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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Definition: Irrigation is the science of artificial application of water to the land, in accordance with the crop
requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of the crops.
It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water, by construction of dams
& reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the water to agricultural fields. Water is normally
supplied to the plants by nature through the rains. However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either
insufficient, or ill-timed. In order to get the maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of
water and to maintain correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic irrigation system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops as when it is needed.
Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate irrigation.
- Inadequate rainfall
- Uneven distribution of Rainfall
- increasing the yield of the crops
- growing a number of crops
- insuring against drought.
- Growing perennial crops.

Scope of Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for raising crops. It includes
all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural fields. It deals with hydrology, river
engineering, design and construction of dams, weirs, canals and various other hydraulic and irrigation
structures. It also deals with surface and sub surface drainage system, soil reclamation, water-soil-crop
relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control, hydropower, and inland navigation are also studied in
IRRIGATION ENGINEERING
Various aspects of Irrigation Engineering is:
1. Water Resources and Hydrology Aspect – To locate various water sources and to study the hydrology of
the region. This includes study of meteorology, precipitation, stream flow, floods, river engineering,

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reservoirs and flood control. The following information are required while designing various irrigation
structures.
 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited.

2. Engineering Aspect - Involves the development of a source of water for irrigation and construction of
various irrigation structures.
 Dams and water power Engineering
 Diversion and Distribution structures
 Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).
 Ground water development

3. Agricultural aspect – Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural characteristics of the land.

4. Management Aspect- Deals with successful implementation and efficient management of engineering
aspects, water distribution, and agricultural works.

1.2 BENEFITS AND ILL- EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.
- Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through controlled and timely
supply of water to the crop.
- Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation. Optimum utilization
implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of water. In other words, yield will be smaller
for any quantity lesser than or in excess of optimum quantity.
- Elimination of mixed cropping in areas where irrigation is not ensured, generally mixed cropping is
adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the same field. If the weather
condition is not suitable to one of the crops it may be suitable for the other; and thus at least some yield
is obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when irrigation facilities are not available, but if irrigation
is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed cropping is generally not acceptable, because different crops
require different types of field preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.

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- General prosperity: A Revenue return is sometimes quite high and helps in all round development of
the country.
- Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained on objects primarily
designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels can be utilized to generate electricity
which may help in industrializing the rural area and so in solving the problem of fuel shortage.
- Domestic water supply:- irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply where water is
available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming bathing, cattle drinking etc.
- Facilities of communication: Irrigation channels are generally provided with embankments and
inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road way to the villagers for walking, cycling
or even motoring.
- In land navigation

Ill-Effects of Irrigation
Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and implemented. Most of these
are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the common ill-effects are
1. Water logging: when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the crops, excess water
percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water logging occurs when the water table reaches
near the root zones of the crops. The soil pores become fully saturated and the normal circulation of air in
the root zones of the crop is stopped and the growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop yield considerably
reduces. When the water table reaches the ground surface, the land becomes saline.
2. Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might have a negative influence
on soil microbial activities, on the quality of surface and sub surface water resources and the survival of the
surrounding vegetation. Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of these
is the seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the soil as fertilizer. Sometimes up to
50% of the nitrates applied to the soil sink in to the underground reservoir. The under ground water thus get
polluted.
3. Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease like malaria.
4. Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Some times cheaper water is to be provided at the cost of the
government and revenue returns are low.
1.3 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA
Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa. Many rivers arising in Ethiopia are also the sources of
the major water resources in neighboring countries. The country is endowed with water resources that could
easily be tapped and used for irrigation. Ironically this country is already suffering from food shortage because

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of the increasing population and chronic drought occurrence in most part of the eastern and northern part of the
country. There is an annual food deficit to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0 million tones in the country. During the
period from 1984 to 1992 the food aid annually received was around 0.9 to 1.0 tones (World Bank Report), to
meet the demand of the ever-growing population (over 72 million). The need for utilizing these resources is
most urgent, in particular, in areas of the country where the length of the growing period is short and the
precipitation is erratic. In Ethiopia, rain fed agriculture contributes the largest share of the total production.
However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture has become more important.
Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was concentrated on the production of commercial crops,
principally cotton and sugarcane on large state farms. By 1980 it was estimated that 85,000 ha. Mainly in the
Awash valley, had been developed under this form of production. In addition, some 65,000 ha of traditional
irrigation was estimated to exist. Predominantly in the highlands and developed on the farmer’s own initiative.
These schemes were typically small runoff river diversion, with low production levels. During this period
government involvement in irrigation concentrated on the state farms and was channeled through various
agencies.
Historical Back Ground
 In 1956 water resource development (WRD) was established within Ministry of public works, with
responsibility for undertaking river basin development studies and such a study was completed for the
Blue Nile basin. However, irrigation development remained concentrated in the Awash valley and in
1962 Awash valley Authority (AVA) was established.
 In 1971 National Water Resources Commission (NWRC) was established.
 In 1977 Valleys agricultural development authority (VADA) was created to extend the development of
large scale irrigated agriculture beyond the Awash valley and AVA become part of VADA.
 In 1981 NWRC strengthened to absorb functions of VADA. It comprised four authorities including
water resource development authority (WRDA), which became responsible for the study, design, and
implementation of water resource development projects including large scale irrigation.
The 1984 drought had a considerable impact on Ethiopia’s development policy, and the 1984 Ten-Year
perspective plan allocated top priority to agricultural development with objective of achieving self sufficiency
in food production, establishing a strategic reserve meeting the raw material requirement of industries and
expanding output of exportable agricultural products to increase foreign exchange earnings.

The Water Sector Development programme of MoWR (2002) organizes irrigation schemes in Ethiopia under
four different ways with sizes ranging from 50 to 85,000 ha

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 Traditional small scale schemes: These includes up to 100 ha in area, built and operated by farmers in
local communities. Traditionally, farmers have built small scale schemes on their own initiative with
government technical and material support. They manage them in their own users’ associations or committees
and irrigate areas from 50 to 100 ha with the average ranging from 70 to 90 ha. A total of 1,309 such schemes
existed in 1992 covering an estimated area of 60,000ha.

Water users’ associations have long existed to operate and manage traditional schemes. They comprise about
200 users who share a main or branch canal and further grouped in to several teams of 20 to 30 farmers each.

 Modern communal schemes: schemes up to 200 ha, built by government agencies with farmer
participation. Modern communal schemes were developed after the catastrophic drought of the 1973 as a means
to improve food security and peasant livelihoods by providing cash incomes through production and marketing
of crops. Such schemes are capable of irrigating about 30,000ha of land.

These schemes are generally based on run-of - diversion of streams and rivers and may also involve micro dams
for storage. On-farm support from the respective agricultural departments and maintenance of headworks by
water, mines and energy sections as well as technical support from the authorized irrigation development
Bureaus in different regions is giving supports and trying to strengthen the system.

 Modern private schemes: up to 2000 ha, owned and operated by private investors individually, in
partnership, or as corporations. Medium to large scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are private enterprises.
The private estates are the pioneers in the development of medium and large scale irrigation development
projects in the upper Awash during the 1950s and 1960s. During the 1990s some private schemes, mostly in the
form of limited companies re-emerged with the adoption of market based economic policy but have expanded
relatively slowly.

Currently 18 modern private irrigation projects are operating in some form over a total area of 6000 ha in
Oromiya, SNNPR, and Affar regions.

Public Schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises as estate farms. They are recently
developed irrigation schemes during the late 1970s. Gode West, Omo Ratti and Alwero- Abobo began late in
the 1980s and early in the 1990s but have not yet been completed. Public involvement towards large scale
schemes was withdrawn due to government changes and most of such schemes with the exception of Fincha
sugare estate have been suspended. Large scale schemes being operated by public enterprise extend over an area
estimated at 61,000 ha. Oromiya and Affar account nearly 87% of all irrigation schemes and about 73% of this
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is located in Awash valley. The SNNPR and Somali regions contain 9.9 and 3.3 percent respectively, WSDP
(2003).

Irrigation potential: In 1990 a team of consultants working for WAPCOS, a consultancy group in India,
prepared a preliminary water resource development master plan for Ethiopia. The potential for medium and
large scale irrigation projects was identified as 3.3 Mha. Areas having irrigation potential were identified from
1:50,000 and 1:250,000 topographic maps and 1:1000:000 geomorphologic maps. The study was carried out
almost entirely as a desk exercise with minimal field verification. It should be noted that the assessment of
irrigation potential is to a large degree subjective as it is dependent on the physical resources of land and water,
but also on the economic and social feasibility of their exploitation.

Another study conducted by FAO argues the estimation of the potential irrigable land by WAPCOS is over
estimated. That of the total potential irrigable area identified by WAPCOS, some 3 Mha of the soils or 90% of
that of the total were classified as only marginally suitable and in some case non-suitable with the technology
available. The main reason for this is the predominance of vertisols and nitosols in the areas identified. Theses
soils are characterized by high clay content, restricted damage and difficult workability. To avoid water logging
under irrigated conditions it is necessary to adopt a low cropping intensity or to install expensive sub-surface
drainage. Either alternative significantly reduces the economic viability of irrigation. However, such soils are
frequently classified as highly suitable for rice production.

Ethiopia has a rich water resources potential, but water can be very short in many places. Except for the Awash
and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia flow into neighboring countries. Unlike in the past
Ethiopia is now taking genuine steps towards fostering close ties, joint planning and harmonious relationships
among riparian countries.

The irrigation potential of the12 major river basins is given in the Table below.

Rivers Basin area Mean annual Ground water 1 2

(Km)2 Vol.x109m3 potentialx109m3 potential Net area
gross Under
irrigable irrigation(ha)
area(ha)
Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205400 69900

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Abay(Blue 204000 52.62 1.80 1001550 21010

Nile)
Baro-Akobo 75912 11.81 0.13 600000 350
Rift valley 52739 56.3 0.10 139300 12270
lakes
Omo-Gibe 79000 17.96 0.10 86520 27310
Genale-dawa 17104 5.88 0.03 423300 80
Wabi- 202697 3.16 0.04 204000 20290
Shebelle
Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189500 1800
Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -
Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -
Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -
Mereb-Gash 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000
Total 1127312 112.45 2.59 2920130 161010
Note 1= the data extracted from EARO and 2= the data from CSE

Ethiopia has not developed irrigation to the potential it has, i.e. according to the availability of physical
resources, land and water. At present only a little more than 3% of the irrigable land is currently irrigated both
in large and medium scale. The development of irrigated areas in the country has also been unevenly spread.
Over 70% of the area developed for irrigation to date is in the Awash river basin. Most of the development has
been in the Awash valley, which is the most accessible basin to Addis and has the best infrastructure to support
irrigation development.

The spells of drought during the last two decades have led to increased interest in irrigation development.
Irrigation is thus expanding in the Wabi-Shebelle and Genale rivers and in the Ziway-Meki area of the rift
valley. There are also a number of proposals for further irrigation schemes in several of the other basins
including the Omo river, Rift valley lakes and Baro-Akobo. Following the decentralization of governance, there
are now a number of regional initiatives to develop irrigation, especially at the small and medium scales,
building on existing traditional small-scale irrigation systems, and augmenting them with the diversion of
streams and the construction of earth dams. Irrigation development in Ethiopia, as in other countries, has a
number of ecological implications because of its impact upon river regimes and downstream flows.

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Some of the adverse effects of irrigation development on the environment are: The development of medium and
large scale irrigation projects causes a displacement of the indigenous population engaged in pastoral modes of
life. Clear examples include the displacement of 60,000 Afar pastoralists from the Amibara irrigation project in
the Middle Awash (Mac Donald, 1990) and unspecified number of kereyou pastoralists during the
establishment of the Metehara sugar plantation in the upper Awash.

With respect to the use of irrigation for crop production in the highlands, the success has been little. The
existence of small scales irrigation by small holders in parts of Shewa. Tigray Harerege, Gojjam, North omo
and few others is known. But the constraints of small scales of irrigation in the highlands of Ethiopia are
physical, know-how. capacity and climatic ones.

Until last year Ethiopia did not have a coherent water resource policy. Lack of an irrigation policy precluded the
preparation of a strategy for he sub-sector which would have identified development targets and priorities. The
large number of different agencies involved particularly in medium and large scale irrigation created
considerable difficulties in coordination of activities leading to overlap of responsibilities and inefficient use of
scarce human, financial and physical resources. Defined institutional responsibilities and allowed rational
planning of future manpower requirements and its development. The sub-sector also suffered from unnecessary
institutional and fragmentation.
Functions of Irrigation water
The function of soil moisture in plant growth are diversified
1. It adds water to the soil to supply the moisture essential for plant growth
 It acts as a solvent for the nutrients. Water forms the solution of the nutrients and this solution
is absorbed by the roots. Thus water acts as a nutrient carrier.
 The irrigation water supplies moisture which is essential for the life of bacteria beneficial to
the plant growth.
 Irrigation water supplies the moisture which is essential for the chemical action within the
plant, leading to its growth.

2. Some salt present in soil react to produce nourishing food products only in the presence of water
3. Water cools the soil and the atmosphere and thus makes more favorable environment for healthy
plant growth.
4. Irrigation water, with controlled supplies, washes out or dilutes salts in the soil

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5. It reduces the hazard of soil piping.

6. It softens tillage pans

1.4 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much influenced by the contents
of the soil, which is to be irrigated. Particular water may be harmful for irrigation on a particular soil but the
same water may be tolerable or even useful on some other soil. Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory
for its intended use if it contains:
 Chemicals toxic to plants or the persons using plant as food
 Chemicals that react with the soil to produce unsatisfactory moisture characteristics
 Bacteria injurious to persons or animals eating plants irrigated with water.

There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused by the supply of irrigation water and Salinity caused by
the upward movement of water and salts, related to high water tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly
related to salts in the irrigation water. The general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the soil
by providing extra water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone where it is removed by
drainage. The process is called leaching. This is one of the reasons why irrigation systems also require drainage
systems.

1.5 Feasibility studies of irrigation projects

Types of Irrigation projects

Any plan small or large, which ultimately aims at satisfying the paramount need of adequate water provision for
crop production, is an irrigation project.
Based on the scope of the irrigation project, irrigation projects can be classified as:
a)Large scale
b) Medium scale
c) Small scale

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Irrigation projects and their development costs

Type of project Command area Development cost*
(ha) U.S dollars/ha
Average cost Range in cost
Large scale >10,000 16,000 5,000-50,000
Medium scale 2,000-10,000 9,000 4,000-15,000
Small scale <2,000 4,000 1,000-6,500

* Source: FAO, 1995.

Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha,
medium scale 200-3000 ha. And large scale >3000 ha.

With this respect, Ethiopia has a total potentially irrigable area of about 3,637,000 ha. which is 27.55% of the
total cultivable area. From which
 For small scale irrigation 165,000-400,000 ha.
 For medium and large scale irrigation 3,300,000 ha.

Stages of investigations in the development of irrigation projects.

 Basically, the development of water resources for irrigation requires the conception, planning, design,
construction, and operation of various facilities to utilize and control water and to maintain water quality.
 Investigations of the development of irrigation projects need multi-discipilinary approach. Specialists of
different discipilines , such as, Soil and water specialist, Engineers (Irrigation and civil), Agronomist,
Geologist, and Socio-economist required.

 Investigations of water resources development projects are essentially aimed at collection of basic data
and analysis thereof for formulation of an optimum project. The extent of data to be collected depends on the
magnitude of the project and also on the stage of investigation.

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The common procedures adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

1. Sites are located on the toposheet.
2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of the possible alternatives and estimates
based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor) is fixed and construction started.

Approaches of data collections:

The following questions should be answered

 What or which data are required?

 How they can be collected?
 Why are they needed?
 Is the cost of their collection worthwhile?
Feasibility studies of irrigation projects
 Necessity for irrigation in the region: Normally Irrigation will be a necessity if there is inadequacy of
rainfall, uneven distribution of rainfall, etc. On the other hand it will be of a paramount importance to
alleviate food shortage due to population growth.
For instance, in Ethiopia,
In 2050 – population is expected to be 170 millions.
 Let 230-kg/person/year food grain is needed.
 Need of 400 mills. quintal (which = 3x present)
 Let 200 mills. Quintal produced by rain-fed (which = 2x present)
Thus 200 million quintal should be produced by irrigation (which needs 80, 000 ha increment per year).
 Availability of adequate water supply
 Topography of the area
 Cultural practices of the tract
 Adequacy of existing irrigation system if any
 Possibility of growing cash crops or other voluble crops after provision of
irrigation water

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 Facilities regarding accessibility to the site and transportation of

construction materials.
 Economical justification for implementing the irrigation scheme.

When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after reconnaissance survey), the data to be collected at the
feasibility study stage are
1. Physical data : Location, size, physiography (description of land form which includes only physical
aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data : Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment,
water quality etc.
3. Agricultural data : Land classification, crop water requirements, types of crops etc
4. Geological data : Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data :Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data : Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data : Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data : Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data : Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion : Opinions of different section of the society
12.Flood control data : Records of past flood, extent of damage caused, drainage requirements
Information to be collected includes
Land resources
An evaluation of the suitability of land for alternative kinds of use requires a survey to define and map the land
units together with the collection of descriptive data of land characteristics and resources.

Land suitability is the fitness of a land-mapping unit for a defined use (in this case irrigation). Land mapping
units represent parts of a study area (ex. for irrigation) which are more or less homogeneous with respect to
certain land characteristics i.e. slope, rainfall, soil texture, soil type, etc).

Land evaluation provides information and recommendations for deciding ‘which crops to grow where’ and
related questions. Land evaluation is the selection of suitable land, and suitable cropping, irrigation and
management alternatives that are physically and financially practicable and economically viable. The main

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product of land evaluation investigations is a land classification that indicates the suitability of various kinds of
land for specific land uses, usually depicted on maps with accompanying reports.

The four basic features of land suitability for irrigated agriculture are

 Irrigable terrain (land forms)

 Potentially fertile soil
 A climate in which the crop can thrive (develop well & be healthy)
 A reliable source of water of consistent quality
Soil survey:
This includes
 Identification of soil types.
 Field observation of infiltration.
 Field observation of hydraulic conductivity.
 Water table depth and fluctuation.
 Workability of the soil.
 Absence or presence of soil salinity.
Soil survey recognizes the relation between terrain or phyisography and soils.

 Topographic Survey follows the soil survey and so is restricted mainly to the areas of irrigable soils that
have been delineated. Additional areas are included as necessary for the location of reservoir, dams, head
works, canals, buildings, roads, and hydraulic structures. etc.
Water resources
Hydrological survey and Hydro-geological are undertaken to asses surface and sub-surface water resources of
the catchments respectively. It may be carried out at: national level, river basin level, project development level
and at farm level.

Data sources
 Surface water supplies from long – term records of stream flows, by stream gauging and water quality.
If such data is not available, rainfall records for the catchments or stream flow records of the
neighboring rivers used.
 If the above two conditions didn’t exist, stream gauging and metrological stations are set up as soon as
possible on the principle that short – term records are better than none.

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 For ground water supplies

Short – term yield is assessed by drilling and testing trial wells.
Long – term yield is estimated by a detailed study of the aquifers
(Mathematical models, numerical models which simulate the non-steady state, two-dimensional, ground water
flows are used for such purposes.)

Agricultural and Engineering aspects

 In feasibility study the present state of Agriculture and agricultural society is assessed and the future
state, with irrigation, is predicted. I.e. the ‘with’ and ‘without’ conditions of irrigation.
Present farm practices
 The number of farms of different sizes
 Farming methods in use
 Land areas cultivated and irrigated
 Crop yield per hectare
 Total crop production and costs.
 Labor available for farming operation
 Existing skill in irrigated farming and attitudes to change.
 Assessment on the existing market & transport.
 Presence of noxious weeds

The future state of Agriculture.

This assessment is much more difficult (numerous assumptions inevitably have to be made)
It should be demonstrated that.
The soils and the climate are suitable
 The rotation of crops is sound
 The water duties can be provided
 There will be accessible markets capable of absorbing the increased production at economic prices.
 The advising and training facilities will be adequate, etc.

The Engineering aspect mainly focuses on the development of a source of water for irrigation and construction
of various structures for storage, diversion, conveyance and application of water.

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These includes investigations of

 Site selection and Design of a reservoir & a dam
 Site selection & Design of diversion head – works at point off takes.
 Alignment for canal system (lay outs for canal)
 Alignment for field channels.
 Study of sub–surface conditions that affect the design and construction of a proposed structures.
 Concentrated on the mechanical properties of the sub soil at foundation levels.
 Construction materials including, soil and sand, rock and aggregate, cement, lime stone steel, etc.
 Tests should be carried out on the various construction materials.
 Any flood hazard so that provision of flood dyke protection is possible.
 If there is drainage requirements i.e. layouts of sub – surface drains.
 Other factors having bearing effects upon the design of engineering works.

Social and Economical aspects.

The attitude of the people to the introduction of irrigation in that area should be investigated thoroughly.
The Various items considered in benefit/cost relationships are.

a) Costs
 Capital cost of the project.
 Cost of preliminary and precise survey and investigation.
 Cost of a equitation of land
 Cost of various structures
 Cost of earthwork and lining for canal system. etc.
 Allowance made for foreseen and unforeseen contingencies.
 Interest on Capital
 Depreciation
 Operational and maintenance cost of project

b) Benefits.
 Agricultural production in the project area before and after taking up the project (irrigation).
 Cost of cultivation before and after irrigation (cost of inputs viz. Seeds, manure, labor, irrigation
machines and implement etc).

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Then.

B. C ratio =

>1.5 for economically justified project.

Dept. of WRIE. (G4.HWRE) Page 16