LIGHT, REFLECTION & REFRACTION

What is Light ? normal at the point of incidence is

Light is a type of electromagnetic called the angle of incidence.
radiation that allows the human eye to 5. Angle of Reflection : The angle which
see or makes objects visible. It is also the reflected ray makes with the
defined as visible radiation to the human normal at the point of incidence is
eye. Photons, which are tiny packets of called the angle of reflection .
energy, are found in light. Laws of Reflection
• "Electromagnetic radiation is energy 1. The incident ray, the reflected ray and
from the Sun that travels in waves. the normal all lie in the same plane.
2. The angle of incidence ∠i = ∠r Angle of
reflection.
There are two types of reflection
1. Regular Reflection : When all
reflected rays are parallel to each
other, the reflection is called regular
reflection. Clear image is formed in
case of regular reflection.
Wavelength ∝ Speed of the wave 2. Irregular Reflection : When reflected
rays are not parallel to each other,
the reflection is called irregular
reflection. We call it as diffused
Reflection of light
reflection.
The bouncing back of light in the same
medium is called reflection of light.

Terms related to Reflection of Light

1. Incident Ray : The light ray striking a
reflecting surface is called the
incident ray.
2. Reflected Ray : The light ray obtained
after reflection from the surface in Reflection of Light by Plane Mirror
the same medium in which the Following are the characteristics of an
incident ray is traveling is called image formed by the plane mirror ;
Reflected ray. 1. Image is always virtual and erect.
3. Normal : The perpendicular drawn to 2. Size of the image is equal to the size
the surface at the point of incidence of the object.
is called the Normal. 3. Image is as far behind the mirror as
4. Angle of Incidence : The angle which the object is in front of it.
the incident ray makes with the 4. Image is laterally inverted.

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• Virtual : image cannot be projected 3. Principal axis : This is normal to the
onto a screen because the light rays mirror at its pole. The straight line
do not actually converge; instead, joining the Pole of the mirror and
they appear to come from a location the Centre of curvature of a
behind the mirror. Spherical mirror is called the
• Real : Image can be projected on to Principal Axis.
the screen. Light rays actually 4. Radius of curvature (R) : It is the
converge at a point. radius of the sphere formed by the
• Erect : image is oriented in the same reflecting part of the sphere.
direction as the object (upright), 5. Focus (F) : The Focus of a spherical
meaning it maintains its original Mirror is a point on the Principal
positioning. Axis at which the light rays incident
• Inverted : image is upside down parallel to the principal axis meet
compared to the object after reflection from the mirror.
• Laterally Inverted : reversal of the 6. Focal length (f ) : The distance of
left and right sides of an image, so focus from the Pole of the mirror is
that the left side of the object called the Focal Length of the mirror.
appears on the right side of the 7. Aperture : The part of the mirror
image and vice versa. which can be exposed to the
Spherical Mirror incident light is called the aperture.
There are two types of spherical
mirrors,
1. Concave Mirror : A concave mirror
has a reflective surface that is
curved inward.
2. Convex Mirror : A convex mirror has
a reflective surface that bulges
towards the light source.

Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors

Some Important terms
1. Pole (P) : The center of the reflecting
surface of a spherical mirror is called
pole.
2. Centre of curvature (C) : The center
of the sphere formed by the
reflecting part of a spherical mirror
is called the center of curvature.

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Note : Aperture : The aperture in a it becomes parallel to principal axis.
spherical mirror is the opening that lets
light in. (area suitable for Reflection)

Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams in

Mirrors

For a concave mirror

we see that ray passing through Centre
of Curvature comes back the same path
For a convex mirror
since Center of Curvature is on the right
side, it appears that ray passes through
Center of Curvature, and then it comes
back along the same path.

For a concave mirror

we see that ray passes through focus
after reflection
For a convex mirror
since focus is on the right side, it appears
that ray passes through focus after
reflection

For both concave and convex mirror, if

the incident ray to the Pole makes an
angle of incidence i, then it will go back
making an angle of reflection ‘r’ with
Principal axis as the normal and Angle of
Incidence = Angel of Reflection
For a concave mirror
we see that ray passing through focus
becomes parallel to principal axis after
reflection
For a convex mirror
since focus is on the right side, it appears
that ray passes through focus, and then

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

Formation of Images of Concave Mirrors

Size of Nature of
Position of Object Position of Image
Image Image
Highly Real and
1 Object at Infinity At the Focus
Diminished Inverted
Between the Centre
Object Beyond the Real and
2 of Curvature and Diminished
Centre of Curvature Inverted
Focus
Object at the Centre At the Centre of Real and
3 Same Size
of Curvature Curvature Inverted
Object Between the
Behind the Centre of Real and
4 Centre of Curvature Enlarged
Curvature Inverted
and Focus
Highly Real and
5 Object at the Focus At Infinity
enlarged Inverted
Object Between the Virtual &
6 Behind the Mirror Enlarged
Focus and the Pole Erect

1 2

3 4

5 6

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

Formation of Images of Convex Mirror

Size of Nature of
Position of Object Position of Image
Image Image
Highly
At focus, F, behind diminished Virtual and
1 At infinity
the mirror and pointed erect
in size
Between infinity and Between P and F, Virtual and
2 Diminished
pole of the mirror behind the mirror erect

1 2

Difference Between Concave & Convex Mirror

Concave Mirror Convex Mirror

A concave lens has its surfaces A convex lens has its surfaces puffed
curved inwards. up out- wards.
It can form a real image (inverted) It can only form a virtual image
and a virtual image (erect) depending (erect) regardless of the object’s
on the position of the object. position.
It can form a magnified, diminished It can form only a diminished image.
or the same sized image (relative to
the object) depending on the position
of the object.
converging mirror because it causes Diverging Mirror : because it causes
parallel light rays to converge, or parallel light rays to diverge, or
come together, at a point (focus) spread out, after reflection. The
after reflection. reflected rays appear to come from a
point (virtual focus) behind the
mirror.
Uses of concave mirror: Shaving Uses of convex mirror: Rear view
mirror, dentist mirror, torch mirror mirror, shop security mirror

Q. Why do we prefer a convex mirror as a rear-view mirror in vehicles?

Ans. Convex mirrors are preferred as rear-view mirrors in vehicles because they
provide a wider field of view and produce virtual, erect, and diminished images.
This allows drivers to see more of the traffic behind them, enhancing safety while
driving.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

 FORMULAS

❖ The radius of curvature (R) of a mirror Sign convention

is twice the focal length (F), expressed In case of spherical mirrors, the following
as → R = 2F sign convention is used for measuring
MIRROR FORMULA various distances:
➢ All distances are measured from the
pole of the mirror.
➢ All distances measured in the direction
of the incident ray are taken as
Where: positive.
v = distance of the image from the mirror ➢ All distances measured in the direction
u = distance of the object from the mirror opposite to that of the incident ray are
f = focal length of the mirror taken as negative.
➢ The distances measured above the
MAGNIFICATION principal axis are taken as positive.
➢ The distance measured below the
principal axis are taken as negative

Where:
• h' = height of the image
• h = height of the object
• v = image distance
• u = object distance
Note :
• If magnification is POSITIVE, then
the image is UPRIGHT.
• If magnification is NEGATIVE then
the image is INVERTED.

Numerical Problems on Mirrors

1. A person stands 2 m away from a 2. The radius of curvature of a spherical

plane mirror. mirror is 20 cm. What is its focal
a. What is the distance between the length?
person and their image? ➢ Radius of curvature, R = 20 cm
b. If the person moves 1 m closer to the ➢ Radius of curvature of a spherical
mirror, what is the new distance mirror = 2 × Focal length (f )
between the person and their image? ➢ R = 2f
a. Distance from person to mirror = 2 m. ➢ f = R ÷ 2 = 20 ÷ 2 = 10
➢ Image distance from mirror = 2 m ➢ Hence, the focal length of the given
(same as person’s distance). spherical mirror is 10 cm.
➢ Total distance = 2m + 2m = 4m 3. A concave mirror has a focal length
b. New distance from person to mirror of 20 cm. An object is placed 40 cm in
= 1 m. front of the mirror.
➢ Image distance from mirror = 1 m. 1. Calculate the position of the image.
➢ Total distance = 1m + 1m = 2m 2. What is the nature & size of the
image?

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 Magnification

size of image : Magnification (m)

➢ Position of the image: 6 cm behind

the mirror.
➢ Nature of the image: Virtual, erect,
& diminished.
➢ Magnification: 2/5 (the image is
smaller than the object).

5. A concave mirror produces three

times magnified (enlarged) real
➢ Position of the image : 40 cm in front image of object placed at 10 cm in
of the mirror. front of it. Where is the image
➢ Nature of the image: Real, inverted, located?
& of the same size as the object ➢ Object height = H
(magnification = -1). ➢ Image height = -3H (indicating an
inverted image)
4. A convex mirror has a focal length of ➢ Object distance, u = -10 cm
10 cm. An object is placed 15 cm in
front of the mirror.
a. Where is the image formed?
b. What is the nature & size of the
image?
Focal length, f = 10cm (convex mirror,
positive).
Object distance, u = -15cm (object
distance is negative). v = -30cm
Image position: 30 cm in front of the
mirror (Negative sign indicating a real
& inverted image).

v = 6cm

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

Refraction of light Refractive Index (n)
➢ Change in the direction of The refractive index of medium 2 w.r.t
propagation of a ray of light, when medium 1 is given by the ratio of the
it travels from one transparent speed of light in medium 1 and the speed
medium to another, is called of light in medium 2.
refraction of light.
➢ It is nothing but bending of light.
n21 = V1 ÷ V2

Refractive index of a medium depends

upon
Laws of Refraction
• Nature of the material of the medium
➢ The incident ray, the refracted ray
• Density of the medium
and the normal to the interface of
• Colour or wavelength of light
two transparent media at the point
Optical Density : Optical density of a
of incidence, all lie in the same
medium is directly proportional to the
plane.
refractive index of that medium.
➢ The ratio of the sine of the angle of
Wavelength of light : The degree of
incidence to the sine of the angle of
refraction is inversely related to the
refraction is a constant, for the
wavelength of light. This means
light of a given colour and for the
Refraction of Light through PRISM
given pair of media. This law is also
known as Snell’s law of refraction.

• When light enters a prism from air (

rare medium) into glass (a denser
Note : medium), it bends towards the base
➢ When light travels from a rarer of the prism.
medium (like air) to a denser medium • The incident ray AB bends towards
(like water), it bends toward the the normal at the surface and follows
normal. This occurs because the light the path BC, which is the refracted
slows down as it enters the denser ray inside the prism, bending towards
medium. the base QR.
➢ When light moves from a denser • Shorter wavelengths (like violet and
medium to a rarer medium, it bends blue) refract more, bending more
away from the normal. This happens sharply.
because the light speeds up as it exits • Longer wavelengths (like red) refract
the denser medium. less, bending less sharply.

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Dispersion of Light
• When white light is passed through
a glass prism it splits into its
spectrum of colours (in order violet,
indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange
and red) & this process of white light
splitting into its constituent colours
is termed as dispersion.

Advance sunrise and delayed sunset

• It occurs due to atmospheric
Recombination refraction of sunlight.
• When white light is passed through • Sunlight bends (refracts) as it passes
a prism, it disperses, and when through Earth’s atmosphere due to
another prism is kept inverted, the the changing density of air layers.
dispersed light returns to white • This refraction makes the Sun
light. This is referred to as light appear slightly above the horizon
spectrum Recombination. This is even when it is below the actual
caused by the different velocities of horizon.
different colors passing through the • As a result, we see the Sun about 2
prism. minutes earlier at sunrise and about
2 minutes later at sunset than its
actual position.

Twinkling of stars
• The twinkling of stars is caused by
atmospheric refraction of starlight.
• The Earth's atmosphere is made up
of layers with varying refractive
indices.
• As starlight passes through these
layers, its path continuously
changes due to refraction.
• This causes the star’s light to appear
to shift and vary in brightness,
leading to the twinkling effect.

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Scattering of Light Formation of Rainbow
• When white light from the sun
enters the earth's atmosphere, the
light gets scattered i.e, the light
spreads in all directions by the dust
particles, free water molecules and
the molecules of the gasses present
in the atmosphere. This phenomenon
is called scattering of light.

1. Refraction: Sunlight enters a raindrop

and bends (refracts) as it moves from
air to water.
2. Dispersion: The light splits into its
• Scattering is the redirection of light in
component colors (spectrum) because
different directions by particles in the
different colors refract by different
medium, while dispersion is the
amounts.
separation of light into its component
3. Total Internal Reflection: The light
colors due to varying refractive
reflects off the inside surface of the
indices.
raindrop.
Sky appears blue in daytime ?
4. Refraction again: As the light exits the
• Sunlight contains all colors, but blue
raindrop, it refracts again, spreading
light has a shorter wavelength and is
the colors and creating the rainbow.
scattered more by the gases and
This results in a circular arc of colors,
particles in Earth’s atmosphere. This
with red on the outer edge and violet on
scattering spreads blue light in all
the inner edge.
directions, making it more visible to
SPHERICAL LENS
our eyes during the daytime, while
A lens is an optical device bounded by
other colors (like red) are scattered
one or two spherical surfaces that is
less.
used to bend light in a specific way
Total Internal Reflection
There are two type of lens
• Total Internal Reflection occurs
1. Convex lens (Converging lens) : bends
when light travels from a denser
light so that the light rays come
medium to a rarer medium at an
together at a point
angle greater than the critical angle,
2. Concave lens (Diverging lens) : bends
resulting in all the light being
light so that it spreads light apart
reflected back into the denser
instead of coming together.
medium instead of refracting. This
phenomenon is used in optical fibers
and prisms.
• The critical angle is the minimum
angle of incidence at which light,
moving from a denser to a rarer
medium, is reflected back entirely
into the denser medium, causing
total internal reflection.

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• Convex Lens :- Convex O Convex – Rules for Drawing Ray Diagrams in Lens
Biconvex :- Both the refracting
surfaces are Convex
• Concave Lens :- Concave O Concave –
Biconcave :- Both refracting surfaces
are Concave.
Terms Related to Spherical Lens
1. Pole : The centre of the spherical
refracting surface of the lens is
called the pole. It is the point where
the principal axis meets the surface For a convex lens,
of the lens. • we see that ray passes through focus
2. Optical Centre : The point on the on right side
principal axis at the centre of the For a concave lens,
lens is called the optical centre. • we see that ray appears to pass
3. Centre of Curvature : A lens has two through focus on left side
spherical surfaces; these two
spherical surfaces form a part of a
sphere. The centre of these spheres
is known as the centre of curvature.
4. Principal Axis : The principal axis is
an imaginary line passing through
the centres of curvature and the
pole.
5. Aperture : The area of the lens
suitable for refraction is called For a convex lens,
aperture. The aperture of the lens is • ray passing through focus on left
the effective diameter of its light- becomes parallel to principal axis
transmitting area. after refraction
For a concave lens,
• It appears that ray passes through
focus, and then it becomes parallel to
principal axis
6. Focus : Focus is the point onto which
collimated light parallel to the axis
is focused.

For a both convex and concave lens, ray

passing through Optical center emerges
without deviation

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Image formation by Convex Lens

Size of Nature of
Position of Object Position of Image
Image Image
Diminished, Real and
1 Infinity At F2
point sized Inverted
Real and
2 Beyond C1 Between C2 and F2 Diminished
Inverted
Real and
3 Between C1 and F1 Beyond C2 Enlarged
Inverted
Infinitely
large or Real and
4 At F1 At infinity
highly Inverted
enlarged
Real and
5 At C1 At C2 Same size
Inverted
On the same side as Virtual &
6 Between F1 and Pole Enlarged
the object, beyond C1 Erect

1 2

3 4

5
6

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

Images Formation by Concave Lens

Size of Nature of
Position of Object Position of Image
Image Image
Highly
Virtual &
1 At Infinity At F1 diminished,
Erect
point-sized
Between Focus (F1)
Between infinity & Virtual and
2 and Optical center Diminished
Optical Center Erect
(O)

1 2
FORMULAS

Lens Formula Sign Convention

The Relationship between object
distance ( u ) , Image Distance ( v ) and
the Focal Length ( f ) of a lens is called
Lens Formula .

Magnification Formula

1. Object distance (u) is always negative.

2. Image distance (v) is positive for real
• m= magnification images.
• h’= height of the image 3. Image distance (v) is negative for
• h = height of an object virtual images.
Power of Lens 4. Focal length (f ) is positive for convex
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its lenses.
focal length i.e 1/f (in metre). The SI unit 5. Focal length (f ) is negative for
of power of a lens is dioptre (D). concave lenses.
6. Magnification (m) is positive for
upright images.
7. Magnification (m) is negative for
inverted images.

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NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
1. Light enters from air to glass having
refractive index 1.50. What is the
speed of light in the glass? The speed
of light in vacuum is 3 × 10 8 ms-1

2. A ray of light passes from air

(refractive index = 1) into a glass slab
(refractive index = 1.5). If the angle
of incidence in air is 30°, find the
angle of refraction in the glass.
3. The table below shows the refractive b) In which medium (water, glass, or
indices of different materials ; diamond) will light travel the slowest?
c) Out of the following materials—air,
water, glass, and diamond—which has the
highest optical density? Explain why.

a) A ray of light travels from air to

water with an angle of incidence of 30°.
Calculate the angle of refraction in
water.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

c) A material with a higher refractive
index has a higher optical density. The
refractive index of a material determines
how much light bends when entering that
material.
• Refractive index of air = 1.00
• Refractive index of water = 1.33
• Refractive index of glass = 1.52
• Refractive index of diamond = 2.42
The higher the refractive index, the
greater the optical density. Since
diamond has the highest refractive
index (2.42), it has the highest optical
density among the given materials.

4. An object is placed 15 cm from a convex

lens. The image formed is real and
inverted, and is located 30 cm from the
lens. Find the focal length of the lens.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

5. An object of height 1 cm is placed in 6. A spherical lens is used to obtain an
front of a concave lens of focal image on a screen. The size of the
length 40cm. If the object distance is image is four times and size of the
60 cm, find the position and height object . What is the type of lens and at
of the image. what distance is the screen placed from
the lens ?

Problems

1. The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a mirror is

formed on a screen placed in front of the mirror at a distance of 60 cm from its
pole. What is the nature of the mirror? Find its focal length.
2. An object is kept at a distance of 4m in front of a spherical mirror, which forms
its erect image at a distance of 1 m from the mirror. What is the magnification?
Is the mirror concave or convex?
3. The image of a candle flame placed at a distance of 30 cm from a spherical lens
is formed on a screen placed on the other side of the lens at a distance of 60
cm from the optical centre of the lens. Identify the type of lens and calculate
its focal length. If the height of the flame is 3 cm, find the height of the image.
4. Find the power of a convex lens which forms a real and inverted image of
magnification -1 of an object placed at a distance of 20cm from its optical
centre.
5. An object kept 60 cm from a lens gives a virtual image 20 cm in front of the
lens . What is the focal length and power of the lens ? Is it is converging lens
or diverging lens ?

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6. A convex lens forms a real image of pencil at a distance of 50 cm from the lens
. The image formed is of the same size as the object . Find the focal length and
power of the lens. At what distance is the pencil placed from the lens ?
7. The image of an object formed by a mirror is real, inverted and is of
magnification – 1. If the image is at a distance of 40 cm from the mirror, where
is the object placed? Where would the image be if the object is moved 20 cm
towards the mirror? State reason and also draw ray diagram for the new
position of the object to justify your answer.
8. A student has focused the Image of a candle flame on a white screen using a
concave mirror. The situation is as given below:
• Length of the flame = 1.5 cm
• Focal length of the mirror = 12 cm
• Distance of flame from the mirror = 18 cm
• If the flame is perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror, then
calculate the following:
a. Distance of the image from the mirror
b. Length of the image
• If the distance between the mirror and the flame is reduced to 10 cm, then
what would be observed on the screen? Draw ray diagram to justify your
answer for this situation.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

Solution

3 4 5
6

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 HUMAN EYE & THE COLOURFUL WORLD

Human Eye : Human eye is a natural focal lengths.

optical instrument which is used to see 8. Aqueous humour : It is fluid which
objects by human beings. It acts like a fills the space between cornea and
camera which has a lens. eye lens.
9. Vitreous Humor : A clear, jelly-like
substance that fills the space
between the lens and the retina,
helping maintain the eye’s shape.
Power of Accommodation of the Eye
• When the ciliary muscles are relaxed,
the eye lens becomes thin, the focal
length increases, & the distant objects
are clearly visible to the eyes.
• To see the nearby objects clearly, the
Parts of Human Eye ciliary muscles contract making the
1. Cornea : The cornea acts as the eye's eye lens thicker. Thus, the focal length
outermost layer. It functions like a of the eye lens decreases and the
window that controls and focuses nearby objects become visible to the
the entry of light into the eye. eyes.
2. Retina : The retina is the innermost • Hence, the human eye lens is able to
layer in the eye that is responsible adjust its focal length to view both
for the visual processing that turns distant and nearby objects on the
light energy from photons into retina. This ability is called the power
three-dimensional images. of accommodation of the eyes.
3. Pupil : The round opening in the Defects of Vision and their correction:
center of the iris (the colored tissue There are three common defect of vision
that makes the "eye color" at the 1. Myopia (Short sightedness) : It is also
front of the eye). The pupil changes called nearsightedness. It is a kind of
size to let light into the eye. It gets defect in the human eye due to which
smaller in bright light and larger as a person can see nearby objects
the amount of light decreases. clearly but he cannot see distant
4. Iris : The colored tissue at the front objects clearly. Myopia is due to
of the eye that contains the pupil in (i) excessive curvature of the cornea.
the center. The iris helps control the (ii) elongation of the eyeball.
size of the pupil to let more or less Correction of Myopia : Since, a concave
light into the eye. lens has an ability to diverge incoming
5. Eye Lens : It is a convex lens made of rays, it is used to correct this defect of
transparent and flexible jelly like vision.
material. 2. Hypermetropia (Long sightedness) : It
6. Optic nerve : The optic nerve is a kind of defect in the human eye
transmits electrical impulses from due to which, a person can see distant
your eyes to your brain. objects properly but cannot see the
7. Ciliary muscles : These are the nearby objects clearly. It happens due
muscles which are attached to eye to
lens and can modify the shape of eye (i) decrease in the power of eye lens i.e.,
lens which leads to the variation in increase in focal length of eye lens.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

(ii) shortening of eyeball.
Correction: Since a convex lens has the
ability to converge incoming rays, it can
be used to correct this defect of vision.
3. Presbyopia: It is a kind of defect in the
human eye which occurs due to aging.
It happens due to the following
reasons
(i) decrease in flexibility of eye lens.
(ii) gradual weakening of ciliary muscles.
In this, a person may suffer from both
myopia and hypermetropia.
Correction: By using a bifocal lens with
appropriate power. Bifocal lenses consist
of both concave and convex lenses, upper
position consists of the concave lens and
lower portion consists of a convex lens.

KUNDRAPU JASWANTH AKHIL

(a) The far point of a myopic person is 80 cm . In front of the eye. What is the
power of the lens required to enable him to see very distant objects clearly ?

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