 Thermodynamics

 Temperature and Heat

 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
 thermal equilibrium
 Zeroth law of Thermodynamics
 Temperature Scales
 Thermal Expansion
 The Concept of Heat, Work and Internal Energy
 Specific Heat and Latent Heat
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
 What is Thermodynamics?
 What is temperature?
 What is heat?
 How are the two concepts related?
 Do the temperature objects transfers equal heat?
 One of the principal branches of physics and engineering .
 science that govern energy conversions processes (heat to
work and vice versa)
 In winter, when we rub our palms together, we feel warmer;
here work done in rubbing produces ‘heat’.
 Conversely, in a steam engine, the ‘heat’
of the steam is used to do useful work in moving the
pistons, which in turn rotate the wheels of the train.
 consider macroscopic systems, or systems with a large
number of degrees of freedom. large scale" properties of
the systems.
 it deals with quantities (like T,P and V)
 One of the central concepts of thermodynamics is
temperature.
 System is any part of the universe chosen for study
 Surrounding is The rest of the universe in the
neighbourhood of the system.
 System and surroundings are separated by some
kind of boundary wall.
 Universe = System + Surrounding
 Allows exchange of both heat and matter through the
boundary. E.g. digestive system.
 Allows only exchange of heat with surrounding but
not matter. E.g. refrigerator
 No heat or matter exchange occurs with surrounding.
 E.g. Vacuum flask.
 A measure of how warm or cold an object is with
respect to some standard.
 Related to the random thermal motion of the
molecules in a substance.
 Measure of average translational kinetic energy of
molecules.
 Does not depend on the total number of
molecules in a substance
 The energy transferred between objects due to a
temperature difference
 Energy in transit (similar to work)
 is a measure of the total energy of motion of all of its
molecules
 Heat always flows from hotter to colder objects
 Transferring an amount of heat to an object may raise its
temperature.
 is a function of the number of molecules in a substance,
 Heat and temperature are not same
 The water turned the egg white cloudy very quickly. because
it takes more energy to heat water to 165° F than it does
olive oil. Water has more heat capacity than olive oil.
 When two bodies are at different temperatures,
thermal energy transfers from the one with higher
temperature to the one with lower temperature.
 Heat energy can be transferred from one body to
another in three different ways.

 is the transfer of heat through solids or stationery
fluids.
 uses the movement of fluids to transfer heat.
 does not require a medium for transferring heat;
 this mode uses the electromagnetic radiation
emitted by an object for exchanging heat.
 Two bodies are said to be at thermal equilibrium if
they are at the same temperature. This means there
is no net exchange of thermal energy between the
two bodies.

hot heat cold

26 °C 26 °C

No net heat flow

 "If objects A and B are separately in thermal
equilibrium with third object C, then A and B are in
thermal equilibrium with each other”.

C
A B
 There are three common temperature scales –
Celsius (Centigrade), Kelvin, Fahrenheit

 Celsius scale, °C (1742)

 metric temp. scale

 Water freezes at 0° Celsius.
 Water boils at 100° Celsius.
 customary (English) temp. scale,
First modern thermometer (Hg)

9
 Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit . T = T + 32
F C

 Water boils at 212° Fahrenheit
9
T = T + 32

. 5
F C

In other words, five steps on the Celsius scale is

5

equivalent to nine steps on the Fahrenheit scale,
 Since these scales are linear, and they’re offset by
32 °F, we get the conversion
 metric absolute zero temp. scale
 ‘triple point’ of water 273.16 K
 Absolute thermodynamics temperature scale
 One step on the Kelvin scale is the same as one step
on the Celsius scale. These scales are off by 273.15
K we get the conversion

TK = TC + 273.15
 For α> 0:
 If ΔT > 0: ΔL > 0 material expands
 If ΔT < 0: ΔL < 0 material compresses
 The exception to this rule is water. As water is
cooled from 4°C to 0°C, it expands which
explains why ice floats (it is less dense than
water).

 Why does a lake freeze from the top and not the
bottom?
 objects expand along linear dimensions
such as length, width, height, diameter, etc.
 The amount of expansion depends on the
original length, the type of material, and the
change in temperature.

ΔL = Loα ΔT LF = L0 + ΔL

L0 L
 Bimetallic strips are used to build a thermometer
or a thermostat
 When the temperature changes, the strip bends,
making or breaking an electrical circuit, which
causes the furnace to turn on or shut off.
 The expansion of an area of a flat substance is
derived from the linear expansion in both
directions:
 The change in volume of a solid is also derived
from the linear expansion:

 For liquids and gases, only the coefficient of

volume expansion is defined:
 ΔV = Vo γΔT VF = VO + ΔV

V + V
 What are unusual behavior of
water?
 How it is important for life
existence?
 Anomalous Expansion Between
0 - 4ºC
 Water also expands when it is
heated, except when it is close to
freezing; it actually expands
when cooling from 4° C to 0° C.
 This is why ice floats and frozen
bottles burst.
1. The main span of San Francisco’s Golden Gate Bridge is 1275 m
long at its coldest. The bridge is exposed to temperatures ranging
from –15ºC to 40ºC . What is its change in length between these
temperatures? Assume that the bridge is made entirely of steel.
2. A square hole 8.00 cm along each side is cut in a sheet of copper.
(a) Calculate the change in the area of this hole resulting when the
temperature of the sheet is increased by 50.0 K. (b) Does this
change represent an increase or a decrease in the area enclosed by
the hole?
3. The average coefficient of volume expansion for carbon
tetrachloride is 5.81x 10−4 (℃−1 ). If a 50.0-gal steel container is
filled completely with carbon tetrachloride when the temperature
is 10.0℃, how much will spill over when the temperature rises to
30.0℃?
Work: transfer of energy that makes use of
the uniform motion of atoms in the
surroundings.
 is the only energy which is transferred to the
system through external macroscopic forces.

ΔW = − P ΔV
 Mechanical work is positive when it is
performed on the system.
 a spontaneous transfer of energy that makes
use of random motion of atoms in the
surroundings.
 The two ways in which energy can be transferred
into or out of a system – heat and work
 An object does not possess heat and work!!
 Q is positive if ΔT is positive; that is, if heat is
added to a system.
 Q is negative if ΔT is negative; that is, if heat is
removed from a system.
 is all the energy of a system that is associated
with its microscopic constituents.

 Internal energy includes kinetic energy of

random translational, rotational, and vibrational
motion of molecules, potential energy of
molecules and between molecules.

 But for ideal gas it is only related to kinetic

energy (temperature)
 As heat is added to a substance it will either
be absorbed to raise the temperature OR to
change the state of matter.

 It can NEVER do both at the same time!

 Temperature will NOT change during a phase

change!
 The Amount of heat energy needed to raise the
temperature of 1kg object by one degree Celsius

Q = mcΔT

 For gases, heat may be added by keeping volume or

pressure as constant

Qv = nCvΔT

Qp = nCpΔT

Cp > Cv
 if Tf is the final temperature after reaching equilibrium,
then Tw < Tf < Tx.
 Heat gained by the water to be Q = mw cw (Tf - Tw),
 heat energy lost by the object to be -Q = mx cx (Tf - Tx).
Q = mw cw (Tf − Tw) = −mx cx (Tf − Tx)
Assuming that the entire system does not lose or gain
any heat from its surrounding,
 The amount of heat energy per unit mass, L, that must be
transferred when a substance completely undergoes a
phase change without changing temperature is called the
latent heat
Q = ±m L

➢ Latent Heat of Fusion (𝐿𝑓 ): is the heat absorbed or released

when matter melts, changing phase from solid to liquid form
at constant temperature

➢ Latent Heat of Vaporization (𝐿𝑣 ): is the heat absorbed or

released when matter vaporizes, changing phase from liquid
to gas phase at constant temperature

 Melting or Freezing Point – the temperature at
which a substance melts or freezes. Water: 0°C

 Boiling or Condensation Point – the temperature at

which a substance vaporizes or condenses. Water:
100°C For other substances, refer.
 How to increase U of a system?
 The total increase in the thermal energy of a
system is the sum of the work done on it and
the heat added to it.

 W - is positive for work done on a system

 - is negative for work done by the system
 Q - is positive for heat enters to the system
 - is negative for heat leaves from the
system
 Isobaric -pressure of the system remains
constant.
ΔU = Q - P ΔV

 Isochoric- volume of the system remains

constant. Such system can do no work
W = 0, ΔU = Q
 All the heat entering the system goes into
increasing the internal energy
 Thus, if heat is absorbed by a system the
internal energy of the system increases.
Adiabatic – no transfer of heat
ΔU = W = - P ΔV
 Using either insulating boundary or rapid
compression and expansion
➢ When a gas is compressed adiabatically, both W and
∆𝑈 are positive; work is done on the gas
➢ When the gas expands adiabatically, ∆𝑈 is negative;
work is done by the gas

Isothermal– Temperature remains constant

ΔU = 0 0 = Q + W, Q = - W = PΔV
 If the process is quasi-static(slow) it’s nearly
isothermal.
𝑉𝑓
W= -nRT ln( )
𝑉𝑖
 Heat added to system Q>0
 Heat removed from system Q<0
 Work done by system W<0
 Work done on system W >0
Any questions?
End of chapter FOUR

THANK YOU!
 Periodic motion is any motion that repeats on a
regular time basis
 Example
✓ Rotation of a bicycle wheel
✓ Rising of the sun and Change of the seasons
✓ The tides and Bird songs
 Is periodic
 The particle oscillates back and forth about
a equilibrium position.
 the force always acts in a direction to restore
the system to its equilibrium position.
 Such a force is called a “restoring force”
 Oscillators are the basic building blocks of
waves.
 Period (T(s)): the time necessary for one complete
cycle (a complete repetition of the motion).
 Frequency(Hz or cycle/s): the number of cycles per
unit time.
 Equilibrium (0): the spot the mass would come to
rest when not disturbed ( Fnet = 0.)
 Displacement: (s or x): distance from equilibrium.

 Amplitude: the magnitude of the maximum

displacement from equilibrium position.
  Period, T

A
 Linear oscillation and circular oscillation.
Oscillatory systems are of two types,
mechanical and non- mechanical systems

MECHANICAL
 two things are specially responsible i.e
Inertia & Restoring force.

NON- MECHANICAL
 The body itself doesn't change its
position but its physical property varies
periodically.
 A special kind of periodic motion
 SHM - if the force is always directed toward the
equilibrium position
 The net force is proportional and opposite to
displacement
 An oscillating system which can be described in terms of
sine and cosine functions
2𝜋
T=
ω
▪ Example
 The motion of a spring-mass system
 The motion of simple pendulum (for small
displacement)
• obeys Hooke’s Law

F = −kx
a(x) = − x
2
 In general, the motion of a pendulum is not SHM
However, for small angles (< 10°), it becomes SHM
sin θ ≈ θ Ft = - mg sin θ = - mg θ
 obeys Hooke’s Law
 This shows that the period is independent of
the amplitude A and the mass m
❖ The period depends on:
the length of the pendulum, L
and the freefall acceleration, g
 VERY IMPORTANT: frequency and period of
oscillations DO NOT depend on the
amplitude
 Where is the mass moving fastest, slowest?
 Where is the mass’s acceleration maximum,
zero?
 What forces act on the mass? When is the
unbalanced force at a maximum value, zero?
 Motion starts from
equilibrium
 Displacement against time
x(t) = A sin(t)

 Motion starts from the limit

of the oscillation
 Displacement against time
x(t) = A cos(t)
 Motion starts from
equilibrium
 Maximum velocity occurs at
equilibrium position
 Velocity against time
V(t)= A cos(t)

 Motion starts from the limit

of the oscillation
 Displacement against time
V(t) = -A sin(t)
 Motion starts from
equilibrium
 Maximum acceleration is
observed at x = ±A;
 Displacement against
time
a(t) = -𝜔2 A sint

 Motion starts from the

limit of the oscillation
 Displacement against
time
a(t) = -𝜔2 A cos(t)
 V = ±𝜔 𝐴2 − 𝑋 2

 The particle has ±V at a single point in

the path
 Maximum when the object passes the
equilibrium
 In free oscillation the total energy is
constant
E = PE + KE
 The kinetic energy can be found by
K = ½ mv 2
Kmax = ½ kA2 - object passes the
equilibrium position
 The elastic potential energy can be found
U = ½ kx 2
Umax = ½ kA2 - object is at the limit of
oscillation
 The total energy is K + U = ½ kA 2
 What do Waves transfer?

 What are the two main types of waves?

 Which type of wave requires a medium?

 Whatare the colors of Visible Light?

Which color is the HIGHEST energy
wave?
 rhythmic disturbances that carry energy
through matter or space

 carry energy and momentum but no material

or substance is transferred outward from the
source

 Information can be sent via matter or waves.

 Crest; Highest point of a transverse wave
 Trough; lowest point of a transverse wave
 Amplitude; The maximum vertical distance that
particles vibrate from their normal position when
a wave passes
 measures the intensity of wave. (Loudness,
brightness)
 Wavelength; The distance between any two
successive identical parts of a wave
 Frequency; the number of full wavelengths that
pass a point in a particular period of time (rate).
Determines energy and color(Red is the easiest
to see, violet is the hottest (most energetic)
 the speed at which a wave passes through a
medium.
 Waves travel at different speeds in different media
phases (s, l, g).
 These waves travel fastest in solids and the slowest
in gases(why?)
 V=fλ
 For mechanical wave in a material medium
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
V=
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑦
 Wave

Mechanical Electromagnetic

Transverse longitudinal Transverse

 Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves
 Must travel through a ✓ Does not require a
material medium material medium
 Cannot travel through a ✓ Can be transferred
vacuum through a vacuum
 Examples: sound, ocean ✓ Examples: light, UV
waves rays, Visible light
  Longitudinal Transverse

✓ medium moves in the ✓ medium vibrates

same direction as the perpendicular to the
wave’s motion direction of wave
✓ Examples: sound motion
waves, springs, slinky ✓ Examples:
electromagnetic
waves
➢ Reflection
➢ Refraction
➢ Diffraction
➢ Interference
➢ Doppler effect
 The bouncing back of a wave as it meets a surface or
boundary Normal

incident beam reflected beam

 bending of waves when SLOWER
passing from one medium to
another
 caused by a change in speed
• slower (more dense) 
light bends toward the
normal
FASTER
• faster (less dense)  light
bends away from the
normal
Refraction depends
on…
✓ speed of light in the
medium
✓ wavelength of the
light - shorter
wavelengths (blue)
bend more
 is the spreading of
waves around a slit or
an obstacle.
 This effect is only
significantly noticeable
if the slit width is
approximately the same
size as the wavelength
of the waves.
 longer wavelengths
(red) spread more
 The combination of two or more waves that exist in
the same place at the same time.
 Once waves pass, they return to original shape
 constructive  brighter light
 destructive  dimmer light
 Both are caused by two or
more waves interacting, but…
 Constructive interference
combines the energies of the
two waves into a greater
amplitude
 Destructive interference
reduces the energies of the two
waves into a smaller amplitude.
 When light waves interfere with each other, colorful
displays are produced.
 When two waves with different frequencies interfere
with each other, beats are produced
 Frequency shift
• The Doppler effect is the
apparent change in frequency of
a wave due to the motion of the
source or the observer.
• The observed frequency is
higher when the source and
observer are getting closer.
• The observed frequency is lower
when the source and observer
are getting farther away.
 When the source and observer are approaching each
other.
𝑣+𝑣𝑜
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 The observed frequency of wave is
𝑣−𝑣𝑠
increased
 when they are receding from each other.
𝑣−𝑣𝑜
𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠 The observed frequency of wave is
𝑣+𝑣𝑠
decreased
Generally
𝑣±𝑣𝑜
 𝑓𝑜 = 𝑓𝑠
𝑣∓𝑣𝑠
 police microwave speed units
 measuring the speed of a tennis ball
 measuring the speed of blood flowing through an
artery
 monitoring the heart-beat of a developing fetus
 sonar: ships & submarines to detect submerged
objects
 detecting distance planets
 observing the motion of oscillating stars
 It is the phenomenon occurs When the frequency of
the driving force is equal to the natural frequency
 Causes dramatic increase in amplitude
 This dramatic increase in the amplitude is called
resonance
 At resonance, the applied force is in phase with the
velocity
✓ So, the power transferred to the oscillator is
maximum
✓ Energy transferred easily
 Desirable resonance:- Undesirable resonance :
tuning the radio, tuning safety of buildings, bridges,
musical instruments, etc airplanes etc.
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge
suffered spectacular
structural
failure after absorbing too
much resonant
 The overall study of how light behaves
 The branch of optics that focuses on the creation of
images is called geometric optics, because it is
based on relationships between angles and lines
that describe light rays.
object image
 (the ray reaching
your eye doesn’t
really come from
the image). But….
virtual image the brain thinks the
ray came from the
image
 If light energy
doesn't flow from
the image, the
image is "virtual".
 The image is as far behind
the mirror as the object is in
front.
 So= Si
 The image is unmagnified.
 The image is virtual.
 The image is upright. It has
the same orientation as the
object.
 There is a front-back
reversal in the image.
 The three basic light rays
used in ray tracing:
1. A ray which leaves the
object parallel to the axis,
is refracted to pass through
the focal point (P).
2. A ray which passes
through the lens’s center is
un deflected (M).
3. A ray passing through the
focal point (as shown)
is refracted to end up parallel
to the axis (F).
 Lenses are commonly used to form images
by refraction
– All is a result of Snell’s law and can be derived
from that.
• Lenses are used in optical instruments
– Cameras
– Telescopes
– Microscopes
 f 2f Object between 2f and f

2f f Image is inverted, real

enlarged.

f 2f Object between f and lens

2f f Image is upright, virtual,

and enlarged.
 f 2f Object beyond 2f.

2f f Image is upright,
virtual, reduced.

Object between
f 2f f and lens.

2f f Image is upright,
virtual, reduced.
 h0 −hi
=
f di − f
ho −hi
=
do di

Thin Lens Equation

1 1 1
+ =
d o di f

Magnification
di hi
m=− =
d o ho
Converging or convex lens
• focal length is positive
• image distance is positive when on the other side
of the lens (with respect to object)
• height upright is positive, inverted is negative
Diverging or concave lens
• focal length is negative
• image distance is always negative
(on the same side of the lens as the object)
• height upright is positive, inverted is negative