAUSES OF SEED DORMANCY. b) External/environmental
a) Internal conditions in a conditions/ conditions
seed. outside a seed.
1. Underdeveloped embryo/ i. Absence/ lack of certain light
embryo not fully developed. wavelength e.g. lettuce seeds.
2. Hard/impermeable seed ii. Low/freezing temperature
coat/testa which prevent entry which lowers their enzymatic
of air and water e.g. wattle activities.
seeds.
3. Presence of chemical/growth
inhibitors which inhibit
germination in seeds e.g.
abscisic acid.
4. Very low concentration of
hormones and enzymes.

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 15
WAYS OF BREAKING SEED 6. Scarification (physical breaking/
DORMANCY. weakening of the seed coat) through
1. Allowing time for the embryo to boiling, roasting and cracking e.g.
mature. wattle seeds.
2. Increasing concentration of hormones 7. Removal of mucilage.
e.g. cytokinins and gibberellins which  Scarification can also be achieved
stimulate germination. naturally by saprophytic bacteria and
3. Soaking in water. fungi or by passing through the gut of
4. Providing favorable environmental animals.
conditions, e.g. water, oxygen and  Some seeds e.g. wattle seeds are
optimum temperature. exposed to heat for a long time before
5. Providing the light wavelength that germination because they have hard
stimulate production of hormones seed coat.
(e.g. gibberellins).

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 16
SEED VIABILITY. SEED GERMINATION.
 This is the ability of the seed to  This is the process by which the
survive and develop into a new plant. seed develops and grows into a
 Seed viability is lost due to denatured seedling.
enzymes. The process of germination.
Factors affecting seed viability  At the beginning of germination
1. Maturity of the seed- only mature water is absorbed into the seed
seeds can germinate. through the micropyle in the
2. Storage conditions- if seeds are process called imbibition causing
exposed to unfavourable conditions the seed to swell.
e.g. high temperatures, enzymes  The cells of the cotyledons become
are denatured affecting viability. turgid and active.
3. Storage time- some seeds, if kept
for a long time they lose viability.
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 17
 Absorbed water activates enzymes,  The radicle grows into a root and plumule
dissolves food and leads to the into a shoot.
 The radicle is the first to emerge from the
hydrolysis/ breakdown of stored
seed through the micropyle, it bursts
food materials/ substances stored the seed coat and grows to form a root.
in the otyledons.  It grows downwards between soil particles
 The soluble food materials are with its tip protected by a root cap.
transported to the growing radicle  Root hairs develop behind the root cap.
and plumule of the embryo.  The plumule then breaks through the
surface and develops into a shoot.
 At the growing points glucose is
Reasons why the radicle develops first
used for respiration to provide before the plumule.
energy for growth and amino acids i. To provide anchorage to the seedling.
are used for synthesis of new ii. To provide the seedling with water and
cellular materials. mineral salts.

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 CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR GERMINATION.
18
 They include: B. OXYGEN.
A. Environmental factors e.g. water,  It is required for oxidation of food
oxygen and optimum temperature. substances in respiration to provide energy
B. Internal/physiological factors e.g. for cell division and growth.
enzymes and hormones .  Seeds in waterlogged soil or seeds buried
A. WATER. deep into the soil will not germinate due to
1. Water activates enzymes involved in lack of oxygen.
germination. C. TEMPERATURE.
2. Provides a medium for enzymes to act  Seeds require optimum temperature for
and breakdown stored food into soluble germination. The optimum temperature is
form. usually 30oC.
3. It hydrolyzes and dissolves the stored  At very low temperature (below 0oC) the
food substances. temperatures are inactivated hence there is
4. It softens the seed coat which swells and no germination.
bursts to facilitate emergence of radicle.  At very high temperatures (above 47oC)
5. It acts as a medium of transport of the enzymes in seeds are denatured/
dissolved food substances to the growing destroyed hence there is no germination.
regions of radicle and plumule.

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 19
D. ENZYMES. E. HORMONES.
i. They catalyze hydrolysis if  These include gibberellins and
stored/ insoluble food into cytokinins.
soluble substances.  They act as growth regulators and
 Food is stored in seeds in form of also counteract the effect of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins germination inhibitors.
which are in insoluble form.
 Carbohydrates are broken down into
glucose by the diastase enzyme,
fats into fatty acids and glycerol by
lipase, and proteins into amino
acids by protease.
ii. Enzymes are also necessary for
the conversion of hydrolyzed
products to new plant tissues.

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 EXPERIMENT 1.
20
Aim
 To show that water is necessary for
germination.
Procedure
 Set the apparatus as shown below.
 Keep the jars in room temperature for 5
days.
Observation and explanation.
 In A, the seeds germinated because water
was available.
 In B, the seeds may start to germinate
then dry up due to lack of water.
 In C, the seeds do not germinate due to
lack of water.
Note
 The loose cotton wool plug ensures free
circulation of air.

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 EXPERIMENT 2.
21
Aim: To show that oxygen is necessary for
germination.
Procedure
 The experimental setup is as shown below.
 In Jar A, the test tube contains pyrogallic.
 In Jar B, the test tube contains water.
 The jars are left at room temperature for five
days.
Observation and explanation.
 There was no germination in jar A because
pyrogallic acid absorbed oxygen necessary for
germination. The seeds could not respire thus
did not germinate.
 The seeds in jar B germinated because oxygen
necessary for germination was available.
 The seeds in C did not germinate due to the
absence of oxygen. This is because boiling drives
out oxygen, oil layer prevents entry of oxygen
from the surrounding atmosphere.

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 EXPERIMENT 3.
22
Aim: To show that seeds require optimum
temperature to germinate.
Procedure.
 Set up the experiment as follows:
i. Jar A is placed in a refrigerator set at 4 °C.
ii. Jar B is placed in a water bath set at 30 °C.
iii. Jar C is placed in a water bath set at 40
°C.
iv. Jar D is placed in an oven set at 60 °C.
 The jars are left for five days.
Observation and explanation.
 There was no germination in jars A and D.
This is because in jar A temperature was low
which inactivated the enzymes.
 There was germination in jar B and C because
temperature was optimum for germination.

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 STUDY QUESTION 1.
23
 In an experiment to investigate the Time (min) Beans seeds Acacia seeds
effect of heat on germination of seeds, 0 50 0
eleven bags each containing 50 bean 2 50 0
seeds was placed in a water bath 4 46 1
maintained at 90oC. After 2 minutes, a 6 35 2
8 10 28
bag was removed and the seeds
10 1 36
contained were planted. The number
12 0 41
that germinated was recorded.The
14 0 44
procedure used for the beans was
16 0 47
repeated for Acacia/wattle seeds. The
18 0 48
results obtained were as shown in the 20 0 50
table below.

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 QUESTIONS
24
1. Which one of the two types of seeds was  The bean seeds have a weak testa
more sensitive to heat influence on which quickly soaked and allows
germination? Give reasons for your water into the seed.
answer.  Since water was hot the high
 Bean seeds. This is because more temperature denatured the
seeds germinating on exposure to enzymes.
hot water for a short time.  The longer the seeds were
2. Explain why the ability for the: exposed to this temperature the
(i) Beans seeds to germinate declined with more the enzymes were
time of exposure to heat. denatured. The bean seeds
exposed for 12 minutes have all
enzymes denatured, the cells die
and no germination took place.

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 25
ii) Acacia seeds to germinate improved i. 100oC.
with time of exposure to heat. At 1000C comparatively fewer/no bean
 Acacia seeds have a tough testa seeds will germinate but more/all
which requires a longer time of acacia seeds will germinate.This is
contact with water to be because enzymes in bean seeds
softened. The hot water hastened could be denatured and the seed
the softening process. coat in acacia softened.
 The seeds exposed in hot water ii. 5oC.
for 20 minutes had the most At 50C no acacia seeds will germinate
optimum time for softening of and all or most of bean seed will
testa hence leading to best germinate.This is because the seed
germination percentage. coat of acacia could not be softened.
3. Explain the results that would be
expected if the temperature of water
was maintained at:
© Sam obare 4-Jan-21
 STUDY QUESTION 2.
 An experiment was carried out to determine the 26
growth rates of bamboo and a variety of maize c) Give a reason for your answer in
plants in two adjacent plots. The average height (b) above.
and average dry weight of plants from the two  It had accumulated more weight
populations were determined over a period of
and therefore greater dry weight
twenty weeks. The data is as shown in the table
below. d) Between weeks 14 and 18, the
a) Between which two weeks did the greatest average height of the maize plants
increase in weight occur in: remained constant while average
i. Bamboo plants. dry weight increased. Explain this
 4 and 6. observation.
ii. Maize plants.  The cells have fully divided hence no
 12 and 14. further growth, there is further
b) Which of the two types of plants had a higher development resulting into the
productivity by the end of the experiment? reproductive parts ; hence an
 Bamboo increase in the dry weight.

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 Bamboo Maize
Age in Average Average Average Average
weeks height weight height weight
(Metres) (Grams) (Metres) (Grams)
2 1.3 52 0.3 20
4 4.0 182 0.5 29
6 8.2 445 0.8 57
8 12.1 682 1.2 78
10 13.9 801 1.7 172
12 14.1 957 1.9 420
14 14.3 1025 2.1 704
16 14.4 1062 2.1 895
18 14.6 1127 2.1 926
20 14.6 1229 2.1 908
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 TYPES OF GERMINATION.
28
A. EPIGEAL GERMINATION.  The hypocotyl then straightens and
 The cotyledons are lifted/ brought elongates carrying with it the two
above the ground and the hypocotyl cotyledons which open and expose the
elongates. It occurs in dicot seeds. plumule
Process of epigeal germination.  They cotyledons then turn green and
 The radicle grows out through the
leafy and begin to photosynthesize/
micropyle and grows downwards into manufacturing food for the growing
the soil to provide anchorage to the seedling.
seedling and absorb water and  The plumule which lies between the
mineral salts. cotyledons grows into first foliage
 The hypocotyl curves and pushes
leaves which start manufacturing
upwards through the soil protecting food.
the delicate shoot tip and pulling  After the foliage leaves start to
cotyledons. photosynthesize then the cotyledons
wither, shrink and fall.
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 29
Functions of cotyledon before
development of first foliage
leaves.
1. Site for hydrolysis of stored food.
2. Site for respiration to provide
energy for cell division and
formation of new tissues.
3. Protection of the
embryo/plumule.
4. Photosynthesis before the first
foliage leaves appear.

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 B. HYPOGEAL GERMINATION.
30
 The cotyledons remain below  Coleoptile then breaks to
the ground. release the plumule which
Process of hypogeal forms the first foliage leaves
germination. and starts to photosynthesize.
 The radicle protected by  After the seedlings begin to
coleorhiza grows down into the photosynthesize, the endosperm
soil to provide anchorage to begins to shrink.
the seedling and absorb
water and mineral salts.
 Epicotyl elongates carrying the
coleoptile which pushes the
soil and appears above the
ground.

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 31
Differences between epigeal
and hypogeal germination.

Epigeal Hypogeal
germination germination
The cotyledons The cotyledons
are brought above remain below the
the ground. ground
The hypocotyl The epicotyl
elongates elongates Coleorhiza

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 Changes in the dry mass of endosperm,
embryo and total mass of germinating seed.
32

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 33
 There is a decrease in the dry mass  There is a decrease in the total
of the endosperm between day 0 mass of the seed/whole grain
and day 12 because the stored between day 0 and day 8 because
food in the endosperm is the embryo uses up the food
being hydrolyzed / broken reserves as it grows/ stored
down and used by the food is oxidized to provide
developing embryo. energy for germination.
 There is an increase in dry mass of  There is an increase in total mass of
the embryo between day 0 and day the whole seed after day 8,
12 because the seed absorbs because photosynthesis starts
water and the embryo starts as first foliage leaves appear,
to develop. providing food for synthesis
of new materials.

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 GROWTH IN PLANTS
34
 In plants, growth takes place in Types of meristems.
localized parts called meristems. 1. Apical meristems- they are
 A meristem is group of located at the tips of shoots and roots
undifferentiated cells in plants and are responsible for primary
capable of continuously dividing
through mitosis. growth.
 Meristems consist of 2. Vascular cambium- located
meristematic cells with the between phloem and xylem in stems
following characteristics: and roots and are responsible for
i. Are small in size. secondary growth/ thickening.
ii. Have thin cell walls. 3. Cork cambium- located below the
iii. Have a dense/large bark.
cytoplasm. 4. Lateral buds- located above the
iv. Have a large central nucleus. leaf and give rise to lateral/ side
v. Have no vacuoles. branches.

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 35
Primary growth in plants. a) Region of cell division-
 This is growth that takes place at consists of meristematic cells
the tips of shoot and root due to that actively divide.
active mitotic division of  Each cell divides into two, one
meristematic cells. cell remains meristematic while
 This leads to increase in length of the other moves to the region of
shoot and root. cell elongation.
 In primary growth there are three b) Region of cell elongation-
distinctive regions, namely: the cells become enlarged to
a) Region of cell division.
their maximum size.
 Vacuoles start forming and
b) Region of cell elongation.
enlarging.
c) Region of cell differentiation.

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 36
c) Region of cell differentiation- Study question.
the cells attain their permanent size, The figures below indicate the appearance of
with large vacuoles and thickened. cells at different regions at the apical
 The cells differentiate into tissues meristems. Rearrange them into three regions:
specialized for specific functions.
 Examples of tissues formed at the
region of cell differentiation include
epidermis, phloem, xylem, cambium,
cortex.
 Behind the region of cell
differentiation there are permanent
tissues.
a) Zone of cell division- B
b) Zone of cell elongation- A and D
c) Zone of cell differentiation- C

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 Cross section of a root

Longitudinal section of a root tip

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 Longitudinal section of a shoot tip Cross section of a shoot tip

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 Experiment.
39
Aim: To determine the region Other requirements.
of growth in a seedling i. Germinating bean seedlings.
Equipment ii. Pins.
i. Wire/ thread/ string. iii. Cork.
ii. Marker pen. iv. A boiling tube.
iii. Dye/ water proof ink. v. Moist cotton wool.
iv. Pen.
v. Book.
vi. Blotting paper.
vii. Tissue paper/ piece of cloth.
viii. Ruler (marked in mm).

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 40
Procedure Observations and explanation.
 Get a bean seedling with a straight root.  The widest interval is found at the
 Dry the seedling using blotting paper. region just behind the tip.
 Place the radicle against the ruler  This is the region of greater
marked in millimetres. growth/cell elongation and
 Dip the fine thread in waterproof ink. differentiation.
 Using the ink-soaked thread, mark the  Cells farthest from the tip undergoes
radicle at equal intervals. maturation and differentiation.
 Pin the seedlings onto a cork and
suspend it with the radicle pointing
down into a boiling tube containing
moist cotton wool.
 Allow the seedling to grow for 2 days
and observe the intervals between the
marks.
 Record your observations in a book.

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 41

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 Study question
42
 In an experiment to investigate the Concentratio Percentage of Mean root
effect of sodium chloride on the n of sodium spinach seeds length (mm)
growth rate in a spinach seedling, chloride which started
seeds were treated with different (mol/l) to grow roots
concentrations of sodium chloride. The
results are as recorded below. 0.00 99.98 17.70
0.06 98.20 15.60
0.12 92.0 10.20
0.18 54.0 7.60

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 43
a) From the results in the table b) Apart from a ruler, state two other
above, explain the effect of equipment one would need to
increasing the concentration of determine the rate of growth in
sodium chloride. (3mks) roots. (2mks)
 Increased sodium chloride
 Thread/ string /wire.
concentration increases osmotic  Marker pen.
pressure in the surrounding  Book.
solution/ makes the  Pen.
surrounding solution hypertonic  Dye/waterproof ink.
to the cell sap of seedling cells.  Blotting paper.
 Cells take in less water/ lose  Tissue paper/ piece of cloth.
water to the surrounding
solution through osmosis
reducing growth enzymatic
activity thus reducing growth.

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 44
c) With a reason, state one part d) State the likely on the seedling
of the seedling the students of increasing the
would focus on to determine concentration of sodium
the effect of sodium chloride chloride to 2.20 mol/l (1mk)
on growth. (2mks)  The seedling will wither/dry/
 Rate of growth or increase in die.
length of the shoot tip/ apex.
 This is because it is a region
of active cell division/
growth.

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 SECONDARY GROWTH/ THICKENING IN
PLANTS.
45
 Secondary growth in dicots results in  The intervascular cambium and vascular
increase in width/ girth due to the cambium form a continuous cambium
activity of cambium (vascular and cork ring.
cambium).  The new cells obtained on the outer side
 Monocot plants lack cambium hence it of cambium differentiate to form
does not undergo secondary growth. secondary phloem and those to the
outer side differentiate to form
 However there is increase in diameter
secondary xylem.
due to enlargement of primary cells.
 More secondary xylem is formed than
Process of secondary growth in secondary phloem and intervascular
dicots. cambium also cuts the parenchymatous
 The vascular cambium divides to cells forming medullary rays which
produce new cambium cells between allow transport of water and solutes
the vascular bundle called inside the stem.
intervascular cambium.
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 46
 As a result of increase in the  The cork cambium divides to
volume of secondary tissues, produce new cells on either
pressure is exerted on the side. The cells on the inner side
outer cells of the stem. This of the cork cambium
leads to stretching and differentiate into secondary
rapturing of epidermal cells. cortex and those on the outer
 In order to replace the side become cork cells.
protective outer layer of the  Cork cells are dead with
stem, a new band of cambium thickened walls. Their walls
cells are formed in the cortex become coated with a
called cork cambium/ waterproof substance called
phellogen suberin.

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 47
 The cork cells increase in number  During rainy season xylem vessels
and become the bark of the stem. and tracheids are formed in large
This prevents loss of water, infection numbers. The cells are large, have
from fungi, damage from insects and thin walls and the wood has light
acts as insulatory layer. texture.
 At certain points along the stem the  In the dry season, the xylem and
cork cells become loosely packed tracheids formed are few in number.
forming lenticels for gaseous They are small, thick walled ad their
exchange. wood has dark texture.
 The rate of secondary growth in the  This leads to two distinctive layers
stem varies with seasonal changes. within the secondary xylem hence
called annual rings.
 It is possible to determine the
number age of the tree by counting
the number of annual rings.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 48

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 49

Annual
rings

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

ROLE OF GROWTH HORMONES IN PLANTS
50
A. AUXINS e.g. IAA (Indoleacetic 6. They initiate cell division and
Acid) differentiation in cambium
1. They stimulate cell division and enhancing secondary growth.
elongation (leading to primary 7. They stimulate formation of callus
growth. tissue which causes healing of
2. They stimulate tropic responses/ wounds (in association with other
growth in plants. hormones).
3. They stimulate growth of adventitious 8. Some synthetic auxins are used as
roots in stem cuttings selective weed killer/ herbicide (by
4. They induce parthenocarpy, i.e. inducing distorted growth of plants
development of fruit from ovary and excessive respiration causing
without fertilization death of the plant).
5. They inhibit growth of lateral/ side
branches from lateral buds enhancing
apical dominance.
© Sam obare 4-Jan-21
 Study questions
51
1. State three ways in which 2. Explain how auxins are utilised
effects of auxins is applied as selective weed killers in
in flower farming. agriculture.
 Selective weed killers contain auxins
 Faster maturity of flower/ earlier which are absorbed by the weeds more
flower formation/ earlier than desirable/ beneficial plants.
flowering.  This makes the weeds to grow
 Prunning/ decapitating shoot tips abnormally/ die out ahead of beneficial
to allow sprouting of lateral buds plants.
hence more yield.
 Stimulates formation/development
of adventitious roots.
 Keeping flowers fresh/ avoid
withering.

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 52
B. GIBBERELLIC ACID/ C. CYTOKININS/KINETINS.
GIBBERELLINS. 1. They promote growth when they interact
1. They stimulate rapid cell division and with auxins.
elongation in dwarf plants.
2. They stimulate fruit formation (by 2. They stimulate cell division in the
inducing the growth of ovaries into presence of auxins.
fruits after fertilization). 3. Break dormancy in some plants.
3. They promote formation of side
branches from lateral buds and breaks 4. Promote flowering.
dormancy in buds. 5. Promote formation of adventitious roots.
4. They inhibit formation/ sprouting of 6. Promote stomatal opening hence
side branches from stem cuttings.
increased gaseous exchange and
5. They retard the formation of
abscission layer hence reduce leaf fall. transpiration.
6. They break seed dormancy by 7. Stimulate lateral bud development in
activating enzymes involved in shoots.
breakdown of food substances during
germination. 8. Induce cell enlargement in leaves when in
high concentration.
© Sam obare 4-Jan-21
 53
D. ETHYLENE/ETHENE. E. ABSCISIC ACID.
1. Causes ripening of fruits.  It’s effects are inhibitory in nature.
2. Stimulates formation of abscission 1. It causes seed dormancy.
layer leading to leaf and fruit fall. 2. Inhibits development of lateral
buds/branches.
3. Stimulates lateral bud development.
3. Retards stem elongation.
4. Promotes germination of certain
4. High concentration of abscisic acid causes
seeds by breaking seed dormancy. stomatal closure by interfering with
5. Promotes flowering in plants, for potassium ion uptake.
example in pineapples. 5. Causes formation of an abscission layer that
6. Inhibits plant growth and may cause encourages leaf and fruit fall.
plant death. F. FLORIGENS- they promote flowering.
G. TRAUMATINS- they cause healing of
wounds in plants.

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 54
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF 10. Synthetic auxin 2, 4-D is used as a
PLANT GROWTH HORMONES IN herbicide.
AGRICULTURE. 11. Florigen is sprayed on young flower
1. Induce root growth in stem cutting. buds to promote flowering.
2. Used as selective weed 12. Ethylene is used to ripen fruits such
killers/herbicides. as oranges, bananas and tomatoes.
3. Encourage apical dominance. 13. Abscisic acid is sprayed in mature
4. Encourage sprouting of side plantations to promote fruit fall for
branches. easy harvesting.
5. Breaking seeds dormancy. 14. Seeds are treated with gibberellins to
6. Induce parthenocarpy.
break seed dormancy.
7. Promotes flowering.
15. Certain natural dwarf varieties of
plants are treated with gibberellins to
8. Induce fruit fall.
produce taller varieties.
9. Accelerates ripening of fruits.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 APICAL DOMINANCE.
55
 This is the inhibition of development of Study question 1.
lateral/side branches due to the presence of In an experiment the shoot tip of a young
apical bud. tomato plant was decapitated as shown in the
 If an apical bud which normally contains high diagram below.
concentrations of auxins is removed, more
lateral/side branches develop
 This shows that high concentrations of
inhibit/hinder sprouting of lateral buds and
therefore hinders growth of many branches.
 This forms the basis of pruning in agriculture
where more branches are required for
increased harvest particularly on crops like
coffee and tea.
 The failure of lateral buds to develop in the
presence of an apical bud is due to the diffusion
of auxins from the shoot apex downwards
inhibiting the development of lateral buds.
© Sam obare 4-Jan-21
 56
a) State the expected results after 2 weeks. Study question 2
 Auxiliary / lateral buds sprout /  An experiment was carried out to
branches will be formed. investigate the effect of hormones on
b) Give a reason for your answer in (a) growth of lateral buds of three pea plants.
above. The shoots were treated as follows:
 Decapitation removes the hormone i. Shoot A – Apical bud was removed.
/ auxins / IAA which is produced in ii. Shoot B – Apical bud was removed and
the terminal bud / the stem tip. The gibberellic acid placed on the cut shoot.
removal of the hormone / auxins / iii. Shoot C – Apical bud was left intact.
IAA promote development of  The length of the branches developing
auxiliary /lateral buds/branches. from lateral buds were determined at
c) Suggest one application of this regular intervals. The results obtained
practice? are as shown in the table below.
 The pruning of coffee/tea/hedge..
d) What is the importance of this practice?
 More yield/Production/Bushy
edge.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

Time in days Length of branches in millimeters

Shoot A Shoot B Shoot C

0 3 3 3

2 10 12 3

4 28 48 8

6 50 9 14

8 80 120 20

10 118 152 26
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 58
a) Account for the results obtained in  Shoot C: The shoot tip which
the experiment. remained intact contains IAA
 Shoot A: The tip of the shoot which inhibits growth/
which was removed contained development of lateral buds,
indole acetic acid (IAA), which hence little change of length of
causes apical dominance/ lateral branches.
inhibits growth/ development of
more lateral buds; hence lateral
buds sprouted/grew.
 Shoot B: The gibberellic acid
which was added on the cut
promotes formation of lateral
branches of stems, hence the fast
growth of branches.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN ANIMALS.
59
 Growth in animals occurs in all parts  A plot of the growth rate at various
of the body and stops at maturity. All stages reveals a period of rapid growth
cells in animals except the nerve cells and a period of no growth.
divide.  The stages between moults are
 Animals therefore exhibit represented by the flat portions and
continuous growth e.g. in are known as instars.
chordates and Process of growth in arthropods
discontinuous/intermittent  Intermittent growth is a result of the
growth e.g. in Arthropods. shedding of the
 Members of phylum Arthropoda have exoskeleton/moulting/ecdysis. After
exoskeletion made of chitin which moulting growth occurs rapidly until
inhibits growth. To allow growth, the exoskeleton hardens. The growth
exoskeleton has to be shed in the rate slows down as the exoskeleton
process called moulting/ecdysis. hardens.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 Length in mm

Instar

Moulting

Time in days
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 GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT IN INSECTS.
61
 Growth and development in Importance of metamorphosis.
insects occur in the process i. Helps to allow time for
development to take place.
called metamorphosis. ii. Helps to reduce competition for
 Metamorphosis refers to resources because different
developmental changes that take stages have different niches.
iii. Helps to avoid and survive
place in an organism until the unfavourable environmental
adult stage is attained. conditions which would affect
life processes.
 They exhibit intermittent/
Types of metamorphosis.
discontinuous growth curve. A. Complete metamorphosis.
B. Incomplete metamorphosis.

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 62
A. COMPLETE  The larva moults and develops into a
METAMORPHOSIS e.g. in pupa (chrysalis). During pupal stage
butterflies, moths, the organism is found in a cocoon which
helps it to survive in extreme conditions.
houseflies.
 During pupal stage,
 It has four stages i.e. Egg —► differentiation/development takes place.
larva—► pupa —► adult.  The pupa develops into adult which
Several eggs are laid and are not feeds and grows and attains physical and
enclosed in egg case/ ootheca. sexual maturity i.e. males and females
 Eggs hatch into larvae which can mate and the females are able to lay
eggs.
are different from the adult.
 The larva feeds on the decaying
matter and increases in size hence
has rapid growth. At larval stage,
rapid cell elongation takes place
i.e. it is a growing stage.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

© Sam obare 63 4-Jan-21
 Egg

Larvae

Adult

Pupa

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 65
B. INCOMPLETE METAMORPHOSIS e.g.
in cockroaches.
Differences between
 Has three stages i.e. Egg — nymph —adult. complete and incomplete
 Fewer eggs are laid enclosed in egg Complete
metamorphosis.Incomplete
case/ootheca. metamorphosis metamorphosis
 The eggs hatch into nymphs which are similar 1. It has 4 stages i.e. 1. It has 3 stages i.e.
to adults but smaller and sexually immature. egg, larva, pupa and egg, nymph and adult.
 The nymphs and adults feed on the adult.
same(occupy the same ecological niche) 2. Eggs do not have egg 2. Eggs have egg
leading to competition. case/ ootheca. case/ootheca.
 Nymph moults into adult.
3. Many/ several eggs 3. Fewer eggs are laid.
Advantage of incomplete metamorphosis. are laid.
 Absence of larval and pupal stages shortens the
lifecycle of an organism. This helps to avoid
adverse environmental conditions that would
affect its life processes.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

© Sam obare 66 4-Jan-21
 ROLE OF HORMONES IN METAMORPHOSIS.
67
 In insects metamorphosis is controlled  When the larva matures, the corpus
by hormones. allatum disintegrates hence the level
 The hormones are produced by three of juvenile hormone drops.
glands namely;  Low level of juvenile hormone
i. Corpus allata (singular Corpus stimulates intercerebral gland in
allatum) in the brain. the brain secretes moulting
ii. Intercerebral gland in the stimulating hormone (MSH).
brain .  The moulting stimulating hormone
iii. Prothoracic glands in the
stimulates the prothoracic gland to
thorax. secrete moulting hormone
(ecdysone).
 During larval stages of the insect the
 Ecdysone/ moulting hormone
corpora allata produces juvenile stimulates moulting leading to laying
hormone which inhibits of adult cuticle.
metamorphosis by stimulating
formation of larval cuticle hence
moulting does not go beyond the
larval stage.

© Sam obare 4-Jan-21

 INTERCEREBRAL CORPUS ALLATUM
GLAND IN THE BRAIN IN THE BRAIN

SECRETES
SECRETES
MOULTING
STIMULATING
HORMONE

STIMULATES
JUVENILE HORMONE
PROTHORACIC
GLANDS
INHIBITS/HINDE
SECRETES RS
CAUSES/INFLUENCES
MOULTING
HORMONE METAMORPHOSIS
(ECDYSONE)
CAUSES/INFLUENCES

MOULTING
© Sam obare 68 4-Jan-21