CHAPTER

PROPERTIES OF FLUID AND FLUID PRESSURE

1

1.2 Fluid Properties

[1 Density

The density or mass density of a fluid is defined as the mass per

unit volume. It is denoted by ρ and its units are kg/m3.
Therefore,

Density, ρ= =
[-]Q. 2Define the following term : Specific weight.

Ans. :
The specific weight density is defined as the weight per unit
volume. It is denoted by w or (γ).
Mathematically,

Weight density, w or γ =

w or γ= = ρ ⋅ g ...(1.2.2)
[-]Q. 3Define specific volume, state its SI unit.S-2011, S-2012

Ans. :
Specific volume of a fluid is defined as the volume per unit mass
i.e.

Specific volume, v= = (m3 / kg)...(1.2.4)

[-]Q. 4Define specific gravity of fluid and write its standard value for water.W-2011, S-2013,
W-2013, S-2014
Ans. :
Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of mass density or specific
weight of a fluid to the mass density or specific weight of an ideal
fluid.
For liquids :

∴ Specific gravity or relative density,

S= = …(1.2.5)
 Specific gravity of water at a standard temperature 4°C is 1.
1.3 Viscosity or Dynamic Viscosity or Coefficient of Viscosity
or Absolute Viscosity (μ)

[-]Q. 1Explain dynamic viscosity. Derive its unit.W-2011,S-2013,W-2013

Ans. :
The property of a fluid which offers resistance to the movement of
one layer over another adjacent layer is called viscosity or
dynamic viscosity.
Alternately, viscosity is defined as the property of fluid which
offers resistance to deformation under action of a shear force.
Consider two layers AB and CD
of fluid flowing one over the
other at a distance dy apart
having velocities (u) and (u +
du) respectively as shown in Fig.
1.3.1.
Fig. 1.3.1
Top layer CD causes a shear stress, τ (force/unit area) on the
lower layer AB and lower layer causes a shear stress on upper
layer.
This tangential shear stress (τ) is proportional to the velocity
gradient in the direction perpendicular to the fluid layers.
Mathematically,

Shear stress, τ ∝ Velocity gradient,

τ=μ ⋅ …(1.3.1)
Where μ is the constant of proportionality called viscosity or
dynamic viscosity or absolute viscosity.
From Equation (1.3.1),

μ= =
μ= × = ×m× = or Pa ⋅ s

∴ Unit of viscosity in S.I. units is or Pa ⋅ s…(1.3.2)

[-]Q. 2Explain kinematic viscosity. Write relation between kinematic and dynamic viscosity.
State the S.I unit of kinematic viscosity.W-2011,W-2012,W-2013

Ans. :
Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to
its density. Mathematically,

Kinematic viscosity, (υ)= ...(1.3.5)

S.I unit of Kinematic viscosity is .

1.4 Classification of Fluids

[-]Q. 1Give the classification of fluids.

Ans. :
Fluids are mainly classified as;
1.Ideal fluid : A fluid having no viscosity and is incompressible is
called ideal fluid. There is no such ideal fluids, thus it is a
theoretical concept.
2.Real fluid : Fluids having viscosity are called real fluids. All
fluids are real fluids.
3.Newtonian fluids : A fluid in which shear stress (τ) is directly
proportional to velocity gradient (du/dy) is called a Newtonian
fluid. e.g. air, water, kerosene, alcohol, glycerine etc.
4.Non-Newtonian fluids : The fluids in which shear stress is not
proportional to velocity gradient are called Non-Newtonian
fluids. e.g. tooth paste, gels, slurries, paints, lubricants, oils etc.
1.5 Compressibility
[-]Q. 1Define the following term : Compressibility. W-2011, S-2012

Ans. :
The change in volume per unit volume is proportional to change in
pressure is called compressibility of a fluid. Mathematically,

dp ∝ – i.e. dp = – K ⋅ ...(1.5.1)
Note : Negative sign is used since volume decreases with increase
in pressure.

‘K’ is called bulk modulus.

1.6 Surface Tension

[-]Q. 1Define Surface tension.W-2011, S-2012, S-2014

Explain the phenomenon surface tension ?S-2013

Ans. :
A liquid is made of number of molecules. These molecules attract
each other. The forces of attraction between molecules are in
equilibrium as shown in Fig. 1.6.1(a) in case of molecule A.

Fig. 1.6.1
A molecule B at the free surface of liquid is shown in Fig.
1.6.1(b). It doesnot have a liquid molecule to pull it upwards.
Therefore, a force P acts downwards normal to the free surface of
the liquid so that the molecule has a tendency to move
downwards.
It causes a pull (tension) on the free surface of liquid layer called
surface tension. This surface tension generally occurs at the
interface of a liquid and air (gas) or at the interface of two liquids.
Therefore, we can define surface tension as the property of a
liquid which enables or allows it to resist tensile stress. The
surface tension is caused due to the cohesion between the
molecules at free surface of the liquid.
Surface tension can also be defined as the force required to keep
the unit length of surface film in equilibrium.
Note that the formation of droplets, free jets, bubbles or resisting
the very small loads like a needle placed on the surface of liquid
are due to surface tension.
Similarly, an oil drop spreads on water surface and provides a thin
layer because surface tension of oil is less than the surface tension
of water.
Surface tension is denoted by σ and its S.I. units are N/m.
σ=0.073 N/m for water-air interface
σ=0.480 N/m for mercury-air interface.
[-]Q. 2Derive the expression of pressure intensity inside a droplet.

Ans. :
Consider a spherical droplet of diameter d as shown in Fig. 1.6.2.
Let :
p=excess pressure developed
inside the droplet
σ= surface tension
Under static equilibrium we have,
Force due to surface tension = Force due to excess pressure

Fig. 1.6.2
Surface tension × Circumference = Pressure × area

σ × πd=p × d2

∴ σ= …(1.6.1)
1.7 Capillarity

[-]Q. 1Explain the phenomenon of capillary rise with reference to surface tension. S-2011, W-
2012, S-2013, W-2013, S-2014

Ans. :
When a small diameter tube (less than 6 mm) is kept inside a pool
of liquid, it is observed that the liquid level in the tube either rises
or falls relative to the liquid level in the pool of liquid as shown in
Fig. 1.7.1(a) and (b).
The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid surface in the capillary
tube relative to adjacent level of liquid is calledcapillarity.

Fig. 1.7.1(a) : Capillary riseFig. 1.7.1(b) : Capillary fall

Capillarity occurs due to adhesion and cohesion between the
molecules and surfaces. If the adhesion force (force needed to
stick together) between the molecules of liquid and tube is more
than cohesion force between liquid molecules, the liquid will wet
the glass surface and the liquid level will rise and become concave
upwards e.g. in case of water.
If adhesive force between liquid molecules and tube is less than
cohesive force between liquid molecules, then the liquid level will
fall and become convex upwards. e.g. in case of mercury liquid.
Examples of capillarity are the suction of kerosene in lamp, rise of
water in soil etc.
Fig. 1.7.2
Expression for Capillary Rise :
Refer Fig. 1.7.2
Let :h = Capillary rise or fall in tube, m
d= diameter of tube, m
σ=surface tension, N/m2
θ=contact angle
γ= Specific weight of liquid

=ρ ⋅ g
Surface tension forces acting around the circumference of the
tube,
FS=Surface tension × circumference = σ × πd

∴ Vertical component of surface tension force,

FSV= FS cos θ = σ × πd cos θ ( ↑ )…(i)
Weight of the liquid in vertical column,
W = Specific weight × Volume of liquid in tube = γ × Area ×
height

W=γ × d2 × h (↓)...(ii)
Under equilibrium conditions,
Vertical component of force due to surface tension,
FSV = Weight of liquid.

∴ σ ⋅ π ⋅ d ⋅ cos θ=γ × d2 × h

h= ...(1.7.1)
1.8 Vapour Pressure

[-]Q. 1Explain the concept of vapour pressure. S-2011, S-2012, W -2011, W-2012

Ans. :
Liquids occupy the shape of the vessel and exhibit a free surface
since the liquid molecules have high cohesive force. But in case of
gases and vapours, they fill the vessel since the binding force
between molecules is extremely small in gaseous state.
When the liquid is kept in a closed vessel, the molecules
constantly leave the liquid surface and equal number of molecules
enter the liquid surface if no energy is added at a given
temperature.
Under equilibrium conditions, the vapours above the liquid
surface exerts a pressure on the liquid surface called vapour
pressure.
Notes :
1.Vapour pressure increases with the increase in temperature.
2.If pressure on liquid is less or equal to vapour pressure at a
given temperature, the liquid starts boiling or vapourise.
3.A liquid is more volatile if it has higher vapour pressure e.g.
vapour pressure for petrol at 20°C is 30.4 kPa while that of water
is 2.345 kPa, for this reason petrol vapourises faster than water.
4.Vapour pressure = , hence its S.I. units are N/m2 or Pa.
[-]Ex. 1.8.8 :At a certain point in castor oil the shear stress is 0.216 N/m2 and the velocity
gradient 0.216 s- 1. If mass density of castor oil is 959.42 kg/m3. Find kinematic viscosity.May
2012

Ans. :
Shear stress, τ = 0.216 N/m2

Velocity gradient, =0.216 s– 1

Mass density, ρ=959.42 kg/m3
Kinematic viscosity, υ :

Dynamic Viscosity, μ= = =1

Kinematic Viscosity, υ= = = 1.04 × 10– 3 m2 /s...Ans.

[-]Ex. 1.8.13 :A glass tube of internal diameter 3 mm is immersed in mercury. The angle of
contact of mercury with glass can be taken as 130°. What will be the level of Hg in the tube
relative to the free surface of the liquid outside the tube? Take surface tension of liquid = 0.48
N/m.

Ans. :
Given :d = 3 mm = 3 × 10– 3 m, σ = 0.48 N/m

The capillary rise (or depression) is given as h =

For mercury θ=130°, cos θ = – 0.6428
h= =
h= – 3.083 × 10–3 m = – 3.083 mm…Ans.

∴ The negative sign indicates that there is capillary depression

1.9 Pressure or Intensity of Pressure (p)

[-]Q. 1Define : Pressure intensity.W-2011, S-2012

Ans. :
Intensity of pressure (p) is defined as the force per unit area i.e.

p= = (N/m2) or (Pascals, Pa)…(1.9.1)

When a fluid is contained in a vessel, its exerts a force in all
directions at every point of the vessel. This force exerted per unit
area by the fluid is called pressure
1.10 Pressure Head

[-]Q. 1Define pressure head. How given pressure in pascal can be converted into required liquid
column ? S-2012, W-2012, W-2013

Establish a relation between pressure and pressure head. S-2013

Ans. :
Consider a vessel having some liquid as shown in Fig. 1.10.1. The
liquid in the vessel always exerts a pressure in all directions i.e. it
exerts a pressure on all the sides and bottom of the vessel. Now
keep a cylinder of area A which is bottomless, as shown in Fig.
1.10.1. The liquid rises upto height ‘h’. Force exerted at the
bottom is due to weight of liquid.
Fig. 1.10.1 : Pressure head

Pressure, p= =

p=

p=γ h or w⋅h or ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h…(1.10.1)

Pressure head, h= …(1.10.2)

constant. It follows that p ∝ h.

In Equation (1.10.1), the specific weight of liquid (γ or w) is

Therefore, pressure exerted by a liquid can also be expressed

as the height of equivalent liquid column called pressure head
(h).
OR

the free surface above any point in a liquid at rest. h = p / ρ ⋅ g.

Therefore, pressure head, h is defined as the vertical height or
[-]Q. 2State Pascal’s Law.

Ans. :
It states that the intensity of pressure, p at a point is same in all
directions in a static fluid i.e. fluid at rest.
1.11 Atmospheric Pressure, Absolute Vacuum,
Absolute Pressure and Gauge Pressure

[-]Q. 1What is Atmospheric Pressure, Guage pressure and Absolute Pressure ? State their
relation. W-2011, S-2012, S-2012, W-2012, W-2013, S-2014

Ans. :
1.Atmospheric pressure :
The pressure exerted by the atmosphere on any surface in
contact is called atmospheric pressure. The atmospheric
pressure decreases with increase in altitude. It can be measured
by a barometer. For this reason it is also called as barometric
pressure.
A mercury barometer is shown in Fig. 1.11.1.
Consider a tank filled mercury or some
other liquid. A long clean evacuated glass
tube with one end closed and other end
open of sufficient diameter is placed
vertically on the surface of liquid as shown
in
Fig. 1.11.1.
Fig. 1.11.1 : Barometer
Pressure on liquid surface is atmospheric pressure and inside the
tube is zero. As a result the liquid will rise in the tube upto height
‘h’.
Let : ρ = density of liquid, a = area of tube

Atmospheric pressure, patm= = =

patm=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h...(1.11.1)
Atmospheric pressure on Mean Sea Level (MSL) is equal to
1.01325 bar or 1.01325 × 105 Pa.

Height of water column, hw = =

Height of water column, hw= 10.33 m of water
Height of mercury (Hg) column having specific gravity (S = 13.6)
can be calculated as follows :

hHg= = = 0.76 m or 76 cm of Hg.

Remember : 1 atm. pressure = 1.01325 bar = 76 cm of Hg
= 10.33 m of water column
2.Absolute Vaccum :
If a tube/container is completely evacuated then the pressure
exerted on the surface is zero (∵ no fluid in it). Such a zero
pressure is called absolute vacuum pressure.
3.Absolute Pressure :
Pressure which is measured above the absolute vacuum pressure is
called the absolute pressure.
4.Gauge pressure :
The pressure which is measured above the atmospheric pressure is
called gauge pressure.
5.Vacuum pressure :
The pressure which is measured below the atmospheric pressure is
called vacuum pressure or negative gauge pressure.
The relation between various pressures is shown in Fig. 1.11.2.
Fig. 1.11.2
It is evident from the Fig. 1.11.2 that
(a)Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + Gauge pressure....
(1.11.2)
(b)Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – absolute pressure...
(1.11.3)
1.12 Pressure Measuring Instruments

[-]Q. 1List of various type of manometer used. W-2013

Ans. :

[-]Q. 2Define manometer.

Ans. :
It is a device used for measuring the pressure at a point in a fluid
by balancing the column of fluid by another column of fluid. It is
used to measure the pressure in pipes and channels.
[-]Q. 3Explain simple differential manometer with a neat sketch. S-2014

Ans. :
A simple manometer consists of a glass tube having one of its
ends connected to a point where pressure is to be measured and
other end remains open to atmosphere.
Common types of simple manometers are :
(1)Piezometer
(2)U-tube Manometers
(3)Micromanometer
(1)Piezometer :
It is the simplest form of manometer used for measuring gauge
pressures.
One end of this manometer is connected to the point where
pressure is to be measured and other end is open to the atmosphere
as shown in Fig. 1.12.1.

Fig. 1.12.1 : Piezometer

The rise of liquid gives the pressure head at that point. If at a point
A, the height of liquid is h in piezometer tube, then pressure at A
pA= ρ × g × h …(1.12.1)
(2)U-tube Manometer :
It consists of glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is
connected to a point at which pressure is to be measured and other
end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig.1.12.2.
(a) For Gauge Pressure (b) For Vacuum Pressure
Fig. 1.12.2 : U-tube manometer
The tube generally contains mercury or any other liquid whose
specific gravity is greater than the specific gravity of the liquid
whose pressure is to be measured.
(a)For Gauge Pressure :
Let A be the point at which pressure is to be measured, whose
value is p. The datum line is x-x.
Let h1 = Height of light liquid above the datum line
h2 = Height of heavy liquid above the datum line
S1 = Specific gravity of light liquid
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid
ρ1 = Density of light liquid
ρ2 = Density of heavy liquid
As the pressure is the same for the horizontal surface, hence
pressure above the horizontal datum line x-x in the left column
and in the right column of U-tube manometer should be same.
For static equilibrium we have,
Pressure above the left limb = Pressure above x-x in the right limb
p + ρ1 g h1 =ρ2 g h2
p =(ρ2 g h2 − ρ1 × g × h1)…(1.12.2)
(b)For Vacuum Pressure :
For measuring vacuum pressure, the level of the heavy liquid in
the manometer will be as shown in Fig. 1.12.2(b).
Then,
Pressure in the left limb=Pressure in the right limb
ρ2 g h2 + ρ1 g h1 + pA= 0
pA = − (ρ2 g h2 + ρ1 g h1) …(1.12.3)
[-]Q. 4Explain ‘Single Column Manometer’ in brief. S-2014

Ans. :

Single Column Manometer :

Single column manometer is a modified form of a U-tube
manometer.
A reservoir, having a large cross-sectional area (about 100 times)
as compare to the area of the tube is connected to left limb of the
manometer as shown in Fig. 1.20.3.
Due to large cross-sectional area of the reservoir, for any change
in pressure, the change in the liquid level in the reservoir will be
very small which may be neglected and hence the pressure is
given by the height of liquid in the other limb.
The other limb may be vertical or inclined. Thus there are two
types of single column manometer as :
(a)Vertical Single Column Manometer
(b)Inclined Single Column Manometer
(a)Vertical Single Column Manometer :

Fig. 1.20.3
Fig 1.20.3 shows the vertical single column manometer. It is also
called as micromanometer with vertical tube. Let X-X be the
datum line in the reservoir and in the limb of the manometer,
when it is not connected to the pipe. When the manometer is
connected to the pipe, due to high pressure at A, the heavy liquid
in the reservoir will be pushed downward and will rise in the right
limb.
Let dh = Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir
h1 = Height of light liquid in pipe above X-X
h2 = Rise of heavy liquid in right limb
pA = Pressure at A, which is to be measured
A = Cross-sectional area of the reservoir
a = Cross-sectional area of the right limb
S1 = Specific gravity of liquid in pipe
S2 = Specific gravity of heavy liquid in reservoir and right limb
ρ1 =Density of liquid in pipe
ρ2=Density of liquid in reservoir
Fall of heavy liquid in reservoir will cause a rise of heavy liquid
level in the right limb
A × dh = a × h2
dh = …(i)
Now consider the datum line Y-Y as shown in Fig. 1.20.3. Then
by static equilibrium,
Pressure in the left limb above Y-Y = Pressure in the right limb
above Y-Y.
ρ1 × g × (dh + h1) + pA = ρ2 × g × (dh + h2)
or pA = ρ2 g (dh + h2) − ρ1 g (dh + h1)
=dh [ρ2 g − ρ1 g] + h2 ρ2 g − h1 ρ1 g
But from Equation (i) dh =
pA = [ρ2 g − ρ1 g] + h2 ρ2 g − h1 ρ1 g
As the area A is very large as compared to a, hence ratio
becomes very small and thus the value of can be
neglected.
Then pA=h2 ρ2 g − h1 ρ1 g
(b)Inclined Single Column Manometer :
Fig. 1.20.4 shows the inclined single column manometer or
micromanometer with inclined tube. This manometer is more
sensitive. Due to inclination the distance moved by the heavy
liquid in the right limb will be more.

Fig. 1.20.4
Let L = Length of heavy liquid moved in right limb from X-X
θ = Inclination of right limb with horizontal
h2 = Vertical rise of heavy liquid in right limb from X-X
= L × sin θ
For static equilibrium, the pressure at A is
pA = ρ2 g h2 − ρ1 g h1
Substituting the valve of h2 we get
pA = ρ2 g L · sin θ − ρ1 g h1
[-]Q. 5Explain with neat sketch working of differential manometer. S-2011, S-2012
Ans. :
Differential manometers are the devices which are used for
measuring the difference of pressure between two points in the
same pipe or in two different pipes.
A differential manometer of a U-tube is connected to the points,
whose difference of pressure is to be measured.
Most commonly types of differential manometers are :
1.U-tube differential manometer
2.Inverted U-tube differential manometer
(1)U-tube differential manometer :

(a) Two pipes at different levels (b) A and B are at the same level
Fig. 1.12.3 : Differential manometer of U-tube type
Case I : Two pipes at different levels [Refer Fig. 1.12.3(a)]
Let the two points A and B be at different level and also contains
liquids of different specific gravity. These points are connected to
the U-tube differential manometer. Let the pressure at A and B be
pA and pB.
Let h =Difference of mercury level in the U-tube
y =Distance of the center of B, from the mercury level in the right
limb
x=Distance of the center of A, from the mercury level in the right
limb
ρ1 =Density of liquid at A
ρ2=Density of liquid at B
ρ3=Density of heavy liquid or mercury
Taking datum line at X-X
Pressure above X-X in the left limb = Pressure above X-X in the
right limb
ρ1 g (h + x) + pA =ρ3 × g × h + ρ2 g y + pB
pA − pB =ρ3 × g × h + ρ2 g y − ρ1 g (h + x)
=h × g (ρ3 − ρ1) + ρ2 g y − ρ1 g x
Difference of pressure at A and B,
pA – pB = h × g (ρ3 − ρ1) + ρ2 g y − ρ1 g x…(1.12.3)
Case II : When two pipes are at the same level
In Fig. 1.12.3(b), A and B are the same level and contains the
same liquid of density ρ1. Then
Pressure above X-X in right limb = Pressure above X-X in left
limb

ρ3 × g × h + ρ1 g x + pB=ρ1 × g × (h + x) + pA

pA − pB =ρ3 × g × h + ρ1 g x − ρ1 g (h + x)
pA – pB= g × h (ρ3 − ρ1)…(1.12.4)
(2)Inverted U-tube differential manometer :
It is used for measuring difference of low fluid pressures. It
consists of an inverted U-tube, containing a light liquid. The two
ends of the tube are connected to the points whose pressure
difference is to be measured.

Fig. 1.12.4 : Inverted U-tube differential manometer

Fig. 1.12.4 shows an inverted U-tube differential manometer
connected to the two points A and B. Let the pressure at A is more
than the pressure at B.
Let h1=Height of liquid in left limb below the datum line X-X
h2 = Height of liquid in right limb
h = Difference of height of light liquid in limbs
ρ1 = Density of liquid at A
ρ2 = Density of liquid at B
ρs = Density of light liquid
pA = Pressure at A
pB = Pressure at B
Taking datum line at X-X, by using static equilibrium
Pressure below X-X in the left limb = Pressure below X-X in the
right limb
pA − ρ1 × g × h1 = pB − ρ2 × g × h2 − ρs × g × h
pA − pB = ρ1 × g × h1 − ρ2 × g × h2 − ρs × g × h…(1.12.5)
[-]Q. 6Why mercury is used as a Manometric liquid?

Ans. :
The reasons of using Hg generally in manometers are :
(i)It has very high density so that Hg column requires less height
(ii)It does not mix up with the liquids in the pipes.
(iii)It does not stick to the surface of tube.
(iv)At room temperature, the vapour pressure is negligible.
(v)It does not chemically react with other liquids.
1.13 Mechanical Pressure Gauge-Bourdon Tube
Gauge

[-]Q. 1Draw a sketch of Bourdon guage and explain how it works. S-2011, S-2012, W-2012, W-
2013, S-2014

Ans. :
It is the device used for measuring the high pressure at a point in a
fluid.
These devices give direct gauge pressure reading.
They are portable.
The most commonly used mechanical gauge is Bourdon type
pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 1.13.1.
It is a stiff flattened metal tube bent into a circular shape.
It consists of a bent tube of an elliptical cross-section, a calibrated
scale with pinion and gear arrangement.
One end of the tube A is sealed and its motion is transmitted to the
pinion through the link E and gear.
The other end B of tube is open through which the fluid pressure
is transmitted to the tube.
The bourdon gauge measures the pressure inside the tube and
atmospheric pressure i.e. it measures the gauge pressure.
Fig. 1.13.1 : Bourdon pressure gauge
[-]Ex. 1.13.1 :For a water column of height 6 m, calculate
(i)intensity of pressure (kPa)
(ii)mm of mercury
(iii)m of mercury
(iv)N/m2 absolute.S-2011, W-2012

Ans. :
Given :h = 6 m of water column.
(i)Intensity of pressure, p

p=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h = 1000 × 9.81 × 6

=58860 N/m2 or 5.886 N/cm2 or 58.86 kPa …Ans.
(ii)Pressure in mm of Hg,

hHg= =
=0.4412 m of Hg = 441.2 mm of Hg…Ans.

(iii)Pressure in m of water,

h= = = 6m...Ans.
(iv)Pressure in N/m2 absolute,
pab=Gauge pressure + Atmospheric pressure
=58860 + 1.01325 × 105 = 160185 N/m2 …Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.13.2 :(i)Convert 10 N/m2 pressure in oil column of specific gravity 0.82.
(ii)Convert 15 cm mercury column equivalent to water column.W-2011

Ans. :
(i)Given :
p = 10 N/cm2 = 10 × (100)2 = 105 N/m2
So=0.82

∴ Density of oil,
ρo=ρw × S = 1000 × 0.82 = 820 N/m2

p=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ h ; 105 = 820 × 9.81 × h

h=12.431 m of oil column…Ans.
(ii)Given : hHg = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Equivalent height of water column, hw :
Specific gravity of Hg, SHg=13.6, ρw = 1000 kg/m3
ρHg=ρw × SHg = 1000 × 13.6 kg/m3

p = ρHg ⋅ g ⋅ hHg =ρw × g × hw

∴ (13.6 × 1000) × 9.81 × 0.15=1000 × 9.81 × hw

hw=2.04 m of water column…Ans.

[-]Ex. 1.13.8 :The pressure of a fluid of specific gravity 0.8 flowing in a horizontal pipe line is
determined with a simple U tube mercury manometer. The level of mercury surface in the right
limb which is open to atmosphere is 90 mm above the centre of the pipe. The level of mercury in
the left limb which is connected to the pipe is 60 mm below the centre of the pipe. Determine
absolute pressure of the fluid in the pipe in Newton’s per square meter.W-2012

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.13.8
h3 = 90 mm = 0.09 m, h1 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Pressure in pipe, pA (absolute) :
h2=h1 + h3 = 0.06 + 0.09 = 0.15 m
Oil : S1=0.8,
ρ1=S1 ρw
=0.8 × 1000
=800 kg/m3
Mercury (Hg) :
S2 =13.6,

ρ2=S2 ⋅ ρw
=13.6 × 1000
=13600 kg/m3

Fig. P. 1.13.8
Pressure in left limb above X – X
=Pressure in right limb above X – X

pA + ρ1 ⋅ g h1=ρ2 ⋅ g ⋅ h2

pA + 800 × 9.81 × 0.06=13600 × 9.81 × 0.15

p =19541.5 N/m2
A

Absolute pressure=pA + patm = 19541.5 + 101325

=120866.5 N/m2...Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.13.9 :A simple U-tube manometer containing Hg is connected to a pipe in which a fluid
of specific gravity 0.8 and having vacuum pressure is flowing, the other end of the manometer is
open to the atmosphere. Find the vacuum pressure in pipe, it the difference of Hg level in the two
limbs is 40 cm and the height of fluid in the left from the centre of pipe is 15 cm below.S-2013

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.13.9.
Given : Specific gravity of fluid, S1 = 0.8,
h2 = 40 cm = 0.4 m of Hg, h1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Vacuum pressure, pVA :
Density of fluid, ρ1 = S1 ⋅ ρw
= 0.8 × 1000 = 800 kg/m3
Density of Hg, ρ2 = SHg ⋅ ρw
= 13.6 × 1000 = 13600 kg/m3
Pressure in left limb above X –X
= Pressure in right limb above X – X.
pA + ρ1 g h1 + ρ2 g h2 = 0
pA + 800 × 9.81 × 0.15 + 13600 × 9.81 × 0.4 = 0

Fig. P. 1.13.9
pA=– 54543.6 N/m2 or – 5.4544 N/cm2…Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.13.10 :In Fig. P. 1.13.10 the air pressure intensity at A is N/mm2 (absolute). What is
the pressure in N/mm2 (absolute) at B ?S-2011

Fig. P. 1.13.10

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.13.10,

pA= N/mm2 = × (1000)2 N/m2 ;

ρ1 = 1000 kg/m3 (for water) and h1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m
S2=13.6 (Mercury),
h2 =75 mm = 0.75 m, ρ2 = ρ1 S2
S3=0.9 (oil),
h3= 150 mm = 0.15 m, ρ3 = ρ1 ⋅ S3
Specific weight of water, w or

γ=9810 N/m3 =
=9810 × 10– 9 N/mm3
By static equilibrium,
Pressure in left limb above X – X = pressure in right limb above X
–X

pA + ρ1 ⋅ g ⋅ h1= ρ2 ⋅ g ⋅ h2 + ρ3 ⋅ g ⋅ h3 + pB

pA + ρ1 ⋅ g ⋅ h1=ρ1 ⋅ S2 ⋅ g ⋅ h2 + ρ1 ⋅ S3 ⋅ g ⋅ h3 + pB
on dividing by ρ1g

+ h1=S2 ⋅ h2 + S3 ⋅ h3 +

+ 0.25 =13.6 × 0.75 + 0.9 × 0.15 +

10.194 + 0.25 =10.2 + 0.135 +

pB=1069.3 N/m2 = 1.0693 × 10– 3 N/mm2…Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.13.14 :A pipe contains an oil of specific gravity 0.9. A differential manometer connected
at the two points A and B on same level shows a difference in mercury level as 150 mm.
Determine the difference of pressure at the two points in bar.W-2013

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.13.14.
Given : Oil : S1=0.9
Mercury (Hg) : S2=13.6
ρw=Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
h=150 mm = 0.15 m

Fig. P. 1.13.14
Difference in pressure (pA – pB) :
Pressure in left limb=Pressure in right limb

pA + ρ1 g ⋅ h=ρ2 g ⋅ h + pB

where ρ1 = S1 ⋅ ρw and ρ2 = S2 ⋅ ρw

∴ pA + S1 ⋅ ρw g ⋅ h=S2 ⋅ ρw ⋅ g ⋅ h + pB

∴ pA – pB=S2 ρw g ⋅ h – S1 ρw × g h
pA – pB =13.6 × 1000 × 9.81 × 0.15 – 0.9
× 1000 × 9.81 × 0.15
=18688.05 N/m2...Ans.
1.14 Total Pressure

[-]Q. 1What is meant by Total pressure.S-2011, W-2011, S-2012, S-2013, S-2014

Ans. :
The force exerted by the static fluid on the surface in contact with
the fluid is called as total pressure. It is denoted by ‘F’.
This force always acts in the direction normal to contact surface. It
is always normal to the contact surface.
The surface may be horizontal, vertical, inclined or curved.

F=ρ ⋅ g A =γ⋅A …(1.14.1)

1.15 Centre of Pressure (C.P.)
[-]Q. 1Explain concepts of : Centre of pressure.S-2011, S-2012, S-2013, S-2014

Ans. :
The point at which the total pressure acts on surface is called as
centre of pressure. It is denoted by .

= +
1.16 Vertical Plate Immersed in the Liquid

[-]Q. 1Derive an expression for total pressure and position of center of pressure on plane surface
immersed vertically in liquid.

Ans. :
Consider a plate AB vertically submerged in fluid shown in Fig.
1.16.1.
Consider a small strip of area dA at a depth x from free surface
‘O’.

Fig. 1.16.1

Pressure intensity on the strip, dp=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ x = γ ⋅ x

Total pressure force on strip,dF=Pressure × Area

=γ ⋅ x ⋅ dA…(1.16.1)
Total pressure force on the whole area.
Integrate Equation (1.16.1)

∫ dF=∫ γ ⋅ x ⋅ dA = γ ⋅ ∫ x ⋅ dA
But ∫ x ⋅ dA is the sum of moments of the area of the strip, which
is equal to .
F=γ ⋅ …(1.16.2)
Centre of pressure can be calculated by using law of moment.
Law of moment states, “Sum of moment of all such pressure
forces on strip about free surface is equal to the moment of whole
body about free surface.”

∴ Total pressure force on strip,

dF=γ ⋅ x ⋅ dA

∴ Moment of force on strip,

dM=dF ⋅ x = (γ⋅ x ⋅ dA)

x=γ ⋅ x2 dA… (1.16.3)

Now sum of moment of all such pressure forces on strip about free
surface can be obtained by integrating Equation (1.16.3).

∫ dM=∫ γ ⋅ x2 dA = ∫ γ ⋅ x2 dA
But we know,

∫ x2 dA=IO = moment of inertia about free surfac

∴ M=γ ⋅ IO…(1.16.4)
But moment of whole body about free surface,

M= …(1.16.5)
Equate the Equations (1.16.5) and (1.16.4).

=γ ⋅ IO = γ (IG + A ⋅ 2
)
[Since, by Parallel Axis theorem
IO=IG + A ( )2 and F = γ A

∴ γ (A · ) = ;

On dividing by γ A on both sides :

= …(1.16.6)
The centre of pressure always lies below the centre of gravity
by,

, since > 0.
Note that at greater depths, centre of pressure approaches centre
of gravity as is larger and becomes smaller
1.17 Moment of Inertia and other Geometric
Properties of some Important Plane Surfaces

Type I : Hydrostatic Force on Vertical Plates :

[-]Ex. 1.17.3 :A circular plate 1.2 m diameter is placed vertically in water so that centre of the
plate is 2m below the free surface. Determine the depth of centre of pressure. S-2012

Ans. :
Diameter of circular plate,
d = 1.2 m and = 2 m
Depth of centre of pressure,
Area of plate, A= d2 = (1.2)2

=1.131 m2
Fig. P. 1.17.3
Moment of inertia of plate,

IG= d4 = (1.2)4 = 0.1018 m4

=+ =2+ = 2.045 m…Ans.

[-]Ex. 1.17.4 :An isosceles triangular plate having base 1.2m and height 2m is immersed
vertically in such a way that the apex is in the downward direction and the side of base is parallel
and 38cm below free water surface level, determine total pressure.W-2011

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.17.4
Given :Base, b = 1.2 m, height, h = 2m

C.G. is at h and base is 0.38 m below water surface.

∴ = × 2 + 0.38 = 1.04667 m

Fig. P. 1.17.4
Area of isosceles triangle,

A= b × h = × 1.2 × 2 = 1.2 m2
Total pressure,

F=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ A ⋅ = 1000 × 9.81 × 1.2 × 1.04667

=12321.4 N…Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.17.5 :Determine the total pressure on a circular plate of diameter 1.5 m which is placed
vertically in water in such a way that the centre of the plate is 3 m below the free surface of
water. Find the centre of pressure also.S-2013, W-2013

Ans. :

Given :
d=1.5 m
=3m

Area of plate, A= d2 = × (1.5)2 = 1.76715 m2

1.Total pressure on plate, F :

F=ρ ⋅ g A
Fig. P. 1.17.5
F=1000 × 9.81 × 1.76715 × 3
=52007.2 N…Ans.
2.Centre of pressure, :

IG= d4 = × (1.5)4 = 0.2485 m4

=+ =3+ = 3.0469 m…Ans.

[-]Ex. 1.17.7 :A circular plate 1.2 m diameter is placed vertically in water such that the centre of
the plate is 2.5 m below the free surface. Determine the total pressure on the plate and depth of
centre of pressureS-2014

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.17.7.
Diameter d = 1.2 m
Distance of centroid from free surface,
=2.5 m
Area, A= × 1.22

=1.131 m2

Fig. P. 1.17.7
Moment of Inertia about its centroid,
I = = = 0.1018 m4
G

1. ∴ Total Pressure, F=γ A = 9.81 × 1.131 × 2.5

=27.74 kN …Ans.

2. ∴ Distance of centre of pressure from free surface,

=+ = 2.5 +
=2.536 m …Ans.

∴ The total pressure is 27.74 kN act at 2.536 m from free

surface.
1.18 Inclined Plate Immersed in a Liquid

[+]Q. 1Obtain an expression for depth of centre of pressure when lamina is immersed in liquid at
an angle with horizontal.

Write equation for total pressure and centre of pressure of an inclined plane surface.S-2013

Ans. :
Consider a plate submerged in fluid
with an inclination of ‘θ’ with free
surface as shown in
Fig. 1.18.1
Now consider small strip of area dA
lying at a depth of ‘x’ from ‘O’.

Pressure intensity on the strip,dp=γ ⋅ x

Fig. 1.18.1
Total pressure force on strip,
dF=Pressure × Area

=γ ⋅ x ⋅ dA
But x=y sinθ

dF=γ ⋅ y ⋅ sin θ ⋅ dA…(1.18.1)

Total pressure force on the whole area,
Integrate Equation (1.18.1),

∫ dF=∫ γ ⋅ y sin θ ⋅ dA
=γ ⋅ sin θ ∫ y ⋅ dA …(1.18.2)

But ∫ ydA is the sum of first moments of the area of the strip,
which is equal to

∴ ∫ ydA=

F=γ ⋅ sin θ ⋅

From Fig. 1.18.1 = sin θ ; = sin θ

F=γ ⋅ A ⋅ …(1.18.3)
Hence there is no change in equation for total pressure force
weather it is vertical or inclined.
Centre of pressure can be calculated by using law of moment.
Total pressure force on strip,

dF=γ ⋅ y sin θ dA
Moment of force on strip,

dM=dF ⋅ y = (γ⋅ y ⋅ sinθ dA) y

=γ ⋅ sinθ y2 dA… (1.18.4)

Now, sum of moment of all such pressure forces on strip about
free surface.
Integrate Equation (1.18.4),

∫ dM=∫ γ ⋅ sin θ ⋅ y2 dA
M=γ ⋅ sin θ ∫ y2 dA
But we know
∫ y2 dA=IO = Moment of inertia about free surface
M=γ ⋅ sinθ ⋅ IO…(1.18.5)
By parallel axis theorem

2
IO=IG + A =

But = and yc =
But, moment of total pressure from free surface,
M= …(1.18.6)
Equate Equations (1.18.5) and (1.18.6) we get,

=γ sin θ ⋅ IO

γ =γ sin θ = γ sin θ IG +

= +

= …(1.18.7)
[-]Ex. 1.18.3 :A circular plate of 6 m diameter is held in water in such a way that its maximum
and minimum depth from surface of water is 3 m and 9 m. Determine the total pressure on the
plate and the position of centre of pressure.S-2011, W-2012

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.18.3,
Fig. P. 1.18.3
Diameter of circular plate,
d=6 m

Area of plate, A= d2

= × (6)2 = 28.27 m2
γ=ρg = 1000 × 9.81 = 9810 N/m3 = 9.81 kN/m2

Sin θ= = =1
θ=sin– 1 (1) = 90° ;

=3 + sin θ = 3 + × 1 = 6 m
IG=eq\ f(6,2) d4 = × (6)4 = 63.617 m4
1.Total pressure on plate,
F = γ A =9810 × 28.27 × 6 N
=1664.0 × 103 N = 1664.0 kN…Ans.
2.Depth of centre of pressure,

= +

= + 6 = 6.375 m…Ans.
[-]Ex. 1.18.4 :A circular plate 3 m diameter is immersed in water in such a way that its greatest
and least depth below the free surface are 4 m and 1.5 m respectively. Determine the total
pressure and position of centre of pressure.S-2014

Ans. :
Refer Fig. P. 1.18.4
Given :Diameter of plate,
d=3 m

∴ Area, A= d2 = (3)2 = 7.0685 m2

DC=4 m, EB = 1.5 m

∴ AC=DC – EB = 4 – 1.5 = 2.5 m

BC=3 m

sin θ= = = 0.8333
Distance of C. G from free surface,
=EB + BG sin θ = 1.5 + 1.5 × 0.8333 = 2.75 m
Fig. P. 1.18.4
1.Total pressure, F :

F=ρ ⋅ g ⋅ A ⋅ (where, ρ = 1000 kg/m3 for water)

=1000 × 9.81 × 7.0685 × 2.75 = 190690.5 N…Ans.
2.Centre of pressure, :

IG= (d)4 = × (3)4 = 3.976 m4

=+

=2.75 + = 2.892 m…Ans.



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