PH142 Notes for Review 3

Topics Covered (Bold Will Be Emphasized)

• Charge
• Conductors + Insulators
• Electric Force + Electric Field
• Gauss’s Law

• Electric Potential Energy + Electric Potential

• Potential ↔ Field
• Capacitors

• Current and Resistors

• Fundamentals of Circuits (Direct Current only)
• Magnetic Fields and Forces
• Electromagnetic Induction / Inductors in Circuits

• Electromagnetic Waves
• AC Circuits
• Wave Optics
• Ray Optics

Glossary
Terminology and notation

• Conductor: Material in which charges can move around “freely” (like a liquid)
• Insulator: Material in which charges are held mostly in place

• Polarization: + and − charges get separated near a charged object

1 |q1 | |q2 |
• Permittivity: Constant ϵ0 (epsilon zero) in Coulomb’s law F = 4πϵ0 r2

• Coulomb’s law: The force of one charge on another is proportional to the two charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them
• Dipole: charge +q and −q separated by (usually small) displacement ⃗s (pointing from negative to
positive)

• Dipole moment p ⃗: p⃗ = q ⃗s for a dipole, appears when calculating force on and electric field due to a
dipole when s is small

1
• Electric flux Φe (phi subscript e): How much total electric field E ⃗ flows through an area A (think
of it like a wind that carries charges in this context—how much total air is going through the area?)
⃗ with magnitude E and area A pointing as a vector A
Mathematically, for electric field E ⃗ perpendicular
to the surface:

Φe =EA (constant electric field parallel to area vector, so perpendicular to surface)

=E⃗ ·A⃗ (constant electric field + flat surface)
Z
= E ⃗ · dA
⃗ (completely general)

• Charge density: How concentrated charge is in a material

• Linear charge density λ (lambda): Q = λ L (charge in length L is lambda times L)
• Surface charge density η (eta): Q = η A (charge in area A is eta times A)
• Volume charge density ρ (rho): Q = ρ V (charge in volume V is rho times V )
• Capacitor with capacitance C: Device that stores charge in electric field with VC = Q/C
• Dielectric with constant κ: Insulating material between plates of capacitor giving C = κ C0
• Electron current ie : Flow of electrons that cause currents in conductors
• Current I: Opposite direction of electron current by convention—negatively charged electron current
backward is current forward
• Current density: Current per area of wire J = I/A
• Conductivity σ: determines the current density that flows through a material given an electric field
J = σE
• Resistivity ρ: inverse of the conductivity ρ = 1/σ
• Resistance R: determines the current that flows through a specific wire or device given a voltage
I = ∆V /R, related to resistivity R = ρℓ/A
• Ohm’s law: Relation between current and voltage in a resistor I = ∆V /R
• Kirchhoff ’s Loop Law: The sum of voltages around a circuit is 0, watch the signs of voltage!
• Kirchhoff ’s Junction Law: The sum of currents into a junction is the sum of currents out.
• RC Circuit: A circuit with a charged capacitor and a resistor the discharges with Q = Q0 e−t/τ
• Time constant τ : The typical discharge (or charge) time for an RC circuit, τ = R C

• Magnetic Field B:
⃗ a new type of field generated by moving charges creating a force on moving
charges
• Permeability Constant µ0 : constant appearing in magnetic field laws, 1.26 × 10−6 T m/A
• Biot-Savart Law: Law determining the magnetic field generated by a moving charge

⃗ = µ0 q ⃗v × r̂
B
4 π r2

• Ampère’s Law: The integral of the magnetic field around a loop is the sum of currents punching
through the loop I
⃗ · d⃗s = µ0 Ithrough
B

2
• Magnetic Force Law:
– Moving charge: F⃗ = q ⃗v × B
⃗
– Current-carrying wire: F⃗ = I ⃗l × B
⃗
⃗
⃗ ×B
– Loop of wire (torque): τ = m
• Magnetic Dipole Moment m:
⃗ For a loop of wire m = A I, pointing through the loop
• Cyclotron Motion: A charged particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic field will move in a circle
with frequency fcyc = qB/(2πm)

• Magnetic Flux Φm : The flow of magnetic field through an area A, Φm = B ⃗ · dA

⃗ = B A cos θ
R

• Motional EMF: EMF generated by moving a conductor through a magnetic field or by a changing
flux
• Lenz’s Law: A current is generated in a closed conducting loop whose magnetic flux changes in order
to oppose the change in flux
• Faraday’s Law: Lenz’s law + the magnitude of the EMF generated is
I
E= E ⃗ · d⃗s = − dΦm
dt

• Inductor with inductance L: Device that stores energy in currents/magnetic fields with voltage
VL = L dI/dt
• Magnetic Field Energy: Energy stored in a magnetic field uB = B 2 /2µ0
• LR Circuit: Circuit with inductor and resistor in series, charges or dissipates with τ = L/R
√
• LC Circuit: Circuit with inductor and capacitor in series, oscillates with angular frequency ω = LC
• Inertial Reference Frame: Frame moving at constant velocity, net force should be the same in any
intertial frame
• Displacement Current Idisp : Effective current due to changing electric flux, Idisp = ϵ0 dΦe /dt
• Maxwell’s Equations: The combination of Gauss’s Law, Gauss’s Law for Magnetism, Amp‘ere-
Maxwell Law, and Faraday’s Law that determines electric and magnetic fields
• Lorentz Force Law: The combination of forces due to electric and magnetic fields, F⃗ = q (E
⃗ +⃗v × B)
⃗

• Speed of Light c: Speed at which light travels in a vacuum

• Wavelength λ: Distance between crests of wave
• Frequency f : Rate at which the wave crests at a given location
• Angular Frequency ω: Related to frequency by ω = 2 π f
• Wavenumber k: Related to wavelength by k = 2 π/λ

• Poynting Vector S:
⃗ Determines the magnitude and direction of energy transfer due to EM fields,
⃗ ⃗ ⃗
S = E × B/µ0
• Intensity I: The power per unit area carried by an EM wave, multiply by an area to get the power
seen, I = P/A = Savg
• Radiation Pressure prad : Pressure corresponding to force of EM wave on an object, prad = I/c
• Polarization: The orientation of electric field in an EM wave

3
• Polarizing Filter: Device to pick out EM waves with a particular polarization
• Malus’s Law: Law the determines intensity of light passing through polarizing filter, I = I0 cos2 θ
• AC Circuit: Circuit containing EMF source that oscillates as a cosine in time

• Phasor: Vector rotating counter-clockwise at angular frequency ω describing a voltage or current in

an AC circuit
• Capacitive Reactance XC : Quantity that determines relation between peak voltage and current
through a capacitor, XC = VC /IC = 1/(ω C)
• Low Pass Filter: Circuit element that allows low frequencies to pass through

• High Pass Filter: Circuit element that allows high frequencies to pass through
• Inductive Reactance XL : Quantity that determines relation between peak voltage and current
through an inductor, XL = VL /IL = ω L
• RLC Circuit: Circuit with resistor, inductor, capacitor in series

• Phase Angle: Offset inside cosine of voltage and current in a circuit element
• Resonant Frequency ω0 : Frequency at which current in an RLC circuit peaks
• RMS: Root-mean-square, the square root of the average of the square of a quantity, e.g. PR = Vrms Irms

• Power Factor: In an AC circuit determines the power supplied by the source in terms fo RMS current,
voltage, Psource = Vrms Irms cos ϕ
• Interference: Combination of electromagnetic wave fields due to multiple sources
• Constructive Interference: Combination of waves that differ in path length by an integer multiple
of wavelength, creates a bright spot

• Destructive Interference: Combination of waves that differ in path length by a half-integer integer
multiple of wavelength, creates a dark spot
• Interference Fringe: Bright or dark line created by interference pattern of light
• Order: Integer label of bright or dark fringes away from center of interference element

• Diffraction Grating: Series finely spaced slits or ridges used to create an interference pattern
• Huygens’ Principle: Principle that each part along a wavefront emits a spherical wave
• Single-Slit Diffraction: Interference pattern created by different elements of wavefront through a
single slit

• Wave Model: Model of light accounting for wave properties and interference, useful when light
interacts with small elements
• Interferometer: Device that splits and recombines light along different paths of different lengths to
create interference pattern

• Hologram: Recording of interference pattern between object and reference beam, that can be played
later using the reference beam
• Ray model: Model of light describing rays traveling in straight lines except when hitting large objects,
useful when light interacts with large elements

• Specular Reflection: Bouncing of light off an smooth, flat surface at equal angle to incidence

4
• Refraction: Bending of light passing across boundary between transparent media
• Index of Refraction n: Property of material that determines how light slows down in a medium,
v = c/n
• Snell’s Law: Equation determining angle of refraction across a boundary, n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

• Total Internal Reflection: Inability of light to refract going from high index of refraction to low
index of refraction at glancing angle
• Critical Angel θc : Angle beyond which light undergoes total internal reflection, θc = sin−1 (n2 /n1 )
• Real Image: Image formed by rays that physically cross at a point, can be recorded on a screen

• Virtual Image: Image formed by extrapolating rays back to where they would meet (even though
they don’t actually meet), can be seen by observing the rays
• Converging Lens: Lens that causes parallel rays to come together at meet at a point
• Diverging Lens: Lens that causes parallel rays to spread apart and only come together by extrapo-
lating behind the lens
• Focal Length f : Distance from lens or mirror where rays meet up (really or virtually)
• Thin Lens Equation / Mirror Equation: Law determining image location in terms of focal length,
1/s + 1/s′ = 1/f

• Lateral Magnification m: Determines the relative size of the image and object through a lens,
m = −s′ /s
• Lens Maker’s Equation: Law determining the focal length in terms of curvature of lens
• Concave Mirror: Mirror causing rays to reflect and meet up physically at a point

• Convex Mirror: Mirror causing rays to reflect and spread apart, meeting only by extrapolating
behind the mirror
• Camera: Combination of converging and diverging lens to form a small real image on a light collecting
device

• Lens Power P : Inverse of focal length

• Hyperopia: Eye that is too short for refractive power of eye’s lens system, hard to focus on near
objects
• Myopia: Eye that is too long for refractive power of eye’s lens system, hard to focus on far objects

• Angular Size θ: Angle subtended by an object as viewed in a magnifying system

• Angular Magnification M : Ratio of the angular size of an object with and without a magnifying
device, M = θ/θNP
• Microscope: Device to magnify small objects to make the them look large

• Telescope: Device to magnify distant objects to make them appear closer

• Resolution: Smallest angle at which two small objects can be separated
¯

5
Chart for Going Between Concepts
Rf
∆U = −W (i → f ) = − i
F⃗ · d⃗s
Force F⃗ Potential Energy U

F⃗ = q E
⃗ Uq = q V

⃗
Electric Field E Potential V
Z f
∆V = − ⃗ · d⃗s
E
i
or
⃗ = −∇V
E

The landscape picture: Potential and Field

• Potential in Volts ↔ Altitude in Feet

• Electric Field Magnitude ↔ Steepness
• Electric Field Direction ↔ Direction of Steepest Descent (which way is “down”)

• Electric charges creating landscape ↔ Mass of Earth creating landscape

5, 000 V
⃗
E
4, 000 V
⃗
E

3, 000 V
⃗
E
⃗
E
2, 000 V
⃗
E

1, 000 V

A person in the landscape: Potential Energy and Force

• Electric Potential Energy of charge in landscape i↔ Gravitational Potential Energy of person in land-
scape
• Electric Force on charge in landscape ↔ Gravitational Force (the pull downhill) on person in landscape
• Electric Charge of charged particle on landscape ↔ Mass of person on landscape

6
 I’m being pulled to the left!
If I fall down I gain kinetic energy by
losing potential energy!

Electrostatic Concepts
In a conductor:
• All extra charge goes quickly to the surface, reaching equilibrium with everything stops
• In equilibrium, electric field E
⃗ =0

• In equilibrium, potential is the same everywhere in the conductor

Charging by induction
1. Polarize a conductor by bringing a charged object near it. For example, if you bring a + rod near a
conductor, the − charges in the conductor move toward the rod, the + charges in the conductor move
away
2. Touch the conductor to another large conductor (such as yourself). In the example in 1, the + charges
in the conductor flee away from the rod as far as they can go: through you and potentially into the
ground!
3. Remove the large conductor, the remove the charged object. The + charges fled the conductor, so now
the conductor is left with an overall − charge!
Circuit Rules

• Kirchhoff’s Loop and Junction laws: always valid in circuits

•
P P P
loop (∆Vi ) = 0 and Iin = Iout
• If you’re ever confused by a circuit use them

Right-hand Rule
• Any time you have a cross product C
⃗ =A
⃗×B
⃗

• Direction from right-hand rule

• Magnitude from C = A B sin α
Ray Tracing: Converging Lens
• Parallel rays in, through far focal point out
• From near focal point in, parallel out
• Through center unbent
Ray Tracing: Diverging Lens

7
• Parallel rays in, from near focal point out
• Toward far focal point in, parallel out
• Through center unbent
Ray Tracing: Concave Mirror

• Parallel rays in, through focal point out

• From focal point in, parallel out
• Through center reflected at equal angle

Ray Tracing: Convex Mirror

• Parallel rays in, from focal point direction out
• Toward focal point in, parallel out
• Through center reflected at equal angle

Real or Virtual?
• Converging lens: real image at s > f , virtual image at f > s
• Diverging lens: virtual image

• Concave Mirror: real image at s > f , virtual image at f > s

• Convex Mirror: virtual image