Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

Sandra Chapman

Core
Electrodynamics
Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics

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Sandra Chapman

Core Electrodynamics

123
Sandra Chapman
Department of Physics
University of Warwick Centre for Fusion,
Space, Astrophysics
Coventry, UK

ISSN 2192-4791 ISSN 2192-4805 (electronic)

Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-66816-7 ISBN 978-3-030-66818-1 (eBook)
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Preface to the Springer Edition

Electrodynamics is often the only example of a field unification that physics

undergraduates have the opportunity to work through fully and in detail. It provides
a striking example of the character of physical law, both in its elegance and
all-encompassing nature. Its building blocks, electromagnetism and special rela-
tivity, are typically first encountered in distinct courses. Its applications are
far-reaching and extend across multiple courses of study, both at undergraduate and
graduate level, which are well served by several classic texts in the literature.
Here, the development of electrodynamics is stripped down to its essentials and
is presented in an informal manner whilst retaining sufficient rigour to support
further study. This journey begins with the experimentally determined properties of
electricity and magnetism, through special relativity and the fundamental constraint
that the speed of light is constant, to the unification of the electric and magnetic
fields to give frame-invariant electromagnetism.
Since the publication of the first edition, the pedagogical trend has been to
package knowledge in progressively smaller, ‘bite sized’ pieces that are studied and
examined in a piece-wise manner. As this edition is being released, we are in the
midst of a pandemic which is driving a step-change to online learning which can
only accelerate this trend. This points to a need for works that offer synthesis whilst
retaining brevity, as here. This monograph, whilst being brief, develops electro-
dynamics, from the founding observations to a unified field theory, in a manner that
allows it to be appreciated in its entirety.

Kenilworth, UK Sandra Chapman

v
Preface

This monograph is based on a final year undergraduate course in Electrodynamics

that I introduced at Warwick as part of the new four-year physics degree. When I
gave this course, my intention was to engage the students in the elegance of
electrodynamics and special relativity whilst giving them the tools to begin grad-
uate study. Here, from the basis of experiment, we first derive the Maxwell
equations and special relativity. Introducing the mathematical framework of gen-
eralized tensors, the laws of mechanics, the Lorentz force and the Maxwell equa-
tions are then cast in a manifestly covariant form. This provides the basis for
graduate study in field theory, high energy astrophysics, general relativity and
quantum electrodynamics.
As the title suggests, this book is “electrodynamics lite”. The journey through
electrodynamics is kept as brief as possible, with minimal diversion into details, so
that the elegance of the theory can be appreciated in a holistic way. It is written in
an informal style and has few prerequisites; the derivation of the Maxwell equations
and their consequences is dealt with in the first chapter. Chapter 2 is devoted to
conservation equations in tensor formulation; here Cartesian tensors are introduced.
Special relativity and its consequences for electrodynamics are introduced in Chap.
3 and cast in four vector form; here we introduce generalized tensors. Finally in
Chap. 4, the Lorentz frame-invariant electrodynamics is developed.
Supplementary material and examples are provided by the two sets of problems.
The first is revision of undergraduate electromagnetism, to expand on the material
in the first chapter. The second is more advanced, corresponding to the remaining
chapters, and its purpose is twofold: to expand on points that are important, but not
essential, for the derivation of manifestly covariant electrodynamics and to provide
examples of manipulation of cartesian and generalized tensors. As these problems
introduce material not covered in the text, they are accompanied by full worked
solutions. The philosophy here is to facilitate learning by problem-solving, as well
as by studying the text.
Extensive appendices for vector relations, unit conversion and so forth are given
with graduate study in mind. As SI units are used throughout here, conversions for
units and equations are also given.

vii
viii Preface

There have been many who have contributed to the existence of this book.
Thanks, in particular, go to Nick Watkins for valuable discussions and to George
Rowlands for his insightful reading of the final draft. David Betts, the editor of this
series, has also shown remarkable patience and tenacity as the many deadlines have
come and gone. The completion of the book was also much assisted by a PPARC
personal fellowship.
Finally, my thanks go to the students themselves; their lively reception of the
original course and their insightful questions were the inspiration for this book. If
the reader finds that this book provides a shortcut to experience the beauty of
electrodynamics, without sacrificing the rigour needed for further study, then I have
succeeded.

Kenilworth, UK Sandra Chapman

Contents

1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 The Building Blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Maxwell I and II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2.1 Flux of a Vector Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Flux of E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.3 Flux of B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.4 Conservative and Nonconservative Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3 Maxwell III and IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.1 Faraday’s Law and Galilean Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.2 Ampère’s Law and Conservation of Charge . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.4 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Field Energy and Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1 Tensors and Conservation Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.1 Momentum Flux Density Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.2 Momentum Flux, Gas Pressure and Fluid Equations . . . . . 24
2.1.3 Cartesian Tensors, Some Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2 Field Momentum and Maxwell Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.1 Energy Conservation: Poynting’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.2 Momentum Conservation: Maxwell Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Radiation Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 The Lorentz Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2 The Moving Charge and Wire Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.3 Maxwell in Terms of Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4 Generalized Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47

ix
x Contents

3.5 Four Vectors and Four Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

3.5.1 Some Mechanics, Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.5.2 Some Four Vector Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.1 Charge Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.6.2 A Manifestly Covariant Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4 The Field Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 Invariant Form for E and B: The EM Field Tensor . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Invariant Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3 Conservation of Energy-Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4 Lorentz Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.4.1 Manifestly Covariant Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.5 Transformation of the Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4.6 Field from a Moving Point Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.7 Retarded Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Suggested Texts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Appendix A: Revision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Appendix C: Some Advanced Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Appendix E: Vector Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Appendix F: Tensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Appendix G: Units and Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Appendix H: Dimensions and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Appendix I: Physical Constants (SI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
List of Figures

Fig. 1.1 Surface element dS on surface S spanning curve C with line

element dl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.2 Surface element dS on volume V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Fig. 1.3 The right hand rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.4 Location of charges q1 and q2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Fig. 1.5 The electric field due to charge qi ¼ qðr0 ÞdV 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Fig. 1.6 Flux across dS is maximal when v is parallel to dS, and zero
when v is perpendicular . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 6
Fig. 1.7 Volume containing particles that cross dS in time dt . . . . . . . .. 6
Fig. 1.8 Surfaces enclosing single charge q. The surface element dS
lies on the arbitrary surface S and forms the end of the cone.
There is no flux of E across the sides of the cone . . . . . . . . . .. 7
Fig. 1.9 Side view of cone enclosing single charge q. The surface
element vector dS and field E lie in the plane of the paper . . .. 8
Fig. 1.10 Cone enclosing single charge q in cartesian and cylindrical
polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 8
Fig. 1.11 The closed surface S has zero nett flux through it . . . . . . . . . .. 10
Fig. 1.12 E  dl is integrated around the closed curve C in the vicinity
of a point charge. The radial sections of the path give
contributions of equal size and opposite sign and the sections
along contours of the potential (dotted lines) give zero
contribution. The integral around the closed curve is zero . . . .. 11
Fig. 1.13 The observer is at rest in frame 1 (top) and moves with the wire
in frame 2 (bottom). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 13
Fig. 1.14 The observer is at rest and the wire moves on conducting
rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Fig. 1.15 Wire element dl sweeps out surface element dS in time dt . . . . 15
Fig. 1.16 Charge flows out of volume V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Fig. 1.17 An ideal discharging capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Fig. 2.1 Some of the forces acting on fluid element dV that
form the components of a pressure tensor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 22

xi
xii List of Figures

Fig. 2.2 Vector r in the x; y; z and x0 ; y0 ; z0 coordinate systems . . . . . . . .. 26

Fig. 3.1 The light clock is oriented perpendicular to its direction of
motion. Top: observer rest frame i.e., the clock moves past us;
bottom: clock rest frame i.e., we move with the clock . . . . . . .. 39
Fig. 3.2 The light clock is oriented parallel to its direction of motion.
Top: observer rest frame i.e., the clock moves past us; bottom:
clock rest frame i.e., we move with the clock . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 39
Fig. 3.3 In frame S1 the current in the wire is carried by the electrons,
the test charge q moves at u. In frame S2 the current is carried
by the protons, the test charge q is at rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 43
Fig. 3.4 The (dashed) loop over which we integrate B  dl is a circle of
radius r centred on the wire, with ^r transverse to the direction
of motion u ^. Also shown is the direction of u ^ B . . . . . . . . . .. 44
Fig. 3.5 The (dashed) surface over which we integrate E  dS is a
cylinder of radius r centred on the wire, with ^r transverse to the
direction of motion u ^ ............................... .. 45
Fig. 4.1 Charge q is at rest at the origin of the S0 frame and is moving
with velocity v^x1 w.r.t. frame S. The origins of the S and S0
frames coincide at t ¼ 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 70
Fig. 4.2 Sketch of E1 and E2 at point P versus x01 =c ¼ x1  vt . . . . . . .. 71
Fig. 4.3 Sketch of the E0 field around a charge at rest, and the E field
around a charge moving at relative velocity v, in the x1 ; x2
plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 71
Fig. 4.4 A volume element is located at rest at the origin of the S0 frame
which is moving at þ v in the x1 direction w.r.t. the S frame. In
the S0 frame the volume element contains charge q0 dx01 dx02 dx03 .
The origins of the two frames are coincident at t ¼ t0 ¼ 0 . . . .. 73
Fig. 4.5 Volume element dV 0 and point P located w.r.t. a single fixed
origin O . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Fig. A.1 Problem 1a: A straight wire carrying a steady current I . . . . . . . 80
Fig. A.2 Problem 1b: A straight wire carrying a steady current I . . . . . . . 80
Fig. C.1 A pair of wires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Fig. D.1 Surface S enclosing element of a wire of length dl . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Fig. D.2 Curve C enclosing the wire with element along
the curve dl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Chapter 1
A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

So far you will have encountered various expressions from electrostatics and mag-
netostatics which we will show can then be synthesised into four equations, the
Maxwell equations which, with the Lorentz force law, are a complete description of
the behaviour of charged particles and electromagnetic fields. Electromagnetism is
usually presented in this way for two reasons, first this is how electromagnetism was
first discovered experimentally and second, these expressions (Coulomb’s law, Lenz’
law, Faraday’s law, Biot Savart law and so on) are useful in particular circumstances.
Here we will first take a look at how the Maxwell equations are constructed, from
the experimentally determined expressions and by using the mathematics of vector
fields. The Maxwell equations are a unification of electric and magnetic fields that
are inferred experimentally.
The unified equations yield an important prediction: the existence of electromag-
netic waves, which then compels us to develop a formalism that is consistent with
special relativity. This leads to a form for the Maxwell equations, the Lorentz force
law and the laws of mechanics that are frame invariant and thus consistent with the
requirement that physical laws are the same in all frames of reference, anywhere in
the universe.

1.1 The Building Blocks

We will use the experimentally determined:

• Coulomb’s Law
• Faraday’s Law
• Ampère’s Law

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 1

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1_1
2 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

Fig. 1.1 Surface element dS

on surface S spanning curve dS
C with line element dl

C
dl

Fig. 1.2 Surface element dS dS

on volume V

and some mathematics:

• Stokes’ Theorem (for any vector field A):
 
A · dl = ∇ ∧ A · dS (1.1)
C S

where surface S spans curve C as shown in Fig. 1.1

• Gauss’ or Divergence Theorem:
 
A · dS = ∇ · Ad V (1.2)
S V

where surface S encloses volume V as shown in Fig. 1.2.

• and the right hand rule:
î ∧ ĵ = k̂

which is built in to the way the cross product is defined, so that in the Lorentz force
law the magnetic force
F M = qv ∧ B

is positive for protons (Fig. 1.3).

If we had used a left handed cross product so that î ∧ ĵ = −k̂ then Lorentz force
law would be written F M = −qv ∧ B for protons. We have also defined the electric
(vector) field to point away from positive charge so that FE = qE for protons.
1.2 Maxwell I and II 3

Fig. 1.3 The right hand rule

F
k

i j v B

1.2 Maxwell I and II

Coulomb experimentally determined the force between two static charges to be

1 q1 q2
F21 = (r1 − r2 ) (1.3)
4π0 | r1 − r2 |3

where the force is in Newtons (N ), charge q is in Coulombs (C), r in meter s and

0 = 8.85.10−12 C 2 N −1 m −2 (or in terms of the Farad, Fm −1 ) is the permittivity of
free space (see Fig. 1.4).
Coulomb’s law embodies three empirically known properties of F:
1. the force is proportional to the charges F ∼ q1 , q2
2. the force points radially away from the positive charges
3. the force is inverse square F ∼ 1/r 2
In addition we can show that the force obeys the principle of superposition so that
for a collection of n charges; the force on the j th charge q j is

1 
n
qi q j
Fj = (ri − r j ) (1.4)
4π0 i= j | ri − r j |3

We then define the electric field at the position of the j th charge as

Fj
E= (1.5)
qj

Fig. 1.4 Location of charges q r-r

1 2 q
1
q1 and q2 2

r2 r1

0
4 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

Fig. 1.5 The electric field

due to charge qi = ρ(r )d V 

r-r’ dV’
E(r)

r r’

that is, the Lorentz force law for electric field only, so that E is in N C −1 (we will
see that it is also in V m −1 from energy considerations).
The vector field E(r j ) is then defined at the position r = r j of the test charge q j

1  qi
E(r j ) = (ri − r j ) (1.6)
4π0 i= j | ri − r j |3

This can be expressed in terms of a scalar field, the charge density ρ(r) provided that
the collection of point charges can be treated as a smoothly varying function, that is
(Fig. 1.5)
qi = ρ(r )d V  (1.7)

This description will therefore be valid on length and timescales over which (1.4)–
(1.7) hold. When we consider small length and timescales there are two distinct
considerations. First, we require that the charge density (1.7), and all other quantities
that will be described by scalar and vector fields here, such as electromagnetic fields,
energy and momentum densities and so forth, are still describable by continuous
functions. Second, we need to use the correct mechanics in the equations of motion
for the charges and hence the Lorentz force. Here we will develop electrodynamics
in terms of mechanics that is consistent with special (and general) relativity, but is
classical. At some length and timescale, quantum mechanics is needed to replace
classical mechanics. The field equations may also need to be quantized (to give
Quantum Electrodynamics).1 In this sense, the Maxwell equations, the Lorentz force
and the mechanics of special relativity that we will discuss are classical.

1 The need for a field theory that permits both a continuous, classical limit, and discrete quanta
(photons in the case of electromagnetic fields) was highlighted by the discovery of the photoelectric
effect.
1.2 Maxwell I and II 5

With these caveats, we can write the electric field in terms of a volume integral
over the charge density

1 ρ(r )(r − r ) 
E(r) = dV (1.8)
4π0 V | r − r  |3

hence the electric field retains the experimentally determined properties: it points
radially away from an element of positive charge, its magnitude is inverse square with
distance, it is proportional to the charge and it obeys the principle of superposition.
We will now take these properties and phrase them in a more profound form, in terms
of the flux of E.

1.2.1 Flux of a Vector Field

Flux is mathematically and conceptually the same for any vector field. We can explore
the concept with a simple example; a cold gas2 comprised of particles with number
density n(r) per unit volume all of which have the same velocity v(r) at any position
r. We then define

Flux through surface element dS =

number of particles crossing dS per second.

Notice that the flux depends upon the angle between dS and v(r) as in Fig. 1.6.
To find the flux across dS we just need to identify the volume containing all
particles that will cross the surface element per second. This volume is sketched in
Fig. 1.7, where we have rotated our point of view such that both v and dS are in the
plane of the paper (we can always do this, since the two vectors will define a plane).
The projection of dS in this plane is l and perpendicular to the plane is a so that
| dS |= la. The angle between v and dS is θ.
If the surface element dS is sufficiently small that n and v are constant across it,
then in time dt all particles in the cold gas in volume

la cos θvdt =| dS | cos θvdt = v · dSdt

cross the surface element dS. The number of particles crossing dS in time dt is then
nv · dSdt, so that a flux of nv · dS particles crosses dS per second.

2 We will make use of the “cold gas” model several times in this book, in all cases it is defined
as here: a population of identical particles which all have the same velocity v(r, t) at any given
position and time.
6 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

v(r)
v(r)
dS

dS

Fig. 1.6 Flux across dS is maximal when v is parallel to dS, and zero when v is perpendicular

Fig. 1.7 Volume containing

particles that cross dS in
time dt v(r) v(r)
θ
l dS

vdt
l cos θ

Over an arbitrarily large surface S, where across the surface n(r) and v(r) now vary
with r, the total flux of particles is obtained by the surface integral:

Flux = nv · d S (1.9)
S

The flux of the vector field nv across the surface S is given by Eq. 1.9.

1.2.2 Flux of E

Now we can write down the flux of any vector field. For the electric field we will
find the flux due to a single positive charge q which is located somewhere inside the
closed surface S 
Flux of E = E · dS (1.10)
S

We will utilize the fact that we can choose any convenient S as long as q is located
inside, and will “build in” the three experimentally determined properties of E = F/q
from Coulomb’s law.
1.2 Maxwell I and II 7

Fig. 1.8 Surfaces enclosing

single charge q. The surface
element dS lies on the
arbitrary surface S and forms
the end of the cone. There is dS
no flux of E across the sides
of the cone
r

q
S

We start by taking a surface element dS on an arbitrary surface enclosing q. We

can then consider the cone shaped surface with sides formed by radius vectors from
q and an end formed by dS as shown in Fig. 1.8. From Coulomb’s law:

1. E points radially out from the charge: that is, E points in the direction of r. There
is then no flux of E out of the sides of the cone. The flux of E must emerge from
the end of the cone dS.
We can again sketch the surface element dS choosing the plane of the paper to
be the plane defined by the vectors dS and E and the cone is shown cut by this
plane in the Fig. 1.9. The flux of E out of the cone is then

E · dS =| E | d Sn (1.11)

where d Sn is the projection of dS parallel to E (i.e. E is normal to the plane in

which surface d Sn lies) as shown in Fig. 1.9. The element d Sn has a very useful
property: it lies on the surface of a sphere centred on the charge q.
The element d Sn is sketched in cylindrical polar coordinates with q at the origin
in Fig. 1.10, where the element on the surface of the sphere at radius r is

d Sn = r dθ × r sin θdφ (1.12)

We can now exploit

2. E is inverse square and
3. E is proportional to q so that:

1 q
| E |=
4π0 r 2
8 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

Fig. 1.9 Side view of cone dS

enclosing single charge q.
The surface element vector
dS and field E lie in the α
plane of the paper E(r)

q
dS
n

Fig. 1.10 Cone enclosing

single charge q in cartesian z
and cylindrical polar
coordinates
rdθ
θ
dθ

φ
dφ y
x

r sin θ d φ

then the flux of E through the cone

1 q
E · dS = E × d Sn = × r dθ × r sin θdφ
4π0 r 2
q
= dθ sin θdφ
4π0

which is independent of r (E is inverse square and the surface area of the sphere
is proportional to r 2 ). Now the evaluation of the flux of E over the entire closed
surface is simply the integral over the solid angle 4π
  π  2π
q q
E · dS = sin θdθ dφ =
S 4π0 0 0 0
1.2 Maxwell I and II 9

For a collection of charges we just add the electric field from each one, by principle
of superposition. So the flux through S from n charges will be
 
E · dS = (E1 + E2 + E3 + · · · ) · dS
S S
  
= E1 · dS + E2 · dS + E3 · dS + · · ·
S S S

q1 q2 q3
= + + + ···
0 0 0

n
Q
= qi =
i=1
0

Thus to obtain the total flux of E (unlike E itself from Coulomb’s law), we don’t need
the locations of the charges, just the total charge enclosed. If we now write the total
charge in terms of the charge density ρ integrated over the volume V enclosed by S

Q= ρd V (1.13)
V

then we have Gauss’ law in integral form

 
1
E · dS = ρd V (1.14)
S 0 V

The differential form follows immediately from the Divergence theorem (1.2)
 
1
∇ · Ed V = ρd V (1.15)
V 0 V

which we can write as

ρ
MAXWELL I : ∇ ·E= 0
(1.16)

In going from (1.14) to (1.16) we are implicitly treating the fields as classical, and
our field theory will not hold on the quantum scale. It is in this sense that the fields
E(r), ∇ · E(r) are defined.
10 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

1.2.3 Flux of B

Similarly we can write a Maxwell equation for magnetic flux. We define the magnetic
flux through any surface S as 
B · dS = Φ B (1.17)
S

Again, experimentally, it can be shown that the magnetic flux through any closed
surface is zero so that 
B · dS = 0 (1.18)
S

which immediately from Divergence theorem (1.2) gives

MAXWELL II ∇ · B = 0 (1.19)

Field lines are drawn passing through a closed surface S in Fig. 1.11. The electric
field has nonzero divergence so that closed surfaces can be found that yield zero
or nonzero nett flux from (1.14) depending upon whether charge is enclosed in the
surface. The magnetic field has zero divergence so that (1.18) always yields zero nett
flux as far as we are able to determine experimentally. Lines of E end on electric
charge whereas lines of B are continuous. No particle has yet been identified that
is a source of magnetic field, but as we shall see in Chap. 4, Sect. 4.2, the Maxwell
equations themselves and special relativity do not preclude the existence of such
particles, that is, of magnetic monopoles.

B B
E

Fig. 1.11 The closed surface S has zero nett flux through it
1.2 Maxwell I and II 11

1.2.4 Conservative and Nonconservative Fields

Maxwell I was obtained from Coulomb’s law by considering the force on a test
charge and then using this to define the electric field as E = F/q N C −1 . Another
definition is in terms of the work done on the charge as it is moved around in the
electric field. The energy gained by charge q from the field as it is moved along path
C is  
W = F · dl = q E · dl (1.20)
C C

from the Lorentz force law (this is minus the work done by the field on the charge).
The work done per unit charge W/q (in units J C −1 ) is defined as the potential of
the electric field (in V ) giving units of E as V m −1 .
Coulomb’s law then reveals an interesting property of the electrostatic field
via (1.20). Knowing that the field is radial and is any function of r, for the field
from a single point charge we have
  r2
E · dl = E(r )dr (1.21)
C r1

Now we can choose C(r, θ, φ) (in spherical polar coordinates) to have any θ, φ
dependence, (1.21) will yield the same result which will depend only on the endpoints
r1 and r2 . It then follows that (1.21) is zero if r1 = r2 , that is, if the path C is closed
(Fig. 1.12). The electrostatic field is conservative. This will also hold for the field from
any collection of charges, since by the principle of superposition we can write (1.20)
as a sum of integrals due to the electric field from each point charge.
For the electrostatic field, taking (1.21) around a closed path and using Stokes’
theorem (1.1) then immediately gives

∇ ∧E=0 (1.22)

Fig. 1.12 E · dl is integrated

around the closed curve C in E
the vicinity of a point charge. φ
The radial sections of the
path give contributions of
equal size and opposite sign
and the sections along dl
contours of the potential
(dotted lines) give zero
contribution. The integral +q C
around the closed curve is
zero
12 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

then since for any scalar field φ

∇ ∧ (∇φ) = 0

we can write the conservative electrostatic field in terms of a potential:

E = −∇φ (1.23)

For magnetic fields, Maxwell II implied that magnetic field lines form closed loops.
From Fig. 1.11 one might expect the magnetic field to have curl whereas the elec-
trostatic field does not; this is what is found experimentally and Ampère’s law of
magnetostatics is 
B · dl = μ0 I (1.24)
C

where the current I is in Amperes (A ≡ C/s) from which we can now define the
units of B as Tesla (T ) and the permeability of free space μ0 = 4π.10−7 T msC −1 (or
in terms of the Henry, H m −1 ). Again, if the collection of (moving) charges can be
treated as a smoothly varying function, the current that they carry I flowing across
surface S can be expressed in terms of a vector field, the current density J

I = J · dS (1.25)
S

This, along with (1.1) immediately gives, for magnetostatics

∇ ∧ B = μ0 J (1.26)

Then B is nonconservative unless there are no currents. The special case of current
free systems (or regions) can be treated by defining a magnetostatic scalar potential
in analogy to (1.23). Generally we define a magnetic vector potential A

B=∇ ∧A (1.27)

Since for any vector field ∇ · (∇ ∧ A) = 0 this satisfies ∇ · B = 0. The potentials φ

and A are an equivalent representation for the electrostatic and magnetostatic fields.
In Sect. 1.3 we will complete this representation by explicitly considering the general
case where the fields vary with time.

1.3 Maxwell III and IV

We will now complete the set of Maxwell equations by explicitly considering systems
that change with time.
1.3 Maxwell III and IV 13

1.3.1 Faraday’s Law and Galilean Invariance

It is found experimentally that if the magnetic flux passing through a loop of wire
changes for any reason, a voltage is induced across the wire. This is Faraday’s law
 
dΦ B d
E · dl = − =− B · dS (1.28)
C dt dt S

where the magnetic flux is through surface S spanned by the wire loop forming curve
C. For this to be true, it has to hold in all frames of reference. To check Faraday’s
law, we will consider a wire moving with respect to the magnetic field, so that the
magnetic flux changes, and we will look at what happens to the charges in the wire
in two frames.3 The two frames are shown in Fig. 1.13.
1. We are in a frame where the magnetic field is time independent, and the wire
moves through the field.
2. We transform frames to move with the wire, so that the magnetic field depends
on time.
In frame (1) the Lorentz force acts on the charges (electrons) in the wire so that
Fe = −ev ∧ B (when a steady state is reached the ends of the wire become charged,
and a back e.m.f is induced, that is, an electric field that acts opposite to Fe ). When
we transform to frame (2) we (the observer) see a stationary wire. The electrons

Fig. 1.13 The observer is at

rest in frame 1 (top) and
moves with the wire in frame
2 (bottom)
B
v B
^
v

3 Notethat this is a non relativistic, or Galilean, frame transformation. The relativistic treatment is
in Chap. 3.
14 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

Fig. 1.14 The observer is at

rest and the wire moves on
conducting rails B
c dl b

d a

still respond to the Lorentz force however, so we now conclude that Fe = −eE.
So for the Lorentz force law to work in both frames, v ∧ B in one frame is just
equivalent to E in another. E and B are frame dependent and form a single quantity,
the electromagnetic field; a form of the Maxwell Equations must therefore also exist
that is frame invariant, and we will derive it later.
This electric field that is implied by the frame transformation modifies the con-
servative, curl free electrostatic field. We will now calculate its curl for the moving
wire.
To stop the charges “piling up” at the ends of the wire we will complete the circuit
by running the wire on conducting rails as sketched in Fig. 1.14; the rails and the rest
of the circuit are at rest w.r.t. the observer.
The wire and rails then form a closed loop shown in Fig. 1.14. The work done on
the electrons around the loop is
  b  c  d  a
F · dl = F · dl + F · dl + F · dl + F · dl (1.29)
a b c d

Now in this frame only the wire is moving, so that all the terms in the path inte-
gral (1.29) are zero except between a and b (note that in the presence of an additional
electrostatic field, the contribution to the integral around the closed loop would still
be zero). This leaves
  b  b
F · dl = F · dl = −e (v ∧ B) · dl (1.30)
a a

in the observer’s rest frame. To evaluate (1.30) consider the small element of wire dl
shown in Fig. 1.15.
The area element swept out by wire element dl in time dt is dS = vdt ∧ dl.
Rearranging the r.h.s. of (1.30) gives
  b  b  b
dS d dΦ B
F · dl = e B · (v ∧ dl) = e B· =e B · dS = e (1.31)
a a dt dt a dt
1.3 Maxwell III and IV 15

Fig. 1.15 Wire element dl

sweeps out surface element
dS
dS in time dt

dl

v dt

since in the observer rest frame the magnetic field is time independent, so that work
is done by the rate of change of magnetic flux. Now we can make the following
assertion: the Lorentz force law yields the same force on the electrons in both frames.
Hence the work done on the electrons in the moving wire in frame 1 (Eq. 1.31) must
be equivalent to that done by an electric field in frame 2 where the wire is at rest
 
d
−e E · dl ≡ e B · dS (1.32)
dt S

I.e., Faraday’s law (1.28).

The electric field in the l.h.s. of (1.32) and the magnetic field in the r.h.s. are in
different frames. To obtain a relationship between E and B we need to work in a
single frame: so let us consider a loop of wire a rest w.r.t the observer so that dS is
fixed, and B changes with time. In this frame dS is fixed and v = dr/dt = 0 so from
chain rule
dB ∂B ∂B
= + ·v (1.33)
dt ∂t ∂r
then (1.32) becomes  
∂B
E · dl = − · dS (1.34)
S ∂t

Using Stokes’ theorem (1.1) this is just Maxwell III in differential form:

MAXWELL III ∇ ∧ E = − ∂B
∂t
(1.35)

Maxwell III (1.35) gives the nonconservative part of the electric field that arises when
the electromagnetic fields are time varying. It also expresses the equivalence of E
and B implied by the Galilean frame transformation. Implicit in Maxwell III is the
frame transformation
E2 = E1 + v ∧ B1 (1.36)

where the subscripts refer to frames 1 and 2 and v is the transformation velocity.
Using the principle of superposition we have added the (arbitrary) electric field in
frame 1, E1 , which to simplify the above discussion we assumed to be zero. The
16 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

nonrelativistic (1.36) was needed to make the Lorentz force law Galilean frame
invariant; in Sect. 4.5 Eq. 1.36 will be generalized for Lorentz frame invariance.
Since ∇ ∧ E is no longer zero we cannot describe this field as the gradient of a
scalar potential. To retain B = ∇ ∧ A we can use

∂A
E = −∇φ − (1.37)
∂t
which is consistent with (1.35) and B = ∇ ∧ A.

1.3.2 Ampère’s Law and Conservation of Charge

Recall from Sect. 1.2.4 that when the fields and currents are steady we have Ampère’s
law (1.26),
∇ ∧ B = μ0 J (1.38)

which will now be amended to apply to time dependent situations.

To work out what happens to the fields when charge and current densities change
with time we will make one important assumption, that nett charge is conserved
that is, single charges are neither created or destroyed. Experimentally this has been
verified to high precision, but we will assume that it is exactly true and later, that it
is true in all frames of reference. Charge and current densities can then be related if
we consider an arbitrary finite volume containing some total charge that is varying
with time Q(t), as charges flow out of the volume as in Fig. 1.16.
There is a total current flowing out of volume V

∂Q ∂ρ
I =− =− dV (1.39)
∂t V ∂t

Fig. 1.16 Charge flows out

of volume V
q
q
dS

V
q

q Q(t)

q
S
q
1.3 Maxwell III and IV 17

and as I flows across the surface S which encloses V we can also write from (1.25):
 
∂ρ
I = J · dS = − dV (1.40)
S V ∂t

This can be written in differential form using (1.2)

∂ρ
∇ ·J=− (1.41)
∂t
Equation 1.41 immediately shows the problem with (1.26) in time dependent situa-
tions; the divergence of (1.26) gives ∇ · J = 0, that is, currents must close in steady
state. When we obtained (1.41) we allowed nett current to flow out of a closed sur-
face, so that Fig. 1.16 shows a divergence of J. The correction needed for (1.26) can
be found using (1.16) to rewrite (1.41) as
 
∂ρ ∂E
∇ ·J+ = ∇ · J + 0 =0
∂t ∂t

equating this with ∇ · (∇ ∧ B) = 0 then gives

∂E
MAXWELL IV : ∇ ∧ B = μ0 J + μ0 0 (1.42)
∂t
which is Ampère corrected for time dependent fields. We have added a displacement
current to the r.h.s. of (1.26).
How does this work in practice? A simple example of the fields around an ideal
capacitor that is discharging are sketched in Fig. 1.17, where ∇ ∧ B is given by the
conduction current flowing in the circuit outside of the capacitor plates, and by the
displacement current due to the time dependent electric field between the plates.

Fig. 1.17 An ideal +Q(t)

discharging capacitor -Q(t)
- E(t) +
- +
- +
-
I(t) + I(t)
- +
- +
- +
B(t) - + B(t)
B(t)
18 1 A Brief Tour of Electromagnetism

1.4 Electromagnetic Waves

It is now straightforward to show that Maxwell’s equations support free space waves.
We use the vector relation

∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ 2 A (1.43)

and take the curl of Maxwell IV (1.42) to give

∂
∇(∇ · B) − ∇ 2 B = μ0 ∇ ∧ J + μ0 0 ∇ ∧E (1.44)
∂t
which, with Maxwell II (1.19) and III (1.35) and in free space where there are no
currents J = 0 gives
1 ∂2B
∇2B = 2 2 (1.45)
c ∂t

where μ0 0 = c12 . If instead we take the curl of Maxwell III (1.35) a similar procedure
gives (with no charges in free space ρ = 0)

1 ∂2E
∇2E = (1.46)
c2 ∂t 2
Equations 1.45 and 1.46 are wave equations for E and B, and are linear. This means
that any wave with frequency ω and wavenumber k of the form

B, E ∼ f (ωt − k · r) (1.47)

is a solution to (1.45) and (1.46). These waves will propagate at phase speed ω/k = c.
Crucially, we identify these with light waves in free space. Since (1.45) and (1.46)
are linear, we can superpose any solutions of the form (1.47) into a wave group or
packet, and this will be nondispersive. The wavegroup will have speed c and will
carry energy and momentum through free space.4
In the next chapter we will discuss momentum flux in the cold gas (defined in
Sect. 1.2.1), in terms of distributed bulk properties (such as the momentum flux
density tensor) rather than the motions of individual particles. Electromagnetic fields
can be quantized, that is, treated as a collection of photons which carry energy and
momentum. We would then expect the free space electromagnetic fields to have
equivalent energy and momentum flux (the latter given by the Maxwell stress tensor).

4 The properties of these waves are explored in the revision problems.

1.5 Conservation Equations 19

1.5 Conservation Equations

Equation 1.41 is a conservation equation and perhaps not surprisingly, all conser-
vation equations are of this form; they embody the premise that the particles and
the quantity that they carry (in this case, charge) is neither created nor destroyed. If
we recall the cold gas from Sect. 1.2.1 of number density n(r, t) with each particle
moving with the same velocity v(r, t) carrying charge q, then ρ = nq and J = nqv
and (1.41) will become (cancelling q from both sides)

∂n
∇ · (nv) = − (1.48)
∂t
Since (1.48) is linear we can use as many different populations of particles as nec-
essary, each with a different q and/or v(r), to represent a gas with finite temperature
composed of several particle species of different charge. The nett result will still be
an equation of the form of (1.48). If all the equations describing our system (i.e., the
Maxwell equations) are also linear then any quantity, such as energy, mass, momen-
tum, that can be envisaged as being carried by particles will have a conservation
equation of the form (1.48). At this point it could be argued that the electromag-
netic fields are known to be particulate, i.e., composed of photons, then conservation
equations can be found to include field energy and momentum as well as that of
the charges. However, to obtain (1.48) from its integral form we represented the
ensemble of particles in the gas at position r and time t with the number of par-
ticles in elemental volume n(r, t)dV and the flux of particles across an elemental
surface n(r, t)v(r, t).dS. The assumption of smoothness (1.7) has been made, that
is, we are on spatiotemporal scales over which fields and charge densities behave as
smoothly varying functions. So in our field theory here, it is the charges that have
been “smoothed out”, rather than the fields treated as photons.
Chapter 2
Field Energy and Momentum

So far we have discussed the free space macroscopic electromagnetic fields and the
field equations: the Maxwell equations that describe how the fields evolve in space
and time. Charges are included in this description as macroscopic charge density and
current density. However point charges carry energy and momentum, the Maxwell
equations have wave solutions and we might expect this to imply that the fields carry
energy and momentum also. Indeed, the energy and the radiation pressure of waves,
and of photons has been measured experimentally.
In this chapter we will formalize the concept of the energy and momentum of the
electromagnetic fields. This is most easily achieved through conservation equations,
and we will use the cold gas model from Chap. 1 in this context. In a gas, individual
particles carry momentum which is a vector quantity, the gas as a whole, when
described by macroscopic or fluid variables has a corresponding tensor pressure. We
will first use the simpler cold gas model to introduce Cartesian tensors, and their
role in equations for conservation of momentum flux. We will then find the Maxwell
Stress Tensor that is, the “ram pressure tensor” for the electromagnetic field.
The cold gas model will allow us to treat a system with free charges and electro-
magnetic fields (i.e., E and B). This is readily generalized to linear media.1

1 The Maxwell equations and conservation equations for free space and charges discussed here are
linear. Our approach then generalizes to media in which these equations remain linear. This is the
case if the fields induced in the medium are linearly proportional to those in the surrounding free
space. See the revision problems for examples.
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 21
S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1_2
22 2 Field Energy and Momentum

Fig. 2.1 Some of the forces

acting on fluid element d V
z
that form the components of
a pressure tensor

P
yz
P
xz Pyy
P
xx P
P yx y
xy
x

2.1 Tensors and Conservation Equations

2.1.1 Momentum Flux Density Tensor

Tensors arise in macroscopic or bulk descriptions such as gases, fluids, and solids
where we have vector fields describing distributed bulk properties rather than prop-
erties at a vanishingly small point (such as at a particle). A cube shaped elemental
volume d V in a gas is sketched in Fig. 2.1 and the possible forces that can act on
two of the three faces of the cube are labelled. If we just consider the x faces, we
can compress the cube by exerting forces normal to the surface, in the ±x̂ direction
(Px x ), we can also twist the cube by exerting shear forces tangential to the surface,
in the ±ŷ direction (Px y ), and in the ±ẑ direction (Px z ). The same is true of the y
and z faces, so that in our three dimensional gas we have nine numbers describing
the forces on the gas. These nine elements constitute the pressure tensor for the gas
and we can write them as a matrix:
⎡ ⎤
Px x Px y Px z
Pi j = ⎣ Pyx Pyy Pyz ⎦ (2.1)
Pzx Pzy Pzz

If there were no shear forces the tensor has three independent elements and becomes:
⎡ ⎤
Px x 0 0
Pi j = ⎣ 0 Pyy 0 ⎦ (2.2)
0 0 Pzz

and if these normal forces on all sides of the cube are equal, the pressure is isotropic:
⎡ ⎤
P0 0
Pi j = ⎣ 0 P 0 ⎦ (2.3)
0 0 P
2.1 Tensors and Conservation Equations 23

We will now obtain the momentum flux density tensor for the cold gas in which all
particles move with the same velocity v(r) at a given position r. In a given direction
r̂ the momentum of one particle is

pr = mvr = mv · r̂ (2.4)

and so momentum flowing across surface element dS in time dt due to this component
is, for mass density ρ:

ρ(v · r̂)(v · dSdt) = ρvr vn dsdt (2.5)

where the term in the first bracket of the l.h.s. of (2.5) is the momentum density due
to the r̂ component, and the term in the second bracket is the volume containing the
particles that flow across dS in time dt. The subscripts r and n denote components
along r̂, and along dS, n̂ respectively.
The momentum flow per unit area per unit time from Eq. 2.5 is the scalar

Pr n = ρvr vn (2.6)

We could write the momentum flux flowing in n̂ due to all components of v by

summing (2.6) over r = 1, 3 (that is, r = 1, 2, 32 the x, y, z directions) as the vector

Pn = ρ(vx x̂ + v y ŷ + vz ẑ)vn = ρvvn (2.7)

If we then sum (2.7) over n = 1, 3 (again, the x, y, z directions), we have the momen-
tum flux flowing in all directions due to all components as the tensor:

P = ρ(vx x̂ + v y ŷ + vz ẑ)(vx x̂ + v y ŷ + vz ẑ) = ρvv (2.8)

Tensors written as vector outer products as in Eq. 2.8 are known as dyadics.
The dyadic vv can be written out in full
⎡ ⎤⎛ ⎞
vx vx x̂x̂ +vx v y x̂ŷ +vx vz x̂ẑ v x v x v x v y v x vz x̂
vv = +v y vx ŷx̂ +v y v y ŷŷ +v y vz ŷẑ = (x̂ŷẑ) ⎣ v y vx v y v y v y vz ⎦ ⎝ ŷ ⎠ (2.9)
+vz vx ẑx̂ +vz v y ẑŷ +vz vz ẑẑ vz v x vz v y vz vz ẑ

For any orthogonal coordinate system we can use the following shorthand
⎡ ⎤
v x v x v x v y v x vz
vv = ⎣ v y vx v y v y v y vz ⎦ (2.10)
vz v x vz v y vz vz

2 Throughout this book we will use the index notation i, j to mean all values between i and j
inclusive.
24 2 Field Energy and Momentum

For most purposes we don’t really need to write out all the elements of the matrix
(2.10). Instead, we can simply write vi v j where it is assumed in this three dimensional,
Cartesian world i = 1, 3 and j = 1, 3. The momentum flux density tensor is then
written as
Pi j = ρvi v j (2.11)

The notation in (2.11) is useful, for example we can immediately deduce from (2.11)
that vv and hence P is symmetric as vi v j = v j vi (there are only 6 independent com-
ponents for the cold gas) without writing out all nine elements of the matrix (2.10).
We can now calculate the force on the cube due to the momentum flux of the cold
gas. The gas particles can deliver momentum to the cube either by flowing out of the
cube (the rocket effect), or by slowing down in the cube. The force on the cube of
arbitrary volume V due to flow out of particles is minus the rate at which momentum
flows out. The force due to particles slowing down in the cube is again minus the
momentum inflow rate as dS points outwards on the surface.
If we consider one component of v in the r̂ direction, the rate at which momentum
is delivered through d S is given by

d Fr = −ρ(v · r̂)(v · dS) (2.12)

where the first bracket is the momentum density of the r̂ component. So we have
from all three components

dF = −ρvv · dS = −P · dS (2.13)

Thus the force on the whole volume is

FV = dF = − P · dS = − ρvv · dS = − ∇ · Pd V = − ∇ · ρvvd V
S S V V
(2.14)

2.1.2 Momentum Flux, Gas Pressure and Fluid Equations

The above then implies that the momentum flux density corresponds to a local force
per unit volume
FV 1
= dF = −∇ · P (2.15)
V V V

We can now obtain a conservation equation for momentum in the gas. To do this
we need to relate the l.h.s. of (2.15) to the rate of change of momentum in the gas.
For this we will make an important restriction: we will consider the force over a
small volume d V within which the total number of particles is constant. This means
2.1 Tensors and Conservation Equations 25

that we are considering the rate of change of momentum due to a local ensemble of
particles slowing down, or speeding up, and we will choose d V accordingly; if this
d V contains a constant mass M of particles then it experiences a force

d Mv dv
FV = =M (2.16)
dt dt
Then the force per unit volume
FV dv
=ρ (2.17)
dV dt
One possibility is to choose d V to contain the same particles by moving with the
fluid at velocity v, then (2.17) becomes (using chain rule)

dv ∂v
ρ =ρ + (v.∇)v (2.18)
dt ∂t

This is equivalent to Liouville’s theorem.3

The momentum flux density tensor that we have derived is not the same as the
pressure tensor Pth . The pressure of a warm gas is the momentum flux due to the
thermal or random motions of the gas particles in the rest frame of the gas. In the
warm gas, a particle will have total velocity u = v + c where c is the random velocity
relative to the average or bulk velocity v(r, t) with which the gas as a whole moves,
so that the average < u >= v and < c >= 0.
In our cold gas, the velocity due to random motions is zero so that for each particle
u = v. From Eq. 2.8 above, we can find the nett momentum flux density in the warm
gas due to an average over an ensemble of particles in small volume element d V at
position r at time t:
P = ρ < uu >= ρvv + ρ < cc > (2.19)

In the rest frame of the gas v = 0 and the warm gas has thermal pressure Pth =
ρ < cc >. Generally then,
P = ρvv + Pth (2.20)

The momentum flux density due to gas-fluid motion as a whole, ρvv is the ram
pressure of the gas, and is just the momentum flux density of the cold gas.

3 Liouville’s theorem expresses conservation of probability density along a trajectory in phase space.

In a system with no sources or sinks of particles, we can follow the phase space trajectory r(t), v(t)
of any particle and along that trajectory the probability of finding the particle in elemental phase
space volume drdv is constant. See advanced problem 2.
26 2 Field Energy and Momentum

Fig. 2.2 Vector r in the

x, y, z and x  , y  , z 
coordinate systems z
z’

r
y’

y
x
x’

If we move with the gas (so that in our frame v = 0), Eq. 2.18 can be written as a
fluid equation for the gas:

dv ∂v
ρ =ρ + (v · ∇)v = −∇ · Pth (2.21)
dt ∂t

and in this frame there is no ram pressure. If we are at rest w.r.t. the gas bulk flow
then we experience both ram and thermal pressure.

2.1.3 Cartesian Tensors, Some Definitions

We can write P or Pi j for a tensor of the second rank where in the discussion so far
i = 1, 3 and j = 1, 3 i.e., there are nine possible indices (or nine components). A
tensor of the first rank (vector) would be written a or ai where i = 1, 3, just three
possibilities or three components. A scalar is thus a tensor of rank zero and has one
component. We can extend this to as many indices as we wish, for example Pi jkl is
a tensor of rank four.
A rank two dyadic would be ab which can also be written ai b j . Note that all the
indices are “down” (written as subscripts) in this Cartesian system so that a dyadic
is always of the form ai b j ck ..., later, when we introduce generalized coordinates as
opposed to Cartesian coordinates we will come across a j a j which has a different
meaning—we will cover this in Chap. 3, Sect. 3.4.
2.1 Tensors and Conservation Equations 27

A key property of the tensor formalism is that it embodies coordinate trans-

formations. Figure 2.2 shows a vector r w.r.t two orthogonal coordinate systems:
x, y, z and x  , y  , z  . The primed axes are simply the unprimed axes rotated in space
(x, y, z → x  , y  , z  ). A vector in the unprimed frame:
⎡ ⎤
x
r = ⎣y⎦
z

will have coordinates in the primed frame


x = a11 x +a12 y +a13 z

y = a21 x +a22 y +a23 z

z = a31 x +a32 y +a33 z

The tensor ai j contains the direction cosines of the rotation x, y, z → x  , y  , z  . This

can be written as
r = A · r (2.22)

where ⎡  ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x a11 a12 a13
r = ⎣ y ⎦ and A = ⎣ a21 a22 a23 ⎦
 


z a31 a32 a33

Instead of the column vector notation we can use indices; since x = r1 , y = r2 and
z = r3 , so Eq. 2.22 can be represented by

r j = a ji ri (2.23)

which is shorthand (the Einstein summation convention) for


rj = a ji ri (2.24)
i=1,3

The sum over index i on the r.h.s. of (2.24) contracts the number of indices by one
(the l.h.s. only has single index j). Equations 2.23 and 2.24 are an example of a
tensor dot (or inner) product. Again, when we switch to index notation, we drop all
reference to the basis vectors (or axes) x, y, z. Hence Eq. 2.25 is also a tensor dot
product:
a · T = a1 T11 + a2 T21 + a3 T31 + a1 T12 + a2 T22 + ...
(2.25)
= x̂ j ai Ti j

which is ai Ti j if we again drop all reference to the basis vectors xˆj .

28 2 Field Energy and Momentum

So we now can write down ∇ · T in Cartesian coordinates which is

∂
x̂ j Ti j = ∇ · T (2.26)
∂ xi

There are other special tensors. One is the trace which is δi j = 1 when i = j and 0
when i = j: ⎡ ⎤
100
δi j = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
001

Contracting δi j over i and j with two vectors extracts the dot product

δi j ai b j = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = a · b = ai bi

Another special tensor is the alternating tensor: i jk = 1 when i jk = 123, 231, 312
and −1 when i jk = 321, 132, 213 but 0 when any two of the indices are alike.
Contracting i jk over j and k extracts the following vector from a dyadic:

i jk a j bk = i11 a1 b1 +i12 a1 b2 +i13 a1 b3

+i21 a2 b1 +i22 a2 b2 +i23 a2 b3
+i31 a3 b1 +i32 a3 b2 +i33 a3 b3

If we consider the i = 1 terms we find that all but 123 a2 b3 and 132 a3 b2 are zero.
These last two give a2 b3 − a3 b2 which we recognise as the x component of the
vector cross product. Similarly, i = 2, 3 gives the y, z components respectively, so
that contracting with i jk extracts the cross product.
In this way, vector operations, vector calculus, and coordinate transformations
can all be performed using index notation. This Cartesian formalism works fine for
the three space dimensions, for six phase space dimensions, etc. Later, when we
consider special relativity we will work in space-time coordinates, and will need to
generalize this Cartesian formalism.

2.2 Field Momentum and Maxwell Stress

We can now derive equations of conservation of electromagnetic energy and momen-

tum. Again, we will consider a volume element d V that contains a fixed number of
charges, and field energy and momentum that can flow in and out of this volume
element. In this sense, the charges act as a source or sink of electromagnetic energy
and momentum. At a microscopic level, photons move in and out of d V and carry
energy and momentum. Here in our field theory, we can only discuss the “smoothed”
behaviour in element d V , and all quantities are obtained from fluid variables so
that the number of charges is n(r, t)d V , the energy in the electromagnetic fields
2.2 Field Momentum and Maxwell Stress 29

is U (r, t)d V and in the particles is ε(r, t)d V where n(r, t) is number density and
U (r, t) and ε(r, t) are the energy densities carried by the fields and particles respec-
tively. Strictly speaking, we would derive the conservation equations in integral form,
by considering integrals over some volume V , in a similar manner to the derivation
of Maxwell’s equations in Chap. 1. Here we will take the short cut and work with the
differential forms directly, by assuming that all bulk quantities are well defined per
unit area or per unit volume. For field energy density for example this means that the
energy density

1
U (r, t)d V = U (r, t)
V V

is well defined for arbitrary (small) V .

2.2.1 Energy Conservation: Poynting’s Theorem

Energy is lost from the electromagnetic fields if work is done on the particles. From
the Lorentz force law, a single positive charge moving in the fields gains energy
 
dv d 1 2
v.m = mv = qv · E (2.27)
dt dt 2

then n charges per unit volume gain energy density ε at a rate

dε
=J·E
dt
This energy density gain by the charges has to be balanced by an energy density
decrease in the fields and an energy flux into the (unit) volume containing the particles.
Using (1.42) to substitute for J

∇ ∧B ∂ E2
J·E=E· − 0 (2.28)
μ0 ∂t 2

Now from the form of the conservation equation in Chap. 1 (Eq. 1.48) we expect the
r.h.s. to be the divergence of energy flux (a vector) minus rate of change of energy
density. Using the vector identity

∇ · (E ∧ B) = B · (∇ ∧ E) − E · (∇ ∧ B)

Equation 2.28 can, using (1.35) be rearranged as

30 2 Field Energy and Momentum
 
E∧B ∂ E2 1 B2
J · E = −∇ · − 0 + (2.29)
μ0 ∂t 2 μ0 2

Equation 2.29 is Poynting’s theorem for the case of an ensemble of free charges in
an electromagnetic field, where the field energy density

E2 1 B2
U = 0 + (2.30)
2 μ0 2

in J m −3 and the Poynting flux

E∧B
S= (2.31)
μ0

which has units of energy per unit area per unit time (J m −2 s −1 ). For some arbitrary
volume V , enclosed by surface S the divergence theorem (1.2) gives

∇ · Sd V = S · dS (2.32)
V S

so that the surface integral of the Poynting flux S gives the energy carried out of
the volume by the electromagnetic fields per unit time (dS always points outwards);
energy gain by the particles is balanced by minus the Poynting flux. Rearranging
Poynting’s theorem
dε ∂U
− = + ∇ · S = −J · E (2.33)
dt ∂t
Poynting’s theorem (2.33) expresses conservation of energy between the ensemble
of charges and the electromagnetic fields.4

2.2.2 Momentum Conservation: Maxwell Stress

In order for the fields to do work on the particles a force must be exerted on the
particles, again given by the Lorentz force law. Again we assume that the number of
charges in volume element d V is fixed, and that we can always integrate over V to
find the value of any quantity per unit volume. The Lorentz force law then implies
a rate of change of momentum to the particles from the fields. For one particle with
momentum p
dp
= q(E + v ∧ B)
dt

4 Inlinear media, that is, where the response from the bound charges in the medium is linearly
proportional to the applied field, B = μr μ0 H, D = r 0 E and S = E ∧ H and U = 21 [E · D + B ·
H] then conservation of energy is still given by (2.33). In nonlinear media (2.33) is no longer valid.
See revision problem 8.
2.2 Field Momentum and Maxwell Stress 31

then for a collection of charges with momentum density P p = np p

dP p
= ρE + J ∧ B (2.34)
dt
This expresses the rate of change of momentum density of the charges. From an
understanding of electromagnetism based on experiment we might also expect a
conservation equation to contain a term describing the rate of change of momentum
density of the fields; either because waves carry momentum and Maxwell’s equations
support wave solutions, or because of the particle- like behaviour of the electromag-
netic wavefields. On that basis let’s make a guess as to what this might be, from the
following argument.
If we consider the cold gas, all particles will have rest energy ε = mc2 and momen-
tum p = mv. Then the energy flux S p is just

S p = nvε = nvmc2 (2.35)

(the flux across surface element dS will be S p · dS see Sect. 1.2.1). The momentum
density is just
P p = nmv (2.36)

so that
S p = P p c2 (2.37)

This is true for any particles, including photons. In the case of photons, the energy
flux is just the Poynting flux (2.31) that we obtained from conservation of energy.
Our “guess” for the momentum density of the fields is then

S
Pf = = 0 E ∧ B (2.38)
c2
To obtain the conservation equation we then just rearrange (2.34) to look like a
conservation equation for momentum

dP p ∂P f
− = −∇ ·T (2.39)
dt ∂t
This is in (almost) the same form as (2.33) except that the terms are now vectors; the
rate of change of momentum density to the charges and fields are balanced by the
divergence of a momentum flux density tensor T .
To find T , Maxwell I and III (1.16), (1.35) are used to substitute for ρ and J
in (2.34) to give

B ∧ (∇ ∧ B) ∂E
ρE + J ∧ B = 0 E(∇ · E) − + 0 B ∧ (2.40)
μ0 ∂t
32 2 Field Energy and Momentum

then since by expanding the l.h.s. and using Maxwell III (1.35)
 
∂ S ∂E
= −0 B ∧ + E ∧ (∇ ∧ E) (2.41)
∂t c2 ∂t

Equation 2.40 is:

∂ S B ∧ (∇ ∧ B)
− (ρE + J ∧ B) = − 0 E(∇ · E) + 0 E ∧ (∇ ∧ E) + (2.42)
∂t c 2 μ0

Now the remaining terms on the r.h.s. of (2.42) must give the divergence of a tensor.
Looking at the terms in E only, we can write

E2
E(∇ · E) − E ∧ (∇ ∧ E) = E(∇ · E) + (E · ∇)E − ∇ (2.43)
2
by using vector identity (E.11). In index notation the r.h.s. of (2.43) is

∂ ∂ ∂ E2 ∂ ∂ E2
Ej Ei + Ei E j − δi j = E i E j − δi j (2.44)
∂ xi ∂ xi ∂ xi 2 ∂ xi ∂ xi 2

which is just the divergence of a tensor

E2
Ti Ej = E i E j − δi j (2.45)
2
We can use the same manipulation for the B terms in (2.42), by simply adding the
(zero) term (from Maxwell II (1.19))

B(∇ · B)
− (2.46)
μ0

The Maxwell stress tensor in the conservation of momentum (2.39) is then

 
1 1 1 2
Ti j = 0 E i E j + Bi B j − δi j 0 E +
2
B (2.47)
μ0 2 μ0

Notice that we wrote (2.39) with a term −∇ · T where Poynting’s theorem has a
term +∇ · S. This is a matter of convention: a Poynting flux into a volume (∇ · S
negative) will correspond to a radiation pressure acting upon it (∇ · T positive).
2.3 Radiation Pressure 33

2.3 Radiation Pressure

To illustrate how Maxwell stress works, lets look at an example: a monochromatic

plane electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. This is a solution to the free
space wave equations introduced in Sect. 1.4.
We can show that the operators

∇ ≡ −ik
∂ (2.48)
∂t
≡ iω

apply in the case of the plane wave solution

E = E0 ei(ωt−k·r)
(2.49)
B = B0 ei(ωt−k·r)

The operators (2.48) can now be used to save some algebra. The relationship between
E, B and k follows from the Maxwell equations directly. Maxwell III (1.35) for the
plane wave becomes
− ik ∧ E = −iωB (2.50)

which rearranges to
1
B= k̂ ∧ E (2.51)
c
Similarly, Maxwell I and II (1.16), (1.19) give

k·E=0 (2.52)
k·B=0 (2.53)

Maxwells equations then reveal that the free space plane wave E, B, k form an
orthogonal set of vectors. Again for simplicity, lets choose the direction of k to be
along the ẑ axis. The wave propagates in the z direction i.e., k = k ẑ and

E = (E x , E y , 0)
(2.54)
B = (Bx , B y , 0)

We will now write down the Maxwell stress tensor for free space plane waves.
Generally    
E2 1 B2
Ti j = 0 E i E j − δi j + Bi B j − δi j (2.55)
2 μ0 2

and for the ẑ propagating plane wave (2.54) any term with a z index including
Tx z , Tzx , Tzy is zero. This gives
34 2 Field Energy and Momentum
⎡ Bx2 Bx B y
⎤
0 E x2 + μ0
− PE M 0 E x E y + μ0
0
⎢ ⎥
Ti j = ⎣ 0 E y E x + B y Bx
0 E y2 +
B y2
− PE M 0 ⎦ (2.56)
μ0 μ0
0 0 −PE M

where
E2 B2
PE M = +0 + (2.57)
2 2μ0
√ √
from (2.51) and with c = √μ10 0 = ωk we have Bx = −E y μ0 0 and B y = E x μ0 0
so that B y Bx = −μ0 0 E y E x , and the terms Tx y and Tyz are zero.
These relationships also simplify (2.57) to

B2
PE M = (2.58)
μ0

As a result the Maxwell stress tensor for the free space plane wave becomes diagonal
with terms
B2
Tx x = 0 E x2 + μx0 − PE M
B2 (2.59)
Tyy = 0 E 2 + y − PE M y μ0
Tzz = −PE M

We can now calculate the force due to the radiation pressure, that is, the rate of change
of momentum delivered by the free space wave per unit area, from the momentum
flux conservation Eq. 2.39 this is just

∂
∇ · T = x̂ j Ti j (2.60)
∂ xi

For the ẑ propagating wave, the fields are just functions of z and t (E, B(z, t) only)
so that the only contributions to (2.60) will be from xi = z and i = j. All other (i.e.,
the off axis) terms are zero. We are left with
 
∂ ∂ ∂ B2
∇ · T = ẑ Tzz = ẑ [−PE M ] = −ẑ (2.61)
∂z ∂z ∂z μ0

For the plane wave solution, using (2.48) the radiation pressure is just

1
∇ ·T = 2ikB 2 (2.62)
μ0

Lets compare this with the rate of change of momentum flux in the fields

∂P f ∂ E∧B
= (2.63)
∂t ∂t μ0 c2
2.3 Radiation Pressure 35

Maxwell IV in free space for the plane wave solution gives, using (2.48)

− k ∧ B = μ0 0 ωE (2.64)

hence
(−k̂ ∧ B) ∧ B B2
Pf = = k̂ (2.65)
μ0 c μ0 c

where we have used (2.53). We then have

∂P f B2 B2
= 2iω k̂ = 2ik (2.66)
∂t μ0 c μ0

so that in the absence of free charges, the divergence in radiation pressure balances
the rate of increase in momentum density in the fields.
Chapter 3
A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

So far we have the field equations, the Maxwell equations, and using the Lorentz
force law have constructed equations describing the conservation of energy and
momentum between the fields and charges. Our next task is to cast these equations in
a form that is consistent with special relativity. Special relativity has two fundamental
predictions:
• Frame Invariance, that is, the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames
of reference.
• The speed of light is the same in all inertial frames.
The second of these yields the Lorentz transformation between one frame moving at
constant velocity w.r.t. another.
Our new formalism for electromagnetism will tie up a number of loose ends
that have already appeared so far. In Sect. 1.3.1 Galilean invariance was imposed
on Faraday’s Law to give Maxwell III (1.35) and this showed that E and B are
equivalent: B in one frame can look like E in another (1.36). We will in Chap. 4
obtain a single object, the Electromagnetic Field Tensor that describes the fields E
and B and which gives a Lorentz transformation of the fields valid for relativistic
frame transformations, using the formalism developed in this chapter. In Sect. 1.4
we found that the Maxwell equations predict light waves in free space. Since the
speed of light is constant under Lorentz transformation we must be able to find a
form for the wave equations, and the Maxwell equations, that is invariant under
Lorentz transformation. So far we have used the Lorentz force law to give the force
on individual charges but have not concerned ourselves with the equations specifying
the particle motion under that force; we will now incorporate relativistic rather than
Newtonian mechanics. Finally, we have found conservation equations for charge,
mass, energy and momentum, between collections of charges and the electromagnetic
fields; a Lorentz invariant form must also exist for these. Some individual quantities
(such as energy) will be different between one frame and another, but other properties,

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 37

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1_3
38 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

such as charge and particle number, will be (inertial) frame invariant and this leads
us to form conservation equations that are invariant under Lorentz transformation.
To construct an electromagnetic field theory that is invariant under the Lorentz
frame transformation will require a generalization of Cartesian tensors that were
introduced in Chap. 2. We have seen that coordinate transformations in x, y, z space
can be written as tensor operators (or 3 × 3 rotation matrices). The Lorentz transfor-
mation can be written as a tensor operator in space-time (a 4 × 4 rotation matrix), and
the key to unifying electromagnetism with special relativity is to construct four vec-
tors and four tensors in which the three orthogonal space coordinates of the Cartesian
system are replaced with four coordinates (three space and one time). The generaliza-
tion to space-time led Einstein to the tensor formulation of general relativity where
space-time is curved by the gravitational field. Here for special relativity we neglect
gravity (and therefore do not treat accelerating frames), so we consider inertial frame
transformation only and space-time is flat.

3.1 The Lorentz Transformation

Special relativity arises if we insist that the speed of light is the same in all inertial
frames and that physical laws look the same in all inertial frames. The consequences
of this are immediately clear if we consider the following experiment: a “light clock”1
is composed of a light beam bouncing between two lossless mirrors. The clock is
moving past us at speed u. Lets first look at what happens when the clock is oriented
perpendicular to the direction of motion as shown in Fig. 3.1. In our rest frame the
time taken for the light to travel from one mirror to the other is Δt  , the clock moves
past and the light beam travels a distance

(cΔt  )2 = (uΔt  )2 + Δy 2 (3.1)

In the clock’s rest frame the time taken for the light to travel from one mirror to the
other is Δt, and the light path is simply

cΔt = Δy (3.2)

Now let’s compare the time in the two frames. If the distance perpendicular to the
direction of motion Δy is the same in both frames then

Δt 2 (c2 − u 2 ) = c2 Δt 2 (3.3)

1 Thisexperiment was actually performed by Michelson and Morley in 1887 to attempt to measure
our relative velocity w.r.t. the aether which was believed to fill the vacuum to allow the propagation
of electromagnetic waves.
3.1 The Lorentz Transformation 39

Fig. 3.1 The light clock is

oriented perpendicular to its
direction of motion. Top:
observer rest frame i.e., the
clock moves past us; bottom: c Δ t’
clock rest frame i.e., we
move with the clock Δy

u Δ t’
u

Δy

Fig. 3.2 The light clock is

oriented parallel to its
direction of motion. Top:
observer rest frame i.e., the Δ x’
clock moves past us; bottom: uΔt’f
clock rest frame i.e., we
move with the clock
uΔt’b
Δ x’
u

Δx

so that there is time dilation

Δt  = γΔt (3.4)

where
1
γ = √  (3.5)
u2
1− c2

in other words “moving clocks go slow”.

Now let’s turn the clock through 90◦ so that it is oriented along the direction of
motion as in Fig. 3.2. In our rest frame the clock moves away from the forward going
40 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

light pulse. When the light moves in the direction of the clock motion it travels a
longer distance
cΔt f = Δx  + uΔt f (3.6)

The clock moves towards the backwards going light pulse so that when the light
moves in the opposite direction to the clock motion it travels a shorter distance

cΔtb = Δx  − uΔtb (3.7)

the total round trip time of the light pulse in the moving clock is then

2cΔx 
Δt  = Δt f + Δtb = = γΔt (3.8)
c2 − u 2

from (3.4). In the clock’s rest frame the round trip time is simply given by

cΔt = 2Δx (3.9)

Eliminating Δt from (3.8) and (3.9) gives the Lorentz contraction of the length of
the clock
Δx
Δx  = (3.10)
γ

in the moving frame.

In terms of distances x, x  and times t, t  measured from origins in the two
(observer) frames, the Lorentz transformation is:
 
t  = γ t − vx
c2
x  = γ(x − vt)
(3.11)
y = y
z = z

where the primed frame moves at velocity +v x̂ w.r.t. the unprimed frame (so that
v → −v in (3.11) gives the inverse transform).
Now Lorentz contraction and time dilation arose because the speed of light is the
same (c) in all frames of reference. So if we consider a point light source located
at the origin of our x, y, z coordinate system, generating a spherical wavefront at
t = 0, the wavefront must propagate a distance (squared):

x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t 2 (3.12)

at time t. If we use the Lorentz transformation (3.11) on this expression (3.12), we

obtain:
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = c2 t 2 (3.13)
3.1 The Lorentz Transformation 41

Whatever frame we are in, the distance propagated by the wavefront always obeys
an expression of the form of (3.12). This looks almost like the length squared of a
vector in x, y, z, ct space. We can formalize this idea by writing (3.12) as

s 2 = c2 t 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 (3.14)

where for light waves s = 0 and for objects moving slower than light, s 2 > 0, so that
s is real.2 The length of s is the same in all frames, Lorentz transforming from one
moving frame to another simply corresponds to a rotation of the axes x, y, z, ct. We
have already developed notation for coordinate rotations in Cartesian x, y, z space.
Lets see what happens if we stick to Cartesian rules. If our four vector is s j and
⎡⎤
ct
⎢x⎥
s = (ct, x) = ⎢
⎣y⎦
⎥ (3.15)
z

then the Lorentz transformation will be of the form

s j = Λ jk sk (3.16)

where (3.16) is the shorthand for the tensor operation s = Λ · s, and the spacetime
coordinate rotation matrix is
⎡ ⎤
γ − vc γ 0 0
⎢−vγ γ 0 0 ⎥
Λ jk = ⎢
⎣ 0
c ⎥ (3.17)
0 1 0⎦
0 0 01

then if we work out the coordinate rotation we have

⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
γ − vc γ 0 0 ct cγ(t − xv
c2
) ct
⎢ − v
γ γ 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥ ⎢ γ(x − vt) ⎥ ⎢  ⎥
s = Λ · s = ⎢ c ⎥⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ x ⎥ (3.18)
⎣ 0 0 1 0⎦⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣y ⎦
0 0 01 z z z

so this Cartesian operation (3.18) just gives the Lorentz transformation of (x, y, z, ct)
as required.

2 This is known as a spacelike interval, if s is imaginary then it describes a timelike interval, that is,
an object travelling faster than c.
42 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

There is a problem however. Lets calculate the length of our Cartesian four vector:
⎡ ⎤
ct
⎢x⎥
s · s ≡ s j s j = [ct, x, y, z] ⎢ ⎥
⎣ y ⎦ = x + y + z + c t = s
2 2 2 2 2 2
(3.19)
z

so we have a problem! The Cartesian system isn’t consistent when we try to extend
our coordinate system from three space dimensions to four spacetime dimensions.
The solution is to generalize the coordinate system, and we will do this in Sect. 3.4.
First, we will look at a simple example to illustrate just why we need generalized
coordinates and four vectors in a complete description of electromagnetism.

3.2 The Moving Charge and Wire Experiment

The following “thought experiment” is a neat way to understand the consequences of

special relativity in electromagnetism. An infinitely long wire is oriented along the
direction of motion of the observer (the x̂ direction); a section of the wire is sketched
in Fig. 3.3. In the S1 frame the observer is at rest and the current in the wire is carried
by the electrons moving to the right with velocity u x̂. In the S2 frame the observer
moves to the right with velocity u x̂, now the electrons in the wire are at rest and the
current is carried by the protons moving to the left at −u x̂. We can find out what
happens to the electromagnetic fields in both frames by releasing a test charge q
located outside of the wire (q doesn’t contribute to the fields). The test charge starts
at rest in the S2 frame, so that in the S1 frame it starts by moving to the right with
velocity u x̂.
Now here is the dilemma: if in the S1 frame, we have zero charge density in the
wire (ρ1 = 0) then the only force acting on the test charge is due to the magnetic
field, i.e.,
F1 = qu ∧ B1 (3.20)

and E1 = 0. This will cause the charge to move transverse to the wire in the y, z
plane, that is, transverse to the x̂ direction of the frame transformation velocity. In
the S2 frame, the test charge is initially at rest, so there can be no v ∧ B force. But
any motion of the charge in y or z, that is, transverse to the direction of the frame
transformation velocity, will appear to be exactly the same in both frames from the
Lorentz frame transformation (3.11). So what causes the force in the S2 frame?
To resolve this, we need to calculate the electric and magnetic fields in the two
frames. We only know the total charge density in S1 . To calculate it in S2 we will
assume that charge is invariant under Lorentz transformation, that is, that charges
are not created or destroyed by moving from one inertial frame to the other. Then
all we need to do to find the charge density is to consider a bunch of charge Q and
find the volume that it occupies in the two frames. Lets assume that the charge Q
occupies a box with sides of lengths Δx, Δy, and Δz in a frame where it is at rest
w.r.t. the observer.
3.2 The Moving Charge and Wire Experiment 43

Fig. 3.3 In frame S1 the q

current in the wire is carried u
S
by the electrons, the test 1
charge q moves at u. In +
v=0
frame S2 the current is J1
carried by the protons, the
test charge q is at rest -
v=u
z

y
x
q
S2

J +
v=-u
2

-
v=0
u

The observer measures a charge density:

Q
ρ= (3.21)
ΔxΔyΔz

If the observer now moves in the x̂ direction w.r.t. the charge, distances will Lorentz
contract in the x direction from (3.10) and the observer will measure a charge density
Q Q
ρ = =γ = γρ (3.22)
Δx  ΔyΔz ΔxΔyΔz

If charges carry a current, then the corresponding charge density is always larger
than if the charges are at rest3 from (3.22). In our moving wire experiment
ρ+
2 = γρ1
+

− ρ− (3.23)
ρ2 = γ1

then the total charge density in the two frames is

ρ1 = ρ+ −
1 + ρ1 = 0
1
ρ2 = ρ+ − +
2 + ρ2 = ρ1 γ−
γ (3.24)
2
u
= ρ+
1γ = 0
c2

3 In everyday experience this effect is small, the electrons in a copper wire of 1 mm2
cross sectional
area carrying 1 A have an average drift speed of ∼10−4 ms−1 which is why household wiring
doesn’t charge up.
44 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

A
J v B B

r u
dl
u B
v

Fig. 3.4 The (dashed) loop over which we integrate B · dl is a circle of radius r centred on the
wire, with r̂ transverse to the direction of motion û. Also shown is the direction of u ∧ B

so the uncharged wire in frame S1 is charged up in frame S2 . As a consequence

there will be a (radial) electric field in S2 and this will provide the force on the test
charge q
F1 = qu ∧ B1
(3.25)
F2 = qE2

Let’s calculate the forces in the two frames by using Maxwell’s equations to calculate
the fields.
In S1 the force is due to the magnetic field which can be obtained from the integral
form of (1.42); we perform a line integral around the curve C enclosing the wire as
shown in Fig. 3.4. Then since
 
B · dl = μ0 J · dS = μ0 I (3.26)
C

and the curve C is a circle of radius r centred on the middle of the wire, then
(using (1.19) to determine that B is directed along dl; and from the geometry B =
B(r ) and has the same magnitude on all points on C)

B · dl = 2πr B (3.27)
C

Since the current I is carried by the electrons moving at speed u through the wire
which has cross section A, I = ρ−1 Au. The “u ∧ B” force (3.25) in frame 1 then has
magnitude
qρ− A u 2
F1 = 1 (3.28)
2π0 r c2

which acts to repel the test charge as shown in Fig. 3.4.

3.2 The Moving Charge and Wire Experiment 45

Fig. 3.5 The (dashed)

surface over which we
integrate E · dS is a cylinder
of radius r centred on the
wire, with r̂ transverse to the
direction of motion û
A

r
S
dl

In S2 the force is due to the electric field which we calculate from the integral form
of (1.16); we perform a surface integral over the closed cylindrical surface shown in
Fig. 3.5   
ρ2 dQ
E · dS = ∇ · Ed V = dV = (3.29)
S V V 0 0

From (1.35) E is directed radially out from the wire so there is no contribution to the
surface integral from the ends of the cylinder. From the geometry E = E(r ) so that

E · dS = 2πr Edl (3.30)
S

and excluding the test charge, the charge enclosed in the cylinder d Q = ρ2 Adl. The
force due to the electric field in frame S2 then has magnitude

qρ2 A qρ+ A u 2
F2 = = 1 γ (3.31)
2π0 r 2π0 r c2

where we have used (3.24), this again acts in the +r̂ direction to repel the test charge.
Comparing (3.28) and (3.31) we find that the forces acts in the same (r̂) direction in
both frames but the magnitude differs by a factor of γ

F2 = γ F1 (3.32)

Now recall that any motion transverse to the direction of motion u must be the same
in both frames. What is happening here? Lets look at the equation of motion of the
test charge.
46 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

During the first (infinitesimally small) time interval Δt after it is released from rest
it will gain transverse momentum
Δp = F1 Δt1 (3.33)

if observed in frame S1 . But in S1 the test charge is moving, and so the time interval
will be dilated w.r.t. frame S2
Δt1 = γΔt2 (3.34)

then
F1 Δt1 = F1 γΔt2 = F2 Δt2 (3.35)

so that the change in transverse momentum Δp = FΔt in any frame, and the trans-
verse motion will be frame independent, as we would expect.
Special relativity implies that length, time, force etc. change as we Lorentz trans-
form from one frame to another. This example has shown how the electromagnetic
fields, current and charge densities are also not invariant under Lorentz transforma-
tion. We have anticipated that space and time must form a single coordinate system,
space-time, and in this coordinate system, the (3) space coordinates and (1) time
coordinate of a point combine to form a single four-vector which has length that is
invariant under Lorentz transformation. In the same way, current and charge den-
sity are in themselves not invariant, but can be combined to form a four vector that
has invariant length. This leads to a frame invariant electromagnetism that we will
introduce next.

3.3 Maxwell in Terms of Potentials

Working with E and B directly needs rank 2 tensors to represent the fields. A frame
invariant electromagnetism can be written down in terms of rank 1 tensors (four
vectors) if we instead work in terms of the scalar and vector potentials φ, A, we’ll do
that first in this section. In Chap. 1 we found that the fields could be written in terms
of potentials
B=∇ ∧A (3.36)

∂A
E = −∇φ − (3.37)
∂t
which we showed always satisfy the homogenous Maxwell equations II (1.19) and III
(1.35), that is, the Maxwell equations which do not refer to the currents or charges.
It is easy to see that the potentials are not unique: since ∇ ∧ ∇ψ is zero for any ψ
we can add any ∇ψ to A where ψ is a scalar function and still satisfy (3.36). This
will then give new potentials
A = A + ∇ψ
(3.38)
φ = φ + ∂ψ∂t

which also satisfy (3.37). The operation (3.38) is a gauge transformation.

3.3 Maxwell in Terms of Potentials 47

In principle any arbitrary gauge can be used. Let’s look at what happens to the other
two inhomogenous Maxwell equations I (1.16) and IV (1.42) (which contain refer-
ence to currents and charges) when we write them in terms of A and φ. Using (3.37)
to substitute for E in Maxwell I gives
∂ ρ
− ∇2φ − ∇ ·A= (3.39)
∂t 0

and using (3.37) and (3.36) to substitute for E and B in Maxwell IV gives
 
1 ∂ ∂2A
− ∇ A + ∇(∇ · A) + 2
2
∇φ + 2 = μ0 J (3.40)
c ∂t ∂t

We can now choose a gauge that reveals a nice symmetry in (3.39) and (3.40). This
is the Lorentz gauge4
1 ∂φ
∇ ·A=− 2 (3.41)
c ∂t
and substituting (3.41) into (3.39) and (3.40) gives
∇ 2 φ − c12 ∂∂tφ2 = − ρ0
2

(3.42)
∇ 2 A − c12 ∂∂tA2 = −μ0 J
2

in free space (ρ = 0, J = 0) Eq. 3.42 are simply wave equations for A and φ and
predict electromagnetic waves with speed c. They contain the same information as
the Maxwell equations, all we need is to put (3.42) and the Lorentz gauge (3.41)
in Lorentz invariant form and we will have a description of electromagnetism that
incorporates special relativity.

3.4 Generalized Coordinates

From Eq. 3.19 we found that space-time is not Cartesian. We need a generalized
coordinate system that has the following properties:
1. The space-time interval
s 2 = c2 t 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 (3.43)

is invariant under Lorentz transformation.

4 Inelectrostatics this reduces to the Coulomb gauge ∇ · A = 0 which gives Poisson equations for
both φ and A
ρ
−∇ 2 φ =
0
and
−∇ 2 A = μ0 J.
48 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

2. The space-time interval is just the length of the four vector:

s2 = s · s (3.44)

3. The Lorentz transformation corresponds to a rotation of the four vector s in space-

time.
The system that we devise will work for any four tensor (four vectors being the
special case of four tensors of rank 1).
We will start by defining two “versions” of our four vector5 and for the vector s
these look like:
Covariant: ⎡ ⎤
ct
⎢ −x ⎥
xα = (ct, −x) = ⎢
⎣ −y ⎦
⎥ (3.47)
−z

and Contravariant: ⎤ ⎡
ct
⎢x⎥
x α = (ct, +x) = ⎢
⎣y⎦
⎥ (3.48)
z

Covariant rank 1 tensors (vectors) such as (3.47) always have a single “down” index
(subscript) and contravariant vectors such as (3.48) always have an “up” index (super-
script). Rank 2 or more tensors can be covariant (all indices down), contravariant (all
indices up) or mixed (indices up and down). We are also going to use the summation
convention introduced for Cartesian tensors (2.24).

5In general if we have a well defined transformation that gives x α = x α (x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) a covariant

vector transforms as:

∂x 0 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂x β
aα = α
a0 + α
a1 α a2 α a3 = aβ (3.45)
∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x ∂x α
and a contravariant vector transforms as
∂x α β
a α = a (3.46)
∂x β
See the appendix on tensors for details.
3.4 Generalized Coordinates 49

Now, if we simply define the scalar (dot, or inner) product of two four vectors as the
product of a covariant and a contravariant vector, then the length of the spacetime
interval s 2 is
⎡ ⎤
ct
⎢x⎥
s = xα x = x · x = x̃ x = [ct, −x, −y, −z] ⎣ ⎥
2 α ⎢ = (ct)2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2
y⎦
z
(3.49)
as required. Then we just need to know how to turn a covariant tensor into a contravari-
ant one, and vice versa, and from inspection of (3.47) and (3.48) we simply need an
operation that changes all the signs on the spacelike components x 1,3 = x, y, z, whilst
leaving the timelike component x 0 = ct unchanged. We can use the same operation
as (3.49), that is, a dot or inner product or contraction over a pair of contravariant
indices, this time between a rank 1 tensor (vector) and a rank 2 tensor

xα = gαβ x β (3.50)

and
x α = g αβ xβ (3.51)

where ⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 −1 0 0 ⎥
gαβ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦ = g
αβ
(3.52)
0 0 0 −1

g αβ is known as the metric of the spacetime. The spacetime interval is then written
as
s 2 = xα g αβ xβ = gαβ x α x β (3.53)

which in matrix notation is

s 2 = (x, gx) = (gx, x) = x̃gx (3.54)

The spacetime metric (3.52) is defined by the form of the spacetime interval s 2 ,
via (3.53). This particular metric then is just what is needed to embody the flat
spacetime of special relativity, in which the length of a spacetime interval (the length
of s) has the same constant value anywhere in spacetime, i.e., spacetime itself is
uniform. The formalism that we are developing here can just as easily be applied
where spacetime is nonuniform or curved by gravity. The metric for curved spacetime
embodies general relativity.
The dot product operation that we defined to obtain the desired behaviour for s 2
has to be the same as the dot product between two four tensors generally. For two
50 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

four tensors of any rank and index (i.e., covariant, contravariant, or a mixture of the
two), the dot or inner product will be
... ...α
a · b = a...α b... (3.55)
that is, a contraction over the index α. Contraction with gαβ or g αβ changes a index
from contravariant to covariant (up to down) or vice versa (down to up). It works like
this:
Contravariant to covariant (up to down):
... ...β
a...α = gαβ a... (3.56)
and covariant to contravariant (down to up):
...α
a... = g αβ a...β
...
(3.57)
Now we can write down the Lorentz transformation -rotation matrix as a 4- tensor.
A rotation of four vector s will be a operation of the form

xα = Λαβ x β (3.58)
on the contravariant form and

x α = Λαβ xβ (3.59)

on the covariant form. The contractions (3.58) and (3.59) change a contravariant four
vector into a covariant one and vice versa. The rotation matrix6 is (almost) the same
as that discussed in Cartesian formalism and is
⎡ ⎤
γ − vc γ 0 0
⎢ + v γ −γ 0 0 ⎥
Λαβ = ⎢ ⎣
c ⎥ (3.60)
0 0 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 0 −1

where Λαβ is the transpose of Λαβ . The rotation of coordinates in spacetime written
out in full is
⎡  ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
ct γ − vc γ 0 0 ct
⎢ −x ⎥ ⎢ + v γ −γ 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ x ⎥


xα = Λαβ x = ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ c ⎥⎢ ⎥

β
⎣ −y  ⎦ = ⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦ ⎣ y ⎦

−z 0 0 0 −1 z
⎡ vx
⎤ (3.61)
cγ(t − c2 )
⎢ −γ(x − vt) ⎥
=⎢⎣
⎥
⎦
−y
−z

which just give the Lorentz transformation (3.11) as required (the inverse transfor-
mation matrix is then just obtained by putting v → −v in (3.60)).

6 This is a member of the Lorentz Group of transformations, see e.g., Classical Electrodynamics 2nd

Ed., J. D. Jackson, (Wiley 1975) for details.

3.5 Four Vectors and Four Vector Calculus 51

3.5 Four Vectors and Four Vector Calculus

The rules of flat spacetime were defined from the Lorentz transformation of the four
vector xα but will apply to any four vector. If we can write the laws of mechanics and
electromagnetism in four vector form, then we will have a description of mechan-
ics and electromagnetism that is Lorentz invariant (i.e., manifestly covariant). The
required four vectors will always have the same length in spacetime in all frames,
and will Lorentz transform simply by coordinate rotation in spacetime.

3.5.1 Some Mechanics, Newton’s Laws

As we have shown, length and time form the four-vector

⎡⎤
ct
⎢ −x ⎥
xα = ⎢
⎣ −y ⎦
⎥ (3.62)
−z

Another example is the energy-momentum four vector

⎡ ε
⎤
⎢ − px ⎥  ε 
c

pα = ⎢ ⎥=
⎣ − py ⎦ , −p (3.63)
c
− pz

The length of pα should be constant. In full it is

⎡ ε
⎤
ε  ⎢ ⎥ ε2
c
px
pα p α = , − p x , − p y , − pz ⎢ ⎥
⎣ p y ⎦ = c2 − p
2
(3.64)
c
pz

Now recall some expressions from special relativity

ε2 = p 2 c2 + m 20 c4 (3.65)

The energy-momentum four vector then has length

pα p α = m 20 c2 (3.66)

This just gives the rest energy of a particle ( pα p α /m 0 ); if we can find a frame where
the particle is at rest (i.e., it is an electron, proton but not a photon) then since the
52 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

length of pα is Lorentz invariant, its length in all frames must be just that found in
the rest frame. If the particle is at rest the spacelike components of pα are zero and
the timelike component is p0 = εc = m 0 c.
Now from special relativity the relativistic mass m = γm 0 of a moving particle is
larger than the rest mass m 0 , so we have in the moving frame, the timelike component
given by
p 0 c = ε = mc2 = γm 0 c2 (3.67)

and the spacelike components p 1,3 are given by

p = mu = γm 0 u (3.68)

We can write these as a single equation in terms of four vectors

pα = m 0 u α (3.69)

where we have introduced another four vector, the four velocity

⎡ ⎤
cγ
pα ⎢ γu x ⎥
uα = =⎢ ⎥
⎣ γu y ⎦ (3.70)
m0
γu z

The four velocity u α must transform in the same way as the energy-momentum four
vector as we have simply divided by m 0 which is invariant under Lorentz transfor-
mation. The expression (3.69) is manifestly covariant, that is, under Lorentz trans-
formation it will retain the same form and the component four vectors will Lorentz
transform, with invariant lengths.
What about Newton’s laws? In a nonrelativistic world, frame transformations are
Galilean and correspond to rotations of Cartesian position vector x in x, y, z plus
translations x = x + ut, where u is the constant velocity between the unprimed and
the primed frames. The nonrelativistic (Newton) laws of motion are:
1. An object is at rest or moves in a straight line at constant velocity unless subject
to some force.
2. Momentum is conserved (“for every action there is an equal and opposite reac-
tion”) under Galilean transformation.
3. The equations of motion F = dp dt
and u = dx dt
are invariant under Galilean trans-
formation.
From (1) and (2) there will be a preferred rest frame in the sense that x = (x, y, z)
is constant and the total p = ( px , p y , pz ) = 0.
The four vectors we have already written down for xα and pα will allow us to
rewrite laws (1) and (2). We just need to look at differentiation w.r.t. time in (3)
before we can rewrite all of Newton’s laws.
3.5 Four Vectors and Four Vector Calculus 53

Intuitively, we might expect that since time is dilated in the moving frame (3.4),
an invariant interval to replace dt in the derivative would be the proper time dt/γ.
We can formalize this by considering the coordinates of two particles that are moving
apart at constant velocity in spacetime. At time t, the particles are both at the same
position (x, y, z) and have spacetime coordinates (ct, x, y, z). As the particles move
apart at constant velocity u = (u x , u y , u z ), at time t + Δt, they will be separated by
a distance
Δx = u x Δt
Δy = u y Δt (3.71)
Δz = u z Δt

the spacetime interval between the two particles is then

Δs 2 = c2 Δt 2 − Δx 2 − Δy 2 − Δz 2
(3.72)
= (c2 − u 2 )Δt 2

so that an invariant interval is

Δs Δt
= (3.73)
c γ

The time derivative in Newton’s laws is then to be replaced by the invariant spacetime
derivative
d d
=γ (3.74)
ds dt
The spacetime derivative of (four) position in spacetime is then
⎡
⎤ ⎡ ⎤
ct cγ
dxα d ⎢ x ⎥ ⎢ γ dx ⎥
=γ ⎢ ⎥ = ⎢ dy
dt ⎥ = uα (3.75)
ds dt ⎣ y ⎦ ⎣ γ dt ⎦
z γ dz
dt

i.e., the four- velocity as we would expect.

Newton’s laws of motion then become:
1. The spacetime interval x α = (ct, x, y, z) has constant length under Lorentz trans-
formation.
2. The energy-momentum four-vector p α = ( εc , px , p y , pz ) has constant length
under Lorentz transformation. α α
3. The equations of motion f α = dp ds
and u α = ddsx are invariant under Lorentz
transformation.
Then f α , the “four-force”, must also be a four vector; in Chap. 4 we will find the four
vector force on a charged particle in an electromagnetic field, that is, the covariant
version of the Lorentz force law.
54 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

3.5.2 Some Four Vector Calculus

Since we know how to define intervals in space-time we can do some calculus in

terms of four vectors.
First let’s consider the four gradient of some scalar field φ(ct, x, y, z) = φ(x α )
defined in spacetime. The scalar field itself is an invariant, the coordinates transform
as the components of a four vector should. Since we have defined φ as a function of
contravariant position in spacetime x α we can use chain rule to obtain the change in
scalar field dφ on some spacetime interval ds given the contravariant coordinates of
the interval d x α

∂φ ∂φ ∂φ ∂φ dφ
dφ = dt + dx + dy + dz = ds (3.76)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z ds

The quantity dφ is also invariant, so the r.h.s. of (3.76) must simply be in the form
of the dot product of two four vectors
dφ = ∂α (φ)d x α (3.77)

This means that the covariant four gradient is

⎡1 ∂ ⎤
c ∂t
⎢ ∂ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ 1 ∂
∂α = ⎢
⎢
∂x
∂
⎥=
⎥ ,∇ (3.78)
⎣ ∂y ⎦ c ∂t
∂
∂z

which is almost what we would expect, except that the spacelike part is positive.
We could have instead written the scalar field as a function of covariant position xα ,
i.e., φ = φ(ct, −x, −y, −z); the invariant interval would then need to be written as
a four vector dot product
dφ = ∂ α (φ)d xα (3.79)

so to generate (3.76) from (3.79) we need a contravariant four gradient

⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
c ∂t
⎢ ∂ ⎥
⎢ − ∂x ⎥ 1 ∂
α
∂ = ⎢ ⎥= , −∇ (3.80)
⎢− ∂ ⎥ c ∂t
⎣ ∂y ⎦
∂
− ∂z

which again has spacelike components with opposite signs than we would expect.
3.5 Four Vectors and Four Vector Calculus 55

As a consistency check, if covariant ∂α is a four vector then the contravariant ∂ α

should also be defined via the spacetime metric
⎡ 1 ∂ ⎤
c ∂t
⎢ ∂ ⎥
⎢ − ∂x ⎥ 1 ∂
∂ α = g αβ ∂β = ⎢ ⎥= , −∇ (3.81)
⎢− ∂ ⎥ c ∂t
⎣ ∂y ⎦
∂
− ∂z

Having found the “four gradient” operator of a scalar field we can define “four
divergence” of a four vector field (and more generally, a four tensor). We would
expect a “four-divergence” of a four vector to be of the form of a dot product

1 ∂ 0
∂α a α = ∂ α a α = a +∇ ·a (3.82)
c ∂t
(where a is the spacelike part of four vector field a α ).
Finally, the length of the four vector ∂ α is the “four ∇ 2 ” D’Alembertian:

1 ∂2
∂α ∂ α = − ∇2 =  (3.83)
c2 ∂t 2
We will derive “four curl” later in Chap. 4 when it is needed. First, we can use the
four divergence and four ∇ 2 to develop a frame invariant electromagnetism in terms
of scalar and vector potentials.

3.6 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

3.6.1 Charge Conservation

Charge conservation was introduced in Chap. 1 to obtain (1.42) and so is “built in”
to Maxwell’s equations. This is expressed by

∂ρ
∇ ·J+ =0 (3.84)
∂t
which was derived in (1.3.2) by assuming that charge is conserved. If we now insist
that charge is Lorentz invariant, i.e., it is the same in all frames, we should have a man-
ifestly covariant form of (3.84). Equation (3.84) has the form of the four divergence
of some four vector
∂α J α = 0 (3.85)
56 3 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism

and by inspection, knowing ∂α we have the four current

⎡ ⎤
cρ
⎢ Jx ⎥
J α = (cp, J) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Jy ⎦ (3.86)
Jz

The length of J α is invariant under Lorentz transformation so that its components,

the charge and current density are not, as we found when we considered the moving
charge and wire experiment in Sect. 3.2.

3.6.2 A Manifestly Covariant Electromagnetism

We can finally write down the laws of electromagnetism in four vector form, if we do
so in terms of the scalar and vector potentials for the electromagnetic fields. Recall
from Sect. 3.3 that the Maxwell equations can be written in terms of scalar potential
φ and vector potential A, and take on (what we will see is a very useful) symmetry
if we also choose the Lorentz gauge

1 ∂
∇ ·A+ φ=0 (3.87)
c2 ∂t
from Maxwell. This has the same form as the charge conservation equation so again
we can write
∂α A α = 0 (3.88)

where the new four vector is the four vector potential

⎡ φ
⎤
c
φ ⎢ ⎥ Ax
Aα = ,A = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ Ay ⎦ (3.89)
c
Az

To obtain a manifestly covariant form of the Maxwell equations, let’s examine the
two inhomogenous Maxwell equations written in terms of A and φ using the Lorentz
gauge (3.42). The equation in terms of φ (originally Maxwell I (1.16)) has been
divided by c to give
φ 1 ∂2 φ ρ
− ∇2 + 2 2 = = cρμ0 (3.90)
c c ∂t c 0 c

and the l.h.s. of this looks like the “four ∇ 2 ” of the timelike part of Aα .
3.6 A Frame Invariant Electromagnetism 57

The equation in terms of A (originally Maxwell IV (1.42)) is:

1 ∂
− ∇2A + A = μ0 J (3.91)
c2 ∂t

and the l.h.s. of this looks like the “four ∇ 2 ” of the spacelike part of Aα . Together
they are a single 4 vector equation

φ
 , A = μ0 (cρ, J) (3.92)
c
or
Aα = μ0 J α (3.93)

which is our equation for electromagnetism in manifestly covariant form. Since the
invariance of charge implies that J α is a four vector from (3.85), (3.93) shows that
Aα must also be a four vector. So, to Lorentz transform the electromagnetic fields,
all we need to do is write the fields in terms of A and φ, transform (i.e., rotate the
four vectors in spacetime) Aα and J α , then work out the electromagnetic fields again
from the new A and φ using (3.36) and (3.37). In the next chapter we will find the
electromagnetic field tensors that lead to a direct transformation of the fields. For
the moment, we have already shown that Maxwell’s equations are consistent with
special relativity. The Maxwell equations can be written in terms of four vectors. In
free space J α = 0 and we are left with the free space wave equations for A and φ in
manifestly covariant form:
Aα = 0 (3.94)

which predicts light waves moving at speed c, and holds in all frames of reference.
Chapter 4
The Field Tensors

In Chap. 3 we developed a formalism in which Maxwell’s equations and the electro-

magnetic fields, as embodied in the scalar and vector potential description, could be
written in manifestly covariant form, that is, in terms of four vectors which Lorentz
transform by a coordinate rotation in spacetime. We now wish to write the Maxwell
equations, the Lorentz force law, and the equations of conservation of field energy
and momentum, explicitly in terms of the fields E and B. This will require us to
develop four tensors of rank 2 (as opposed to the rank 1 four tensors, or four vectors,
of Chap. 3). The generalization of 3 coordinate Cartesian space into 4 coordinate
spacetime will still apply. The Maxwell equations in the form that we have seen
in Chap. 1 have an asymmetry which we will be able to explore more fully in the
framework of spacetime; to gain a glimpse of what the universe might look like if
monopoles exist. Finally, we can obtain a general solution to the Maxwell equations.

4.1 Invariant Form for E and B: The EM Field Tensor

Let’s begin by trying to write down an invariant form for E and B. In Cartesian space
we have already defined B in terms of a vector field

B=∇ ∧A (4.1)

Now in spacetime, the vector potential A and the scalar potential φ has been replaced
with the four vector
 
α φ
A = , A x , A y , A z = (A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 ) (4.2)
c

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 59

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1_4
60 4 The Field Tensors

so we should be able to use the four grad (here in contravariant form):

 
α 1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂ = ,− ,− ,− = (∂ 0 , ∂ 1 , ∂ 2 , ∂ 3 ) (4.3)
c ∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z

to construct a “four-curl” of Aα .
Writing out the components of ∇ ∧ A gives

∂ Az ∂ Ay
Bx = ∂y
− ∂z
= −(∂ 2 A3 − ∂ 3 A2 ) = −F 23
B y = − ∂∂xAz + ∂ Ax
∂z
= ∂ 1 A3 − ∂ 3 A1 = +F 13 (4.4)
∂ Ay ∂ Ax
Bz = ∂x
− ∂y
= −(∂ 1 A2 − ∂ 2 A1 ) = −F 12

We can arrange the components of ∇ ∧ A to look like combinations of the compo-

nents of the four vectors if we use terms such as ∂ 2 A3 . From our notation these are
not a contraction over an index as in the case of “four div” which had terms such
as ∂2 A2 , instead, they look like components of a four tensor of rank 2. All the three
components of (4.4) have the same pattern, that is, they look like they are part of a
single rank 2 tensor F αβ . We might guess that more terms of F αβ originate in the
electric field, since it too is represented by components of Aα

∂A
E = −∇φ − (4.5)
∂t
Writing this in component form gives

E x = − ∂φ
∂x
− ∂ Ax
∂t
= −c(∂ 0 A1 − ∂ 1 A0 ) = −F 01 c
∂ Ay
E y = − ∂φ
∂y
− ∂t
= −c(∂ 0 A2 − ∂ 2 A0 ) = −F 02 c (4.6)
∂ Az
Ez = − ∂φ
∂z
− ∂t
= −c(∂ A − ∂ A ) = −F c
0 3 3 0 03

So, the three components of B in (4.4) and the three components of E in (4.6) give
six terms of a rank 2 tensor

F αβ = ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα (4.7)

The other terms of the 4 × 4 “four-tensor F αβ can be obtained from inspection

of (4.7). The on axis terms are when α = β

F αα = ∂ α Aα − ∂ α Aα = 0 (4.8)

that is, all four are zero (α = 0, 1, 2, 3).

4.1 Invariant Form for E and B: The EM Field Tensor 61

The off axis terms are when α = β, and are for example when α = 0, β = 1

F 01 = ∂ 0 A1 − ∂ 1 A0 = −(∂ 1 A0 − ∂ 0 A1 ) = −F 10 (4.9)

so that F αβ is antisymmetric: F αβ = −F βα . The 4 × 4 = 16 terms in F αβ is com-

prised of the four on axis terms which are zero, plus the six different terms from the
3E (4.6) and 3B (4.4) components, each used twice
⎡ Ey ⎤
0 − Ecx − c
− Ecz
⎢ ⎥
⎢ Ex
0 −Bz B y ⎥
αβ ⎢ c ⎥
F =⎢ ⎥ (4.10)
⎢ Ey
Bz 0 −Bx ⎥
⎣ c ⎦
Ez
c
−B y Bx 0

This is the electromagnetic field tensor F αβ which has “packaged” E and B in terms
of four vectors from (4.7). This means that we can use F αβ to describe laws of physics
directly in terms of E and B in a form that is “manifestly covariant”, that is, invariant
in form under Lorentz transformation. We will in the next section write down the
Maxwell equations in manifestly covariant form directly, instead of in terms of the
scalar and vector potentials (the four vector Aα ) as in the previous chapter.
What if we had used the covariant four vectors to form a “four curl” of A? The
starting point would have been
 
φ
Aα = , −A x , −A y , −A z = (A0 , A1 , A2 , A3 ) (4.11)
c

and  
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂α = , , , = (∂0 , ∂1 , ∂2 , ∂3 ) (4.12)
c ∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z

then ∇ ∧ A would look like:

∂ Az ∂ Ay
Bx = − = −∂2 A3 + ∂3 A2 = −(∂2 A3 − ∂3 A2 ) = −F23 (4.13)
∂y ∂z

so Bx = −F23 = −F 23 , and similarly for B y = F13 = F 13 , Bz = −F12 = −F 12 , so

the form is not unlike the contravariant case (4.4).
For the E field, we now have

∂φ ∂ A x
Ex = − − = −c∂1 A0 + c∂0 A1 = c(∂0 A1 − ∂1 A0 ) = F01 c (4.14)
∂x ∂t

and E x /c = F01 = −F 01 , that is, it has the opposite sign to the contravariant
case (4.6), and similarly for E y and E z .
62 4 The Field Tensors

We can then write

Fαβ = ∂α Aβ − ∂β Aα (4.15)

with the covariant form of the electromagnetic field tensor:

⎡ Ex Ey Ez
⎤
0 c c c
⎢ Ex ⎥
⎢ − c 0 −Bz B y ⎥
Fαβ = ⎢
⎢ Ey
⎥
⎥ (4.16)
⎣ − c Bz 0 −Bx ⎦
− Ecz −B y Bx 0

To get from the covariant to the contravariant forms of the electromagnetic field tensor
we just need to use the spacetime metric gαγ to change the signs on the timelike part
of the tensor, that is, the F 0α and F α0 terms (in this case, the “E” terms)

Fαβ = gαγ F γδ gδβ (4.17)

which is equivalent to E → −E, B → B. Finally, if F αβ is manifestly covariant

we would expect it to have constant “length”, this just turns out to be zero for
electromagnetic waves in free space (see advanced problem 6).
The usefulness of F αβ will now become clear as we use it to write down manifestly
covariant forms of the Maxwell equations.

4.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Invariant Form

We know that Maxwell’s equations involve the ∇· and ∇∧ of E and B, so let’s begin
by taking the “4 div” of F αβ .
⎡ Ex Ey Ez
⎤
0 c c c
⎢ ⎥
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ ⎢ Ex
0 −Bz B y ⎥
∂α F αβ = , , , ⎢ c ⎥
c ∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z ⎢ Ey ⎥
⎣ c
Bz 0 −Bx ⎦
Ez
c
−B y Bx 0
⎡ ⎤ (4.18)
∇·E
c
⎢ (∇ ∧ B)x − 1 ∂ Ex ⎥
⎢ c2 ∂t ⎥
=⎢ ∂ Ey ⎥
⎣ (∇ ∧ B) y − 1
c2 ∂t ⎦
∂ Ez
(∇ ∧ B)z − 1
c2 ∂t

i.e a single four vector containing the (slightly rearranged) left hand side of the
Maxwell inhomogeneous equations with timelike component giving

∇ ·E
= μ0 cρ (4.19)
c
4.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Invariant Form 63

and with spacelike components giving

1 ∂E
∇ ∧B− = μ0 J (4.20)
c2 ∂t
The r.h.s. of (4.19) and (4.20) taken together look like (μ0 times) the four-current

J α = (cρ, J) (4.21)

so the inhomogeneous Maxwell equations are just the single equation

∂α F αβ = μ0 J β (4.22)

We would like to use the same trick to get the homogenous Maxwell equations in
manifestly covariant form. In this case, the “four div” of some tensor must yield a
single four vector, this time with timelike component

∇ ·B=0 (4.23)

and spacelike components

∂B
∇ ∧E+ =0 (4.24)
∂t

so we need some transformation that swaps the position of the E and B terms in F αβ so
that the timelike components involve B and the spacelike components involve E. This
is known as the duality transformation and is E → Bc2 and B → −E; performing
the transformation on F αβ gives the Dual field tensor
⎡ ⎤
0 −Bx c −B y c −Bz c
⎢ Bx c 0 E z −E y ⎥
F̃ αβ =⎢
⎣ B y c −E z
⎥ (4.25)
0 Ex ⎦
Bz c E y −E x 0

The “four div” of F̃ αβ then yields the required homogenous Maxwell equations:
⎡ ⎤
c∇ · B
⎢ −(∇ ∧ E)x − ∂ Bx ⎥
⎢ ∂t ⎥
∂α F̃ αβ =⎢ ∂ By ⎥ (4.26)
⎣ −(∇ ∧ E) y − ∂t ⎦
∂ Bz
−(∇ ∧ E)z − ∂t

so that the homogenous Maxwell equations are

∂α F̃ αβ = 0 (4.27)
64 4 The Field Tensors

But what is the significance of F̃ αβ ? First, we need to relate it directly to F αβ to

demonstrate that just like F αβ , F̃ αβ is indeed a “four tensor” and Lorentz transforms
in the same way. This is done via the “four alternating tensor” (the 4 ×4 × 4 version
of the Cartesian 3 × 3 alternating tensor that we first met in Sect. 2.1.3):

c2
F̃ αβ = αβγδ
Fγδ (4.28)
2
Second, the dual tensor has an interesting physical significance. If we apply the
duality transformation to Maxwell’s equations we have:

Maxwell equations Dual equations

ρ
∇ ·E= 0
∇ · B = μ0 ρ
∇ ·B=0 ∇ ·E=0 (4.29)
∇ ∧ E = − ∂B
∂t
c2 ∇ ∧ B = ∂E
∂t
1 ∂E ∂B
∇ ∧ B = μ0 J + c2 ∂t
∇ ∧ E = −μ0 J − ∂t

The Dual Maxwell Eq. (4.29) describe a world in which we would identify ρ as
magnetic charge and J as magnetic current. In this dual world, E is nonconservative,
that is, since ∇ · E = 0 lines of E must close. In static situations B will be conservative
as ∇ ∧ B = 0 if E does not vary with time.
Two properties of the Maxwell equations implied that they must embody Lorentz
invariance if only we could write them in an invariant form. Both charge and the
speed of light waves in free space c are invariant under Lorentz transformation. If we
put ρ = 0 and J = 0 in (4.29) then the Maxwell and Dual equations are identical, i.e.,
they will both predict light waves moving at invariant speed c in free space. Charge
conservation is implicit in Maxwell IV, we can look at of conservation of magnetic
charge using the dual equations. The Dual IV equation is

∂B
∇ ∧ E = −μ0 J − (4.30)
∂t
Taking the divergence of (4.30) gives

∂
∇ · (∇ ∧ E) = 0 = −μ0 ∇ · J − (∇ · B) (4.31)
∂t
which from Dual I (∇ · B = μ0 ρ) gives

∂ρ
∇ ·J+ =0 (4.32)
∂t
so (in this case magnetic) charge is again conserved, and we would from the Dual
equations be able to write charge conservation in invariant form in the same way as
in Sect. 3.6.1.
4.2 Maxwell’s Equations in Invariant Form 65

Writing the Maxwell equations in Lorentz invariant form then tells us that the exis-
tence of “electric charge” or “magnetic charge” is not excluded by special relativity.
The only reason we wrote down the original Maxwell equations with electric charge
and zero magnetic charge is that experimentally the magnetic charge is known to be
zero to very high precision. The interesting question is whether all particles have the
same ratio of electric to magnetic charge; if so, then we can always perform a duality
transformation similar to that discussed here to make the Maxwell equations appear
as if the magnetic charge is zero.

4.3 Conservation of Energy-Momentum

In Sect. 3.6.1 we found a manifestly covariant form for charge conservation. We also
found in Sect. 3.5.1 that the energy and momentum of individual particles forms a
single four vector, which will also have invariant length under Lorentz transformation.
The energy-momentum of an ensemble of particles, a mixture of charged particles and
photons, say, must also form a four vector. We might then guess that the conservation
equations for field energy, (Poynting’s theorem (2.33), and momentum (2.39) could
be combined to form an equation for the conservation of field and charged particle
energy-momentum that is manifestly covariant.
To demonstrate this we need to “package”:
Energy conservation (Poynting’s Theorem)

1 ∂U S J·E
+∇ · =− (4.33)
c ∂t c c
and
Momentum conservation
1 ∂ S
− ∇ · T = −(ρE + J ∧ B) (4.34)
c ∂t c
into one object. The r.h.s. of these equations should then form a four vector, with
timelike component (4.33) and spacelike components (4.34). The l.h.s. of the desired
expression must be the four divergence of a four tensor ∂α T αβ ; we can guess that
this is the case since it involves ∂α and must be rank 1, that is, a four vector, to match
the r.h.s.
Looking at the l.h.s. first then, since
 
1 ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
∂α = , , , (4.35)
c ∂t ∂x ∂ y ∂z
66 4 The Field Tensors

we need a 4 ×4 energy-momentum field tensor:

⎡ s1 s2 s3
⎤
U c c c
⎢ s1 −T11 −T12 −T13 ⎥
T αβ = ⎢ c
⎣ s2
⎥ (4.36)
c
−T21 −T22 −T23 ⎦
s3
c
−T31 −T32 −T33

where the Ti j are the 9 components of the 3 × 3 Cartesian Maxwell stress ten-
sor (2.47). Then ∂α T αβ will give the l.h.s. of (4.33) and (4.34).
We have to deal with the r.h.s. in terms of E and B directly, which means that
we need either the electromagnetic field tensor F αβ or its dual. We can guess which
one by inspection of the r.h.s. terms; the spacelike part needs a J ∧ B term, and we
formed ∇ ∧ B by taking the “four div” of F αβ (4.22). So if we replace the “four div”
in ∂α F αβ with a dot product with the four current Jα we have
⎡ E ⎤
0 − Ecx − cy − Ecz
⎢ Ex
0 −Bz By ⎥
Jα F αβ = (cρ, −Jx , −Jy , −Jz ) ⎢
⎣
c ⎥
−Bx ⎦
Ey
c
Bz 0
Ez
c
−B y Bx 0
⎡ ⎤ (4.37)
− 1c J · E
⎢ −(ρE + J ∧ B)x ⎥
=⎢ ⎥
⎣ −(ρE + J ∧ B) y ⎦
−(ρE + J ∧ B)z

which gives the r.h.s. as required. Our expression for energy-momentum conservation
is then
∂α T αβ = Jα F αβ (4.38)

The r.h.s of Eq. (4.38) is constructed from four tensors and ∂α is a four vector, so
the only remaining term T αβ must be a four tensor and the expression is manifestly
covariant.

4.4 Lorentz Force

We have one equation left to express in manifestly covariant form, the Lorentz force
law. In Sect. 3.5.1 the laws of mechanics were written in Lorentz invariant form
giving manifestly covariant equations of motion:
dpα
fα = ds
dxα
(4.39)
uα = ds

We now just need to find the four-force f α for a charged particle in an electromagnetic
field.
4.4 Lorentz Force 67

Since the Lorentz force contains a +v ∧ B term, we can again guess that since Jα F αβ
gives −J ∧ B terms we require something of the form
⎡ E ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
0 − Ecx − cy − Ecz cγ 1
c
γv · E
⎢ −Bz By ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎥ ⎢ −γvx ⎥ = ⎢ γ(E + v ∧ B)x ⎥ (4.40)
Ex
0
F αβ u β = ⎢
⎣
c
⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎣
Ey
c
Bz 0 −Bx −γv y γ(E + v ∧ B) y ⎦
Ez
−B y Bx 0 −γvz γ(E + v ∧ B)z
c

(we have swapped the order of the u α and the F αβ around to get + instead of − on
the components of the r.h.s. in (4.40)). The spacelike parts of (4.40) just look like
the Cartesian components of the Lorentz force

d(mv)
F= = e(E + v ∧ B) (4.41)
dt
multiplied by γ.
The timelike part of (4.40) just looks like the Cartesian particle energy equation
obtained from (4.41)
d( 1 mv 2 ) d
F·v = 2 = = ev · E (4.42)
dt dt
multiplied by γ/c. Taking (4.41) and (4.42) together (and taking care of the e), we
then have ⎡ d ⎤ ⎡ d ⎤
γ dt c ds c
⎢ dmvx ⎥ ⎢ dmvx ⎥
⎢ γ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
αβ ⎢ dt ⎥ ⎢ ds ⎥
eF u β = ⎢ dmv ⎥ = ⎢ dmv ⎥ (4.43)
⎢ γ y ⎥ ⎢ y ⎥
⎣ dt ⎦ ⎣ ds ⎦
γ dmv
dt
z dmvz
ds

that is,
dp α
eF αβ u β = (4.44)
ds
the Lorentz force law in manifestly covariant form.
We now have a complete system, the Maxwell equations, equations for conserva-
tion of charge and energy momentum, and a force law and equations of motion, all
in manifestly covariant form. The rest of this chapter will be devoted to looking at
the implications of what we have found so far.

4.4.1 Manifestly Covariant Electrodynamics

To summarize, we have:
• The inhomogenous Maxwell equations:

∂α F αβ = μ0 J β
68 4 The Field Tensors

• The homogenous Maxwell equations:

∂α F̃ αβ = 0

• Charge -current conservation:

∂α J α = 0

• Energy-momentum conservation:

∂α T αβ = Jα F αβ

• The equations of motion:

dpα
fα = ds
dxα
uα = ds

• The Lorentz force law:

dp α
eF αβ u β =
ds
• and with the Lorentz gauge:

∂α A α = 0

• we have the Maxwell equations in terms of the four vector potential:

Aα = μ0 J α

4.5 Transformation of the Fields

The electromagnetic field tensor F αβ allows us to “package” the components of E

and B in terms of four vectors as in (4.7). The Lorentz transformation of a four vector
is simply a rotation of its spacetime coordinates as defined by (3.58) and (3.59). We
can then find out how to Lorentz transform F αβ by applying the coordinate rotation
to all of its’ component four vectors (see advanced problem 8)

F αβ = ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα

= (αδ ∂δ )(βγ Aγ ) − (βγ ∂γ )(αδ Aδ ) = αδ Fδγ γβ
4.5 Transformation of the Fields 69

To obtain a simple formula to transform individual field components we would then

just need to compare terms in F αβ and F αβ . This (not difficult, but rather long)
operation gives
E  = E 
B = B
(4.45)
E ⊥ = γ(E + v ∧ B)⊥

B⊥ = γ B − c2 ⊥
v∧E

where subscripts “” and “⊥” mean components parallel and perpendicular to the
transformation velocity v. The inverse transform is just obtained by putting v → −v
in (4.45).
We have seen a simplified version of (4.45) before. For the moving charge and
wire experiment in Sect. 3.2, we considered a special case: Frame 1 in which the test
charge moved at velocity +v1 = v = +v and Frame 2 in which the charge was at
rest (v2 = 0). Life had been made simple by choosing the charge velocity to be just
the transformation velocity +v.
In Frame 2 the Lorentz force law gives

F2 = e(E2 + v2 ∧ B2 ) = eE 2 (4.46)

and we now know from (4.45) that the Lorentz force should be

F2 = eE 2 = eE 1 = 0 (4.47)

as we chose E1 to be zero (by choosing ρ1 = 0). Also the Lorentz force law gives

F⊥2 = e(E2 + v2 ∧ B2 )⊥ = eE ⊥2 (4.48)

which from (4.45) transforms to

F⊥2 = eγ(E1 + v1 ∧ B1 )⊥ = eγv1 ∧ B1 (4.49)

Hence F2 = γ F1 which is just what we found in (3.32).

Next, we will look at an application of (4.45). Before we do, there is one interesting
point. Since the dual of F αβ also contains the electromagnetic fields in Lorentz
transformable form we could have used it to find the transformation of the fields. We
can find out what this would yield by applying the duality transformation E → Bc2
and B → −E to (4.45), and it is easy to verify that we obtain the same transformations
for the fields.

4.6 Field from a Moving Point Charge

In nonrelativistic situations (i.e., under Galilean frame transformation) we know that

the field from a positive point charge just points radially outwards, and this was used
70 4 The Field Tensors

Fig. 4.1 Charge q is at rest

x2 S x’2 S’
at the origin of the S  frame
and is moving with velocity P
v x̂1 w.r.t. frame S. The
origins of the S and S  r v
frames coincide at t = 0 a

vt x1 x’1
q

x3 x’
3

in Chap. 1 to discuss Gauss’ law. Now that we know how to transform the fields we
can look at what happens to the fields from charges moving at relativistic speeds.
Lets consider a positive charge moving past us at speed v as shown in Fig. 4.1. If
we are in the rest frame of the charge (the S  frame), there is no magnetic field and
the electric field is radial giving (from Chap. 1):

B = 0
 (4.50)
E = 4πq 0 rr3

We now transform to the S frame by moving in −v x̂1 so that in the S frame the
charge appears to be moving past us in the x1 direction with speed +v. The inverse
transform gives us (with B = 0 and v = v ) the fields in the S frame

E  = E 
B = 0
(4.51)
E ⊥ = γ E ⊥
B⊥ = cγ2 (v ∧ E )⊥ = v∧E
c2

We will now obtain the fields at some location P = (ct, x1 , a, 0) in the S frame (we
can always choose a convenient orientation of x2 , x3 such that x3 = 0). To do this
we need to express E in (4.51) as a function of ct, x1 , x2 , x3 instead of x1 , x2 , x3 .
In S  the charge is at rest and so the fields are independent of t  , we just then need
to transform the spacelike coordinates using the Lorentz transformation. At point P
this gives
x1 = γ(x1 − vt)
x2 = x2 = a (4.52)
x3 = x3 = 0
4.6 Field from a Moving Point Charge 71

E2
E1 γ >1

γ =1

γ >1 x-vt x-vt

1 1

γ =1

Fig. 4.2 Sketch of E 1 and E 2 at point P versus x1 /γ = x1 − vt

Fig. 4.3 Sketch of the E

field around a charge at rest, E
and the E field around a
charge moving at relative E’
velocity v, in the x1 , x2 plane

Substituting for x1 , x2 , x3 in (4.51) then gives the electric field at P from the moving
point charge:

x1 γ(x1 −vt)

E1 = E 1 = q
4π 3 = q
4π 3
0 (x1 +x22 +x32 ) 2
2
(γ 2 (x1 −vt)2 +a 2 ) 2
0
γx1 γa
E2 = γ E 2 = q
4π 3
0 (x 2 +x 2 +x 2 ) 2
= q
4π 0 (γ 2 (x −vt)2 +a 2 ) 23
(4.53)
1 2 3 1
E3 = γ E 3 = 0

We can always obtain the magnetic field components at P from E via (4.51).
To understand what is happening at relativistic speeds, lets sketch the electric
field. Figure 4.2 shows the electric field components in the S frame E 1 and E 2 at
point P, plotted versus x1 /γ = x1 − vt. As the relative speed of the charge becomes
relativistic, and γ > 1, the x1 /γ axis Lorentz contracts. The magnitude of E 1 doesn’t
change (as E 1 = E 1 ) instead the E 1 (x1 /γ) profile becomes compressed. The mag-
nitude of E 2 = γ E 2 increases, and again, the profile is compressed as γ > 1. The
electric field occupies a more disc like region as γ is increased. This is sketched in
Fig. 4.3 which shows the E field vectors in the x1 , x2 plane.
We expect the moving charge to have an accompanying magnetic field whether or
not it is relativistic as it is carrying a current. In the nonrelativistic limit γ → 1, (4.51)
72 4 The Field Tensors

becomes:
v∧E μ0 dI ∧ r
B= 2
= (4.54)
c 4πr 3
where dI = qv is the current carried by the charge in its direction of relative motion.
This it just the Biot Savart law1 in magnetostatics. Generally, the spatial distribution
of the B field just follows that of E from (4.51), so that when the charge moves at
relativistic speeds, B will also be compressed into a more disc like region. As the
charge moves closer to the speed of light v → c and

v̂ ∧ E
B→ (4.56)
c
We can compare this to the free space electromagnetic wave solution to Maxwell’s
equations (1.4). In Sect. 2.3 we found that if we take a plane wave solution of the
form
E, B ∼ ei(ωt−k·r) (4.57)

and substitute into Maxwell III we obtain (2.51):

k̂ ∧ E
B= (4.58)
c
which is just (4.56), the magnetic field from the (strongly) relativistic charge. So as
v → c, and both E and B become “compressed” into a disc around the relativistic
charge, the fields start to look like a pulse of light centered on the charge.

4.7 Retarded Potential

In the previous section we found that Lorentz contraction and time dilation gave
us a good idea of what happens to the fields around a single point charge as it
moves at relativistic speeds. We will now obtain a general solution to Maxwell’s
equations by finding the fields from a collection of charges described in terms of the
(frame dependent) charge and current density. To make life simple we can work in
terms of the scalar and vector potentials rather than the field transformations directly.
Everything needed for the calculation then forms four vectors; the scalar and vector
potentials Aα , the charge and current densities J α , and spacetime x α , these then are
straightforward to transform using the Lorentz transformation.
The problem is posed in Fig. 4.4. We will first consider the scalar and vector
potential due to the charge d Q contained in a small (elemental) volume element;

1 Strictly speaking the total magnetic field from a closed current loop C in static situations is obtained

by adding up the contributions due to all the current elements dI along the loop:

μ0 dI ∧ r
B= (4.55)
C 4πr 3
4.7 Retarded Potential 73

Fig. 4.4 A volume element P

is located at rest at the origin x2 x’2
of the S  frame which is S S’
moving at +v in the x1
direction w.r.t. the S frame. r r’ v
In the S  frame the volume
element contains charge
x1
ρ d x1 d x2 d x3 . The origins of x3
the two frames are x’1
coincident at t = t  = 0
x’3 ρ ’dx’dx’dx’
1 2 3

since all our equations are still linear under the Lorentz transformation we can find
the scalar and vector potential from charges distributed over a larger volume later by
doing a volume integral.
To simplify the algebra, the volume element containing d Q is located at the origin
of the S  frame, and in this frame the charges are at rest. The S  frame then moves at
speed +v along the x1 direction w.r.t. the S frame, and again for simplicity we will
arrange for the origins of both frames to coincide at t = t  = 0. We now observe the
scalar and vector potential d Aα at some point P due to the charges when the frames
coincided. Since disturbances in the electromagnetic fields travel at speed c in all
frames, in the S frame the “signal” takes a time
r
t= (4.59)
c
to reach P from the S origin. By the time it has done so, the charges have moved;
they are now located at the S  origin which is distance r from P.
We can find d Aα from d Aα in the S  frame where the charges are at rest, this is

ρ d x1 d x2 d x3

cd A0 = dφ = dQ
4π 0 r 
= 4π 0 r  (4.60)
d A1,2,3 = 0

αβ
The inverse Lorentz transform (i) (since S is moving in −v x̂1 w.r.t. S  ) of (4.60)
(see Sect. 3.4) is
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ dφ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ dφ ⎤
γ − vc γ 0 0 c
γ dφc c
⎢ + vc γ −γ 0 0 ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ γ vdφ ⎥ ⎢ d A1 ⎥


Aα = (i) Aβ = ⎢
αβ ⎥⎢ 0 ⎥ = ⎢ c2 ⎥ = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦ ⎣ d A2 ⎦ (4.61)
0 0 0 −1 0 0 d A3

so that
dφ = γdφ
(4.62)
dA = x̂1 γ cv2 dφ
74 4 The Field Tensors

The four-current J α will inverse transform in just the same way, from charges at rest
in the S  frame to the charges moving in the S frame2

ρ = γρ
(4.63)
J = x̂γvρ = x̂vρ

Next, we can write dφ (d x1 , d x2 , d x3 , r  ) as a function of coordinates in the S frame
by using the Lorentz transformation of spacetime coordinates i.e., (4.52) to get
expressions for the volume element d x1 , d x2 , d x3 and for r  . If we substitute in
the time delay for t (4.59) then
 vr 
x1 = γ x1 − (4.64)
c

This gives an expression for r 

r  = (x12 + x22 + x32 ) 2

1

  21 (4.65)
= γ 2 x1 − vrc + x22 + x32
2

since r 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 this can be written as

 vx1 
r = γ r − (4.66)
c
The volume element as seen in S is obtained by implicit differentiation of (4.52)
 
v dr v x1
d x1 = γd x1 1 − c d x1
= γd x1 1 − c r
d x2 = d x2 (4.67)
d x3 = d x3

where we used the change in r across the volume element, dr/d x1 , obtained by
differentiating
r 2 = x12 + x22 + x32 (4.68)

w.r.t. x1 to give
dr x1
= (4.69)
d x1 r

Putting all this together, in the S frame we then have

 
ρ v x1
ρ 
d x1 d x2 d x3 γ
d x1 γ 1 − c r
d x2 d x3
dφ = γ =γ vx1 (4.70)
4π 0 r  4π 0 γ r − c

2 This just yields what we found for the moving charge and wire experiment in Sect. 3.2.
4.7 Retarded Potential 75

Fig. 4.5 Volume element

d V  and point P located
w.r.t. a single fixed origin O
dV’ r-r’

r’ P

r
O

which is just
ρd x1 d x2 d x3
dφ = (4.71)
4π 0 r

This is the potential at P that we would expect from electrostatics if charge d Q

were located at distance r instead of r  ; that is, as if d Q were still at the origin of
the S frame. So to get a solution of Maxwell’s equations, we have two approaches.
One is to “do the relativistic treatment” and Lorentz transform four vectors as above.
The other is to insist that charge d Q is frame invariant and always has a potential
of the form (4.60) and (4.71), and also that information about d Q travels at frame
invariant speed c. Information about the location of the charges takes a time t = r/c
to reach point P, so we see a retarded potential consistent with the electrostatics of
the charges at their previous location a time t = r/c earlier.
The vector potential in the S frame is then (from 4.62 and 4.63)

v μ0 Jd x1 d x2 d x3
dA = x̂1 2
dφ = (4.72)
c 4πr
which, with B = ∇ ∧ A will again give the Biot Savart law, consistent with the
magnetostatics of the current due to the moving charges at their previous location a
time t = r/c earlier.
The algebra was simplified by choosing the charges to be at the origin of the S 
frame and having the two frames coincident at t = 0. A more general arrangement is
shown in Fig. 4.5 where all positions are known relative to a fixed origin. A volume
element d V  is at position r , point P is then a distance | r − r | from the charges
in d V  . It takes light a time tl =| r − r | /c to propagate from the charges to point
P, so the potentials seen at P at time t are given by the charge density in d V  at
time t − tl . Integrating over all space, the potentials at P in terms of the charge and
current densities in the S frame are:
 
 ρ r , t − |r−r |
1 c
φ(r, t) = dV  (4.73)
4π 0 V | r − r |

and
76 4 The Field Tensors
 
 J r , t − |r−r |
μ0 c
A(r, t) = dV  (4.74)
4π V | r − r |

Why does this work? The whole edifice of the Lorentz transformation and four
vectors that we have developed amounts to three things: the speed of light c, the laws
of physics, and certain quantities, like charge, are the same in all inertial frames.
Hence we can use Gauss’ law of electrostatics, the invariance of charge, and the
invariance of the speed of light, to obtain the (retarded) potential in any given frame.
Provided that the resulting integrals for the retarded potentials are tractable, that’s
all there is to it.
Suggested Texts

Suggested Texts
This is not an exhaustive list, they are the books that author has found the most useful
in the context of electrodynamics, so if you enjoyed this book, read on.

• The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol II, R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, M. Sands,

Addison-Wesley, 1975: A lively and insightful journey through electrodynamics,
best read in one go. Training in the formalism should be sought elsewhere.
• Classical Electrodynamics, Second Edition, J. D. Jackson, Wiley, 1975: A must
for every working physicists bookshelves. Thorough and rigorous treatment of
electromagnetism from first principles to electrodynamics. Includes all the material
that I left out.
• The six core theories of modern physics, C. F. Stevens, MIT press, 1995: Forgotten
your entire physics degree? This is a compact summary.
• Mathematical Methods in the Physical Sciences Third Edition, M. L. Boas, Wiley,
1983: A nice introduction to tensors, and to vector calculus.
• The Classical Theory of Fields, Fourth Edition, Course of Theoretical Physics Vol.
2, L. D. Landau and E. M. Lifshitz, Pergamon, 1983: Extends the electrodynamics
of flat spacetime treated here to curved spacetime, i.e., general relativity.
• Classical Field Theory, D. E. Sopher Dover, 2008: Compact yet comprehensive
treatment of classical field theory of continuous media, use it to set electrodynamics
in the context of the field theory of fluids and solids.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 77

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
Appendix A
Revision Problems

A.1 Static Magnetic Fields

A straight wire carrying a steady current I has radius a as shown in Figs. A.1 and
A.2.
(a) Inside the wire, i.e., for r ≤ a calculate the current enclosed inside a circle of
radius r as shown in Figs. A.1. Use the integral form of ∇ · B = 0 to show that B
is always perpendicular to r. From Ampère’s law (the integralform of ∇ ∧ B =
μ0 J) calculate B(r ) and hence using Stokes theorem (i.e., from B · dl) calculate
∇ ∧ B.
Calculate ∇ ∧ B directly. In a cylindrical coordinate system you can use the
identity

1 ∂
∇ ∧ B = (∇ ∧ B)z ẑ = (r Bθ )ẑ
r ∂r
(A.1)

when B = Bθ θ̂.
(b) Outside the wire i.e., for r > a use Ampère’s law to calculate B(r ) using curve
C1 shown in Fig. A.2 (i.e., a circle of radius r centred on the wire).
Use this expression for B to calculate B · dl around curve C2 . Calculate
 ∇ ∧B
directly at a point within C2 and compare it with your value for B · dl. Sketch
the variation of the magnitude of the current density J(r ) as a function of r
and use Maxwell’s IVth equation for steady fields ∇ ∧ B = μ0 J to sketch the
variation of ∇ ∧ B as a function of r .

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 79

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
80 Appendix A: Revision Problems

Fig. A.1 Problem 1a: A

straight wire carrying a
steady current I
I

Fig. A.2 Problem 1b: A

straight wire carrying a
steady current I

C
1

C1
C
2

A.2 Static Electric Fields

A long bar of radius a carries a staticcharge density ρl per unit length which is spread
uniformly through the bar. What is E · dl around any closed path? What does this
tell you about the direction of the electric field? Use Gauss’ theorem in integral form
on cylindrical surfaces centred on the bar to calculate E(r) inside the bar (r < a)
and outside the bar (r > a). Calculate ∇ · E directly for both cases. In a cylindrical
coordinate system you can use the identity

1 ∂
∇ ·E= (r Er ) (A.2)
r ∂r

when E = Er r̂.
Appendix A: Revision Problems 81

A.3 Conservation and Poynting’s Theorem

(a) Consider a gas composed of identical particles of number density n(r) and
velocity v(r) at position r. Particles are neither created nor destroyed.

(i) What is the flux of particles across surface S (give integral form)?
(ii) If S encloses a volume V show that the gas obeys a conservation equation
∇ · (nv) = − ∂n
∂t
hence obtain an expression for conservation of charge in terms of charge
density ρ and current density J.

(b) (i) Ampère’s law for steady currents is


B · dl = μ0 I
c

Write this in differential form.

(ii) Using conservation of charge obtain Maxwell IV for time dependent fields:
∂E
∇ ∧ B = μ0 J + μ0 0
∂t
(c) In general (ρ f = 0, Jf = 0) Poynting’s theorem in media is
 
∂ 1
∇ · (E ∧ H) = − [E · D + B · H] − Jf · E (A.3)
∂t 2

Given that the energy density

1
U= [E · D + B · H] (A.4)
2
∂U
starting with ∂t
use Maxwell’s equations in media and the identity

∇ · (E ∧ H) = H · (∇ ∧ E) − E · (∇ ∧ H) (A.5)

to derive Poynting’s theorem.

A.4 The Wave Equation: Linearity and Dispersion

A general form for the wave equation is:

∂2ψ
= v2 ∇ 2 ψ (A.6)
∂t 2
82 Appendix A: Revision Problems

Show that
ψ1 = ψ01 ei(ω1 t−k1 x) (A.7)

is a solution of this equation. What is the phase speed and direction of propagation
of this wave?
If the wave
ψ2 = ψ02 ei(ω2 t−k2 x) (A.8)

is also a solution of the wave equation, show that the wave resulting from the super-
position of these waves
ψ3 = ψ1 + ψ2 (A.9)

is also a solution.
In a dispersive medium the wave equation may look like

∂2ψ
= v 2 (ω)∇ 2 ψ (A.10)
∂t 2

Show that ψ3 is a solution. Give an example of a PDE for which ψ1 and ψ2 are
solutions, but ψ3 is not.

A.5 Free Space EM Waves I

The E and B fields of a plane EM wave have the form:

E = E0 ei(ωt−k.r)
B = B0 ei(ωt−k.r)

(a) Show that Maxwell’s equations in free space can be rewritten as:

k · E0 = 0 k · B0 = 0
k ∧ E0 = ωB0 k ∧ B0 = −μ0 0 ωE0

(b) Show that E, B and k (in that order) form a right-handed orthogonal system.
(c) If, with an electric antenna, it is established that E only has a y component, what
are the possible directions of propagation of the wave, and the directions of the
associated B components.
(d) Describe the polarization of this wave. Write down E and B for a wave which is
(i) linearly polarized and (ii) circularly polarized.
Appendix A: Revision Problems 83

A.6 Free Space EM Waves II

The magnetic field of a uniform plane wave in free space is given by:

B(r, t) = 10−6 [1, 2, Bz ]ei(ωt+3x−y−z)

Determine:
(a) The direction of propagation k̂, wavelength λ, angular frequency ω.
(b) The z component of B.
(c) The electric field E associated with B.
(d) The Poynting vector S.

A.7 EM Waves in a Dielectric

In a ‘perfect’ dielectric there are no free currents or charges (ρ f = 0, Jf = 0). Use

Maxwell’s equations in media and B = μμ0 H, D = 0 E to derive wave equations
for E and B. (Use the identity ∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ A) = ∇(∇ · A) − ∇ 2 A).
What is the phase speed v = ωk of the waves in SI units?
Show that
1
B = k̂ ∧ E (A.11)
v

A.8 Dielectrics and Polarization

A parallel plate capacitor with plates of area A, separated by a distance d has a

voltage V applied across the plates. Initially there is a vacuum between the plates.
A charge of magnitude Q = C V (where C is the capacitance) corresponding to a
surface charge density σ f has built up on each plate (so that there is charge +Q on
one plate and −Q on the other).
(a) Use Gauss’ law to calculate the electric field between the plates. What is the
capacitance?
(b) The region between the plates is now filled with a dielectric, and the capacitor
is again charged up by placing charge of magnitude Q on each plate. A surface
charge density σ p is induced on the dielectric. What is the polarization (dipole
moment/unit volume) in terms of σ p ?
NB: we define polarization as P = np where p is the atomic dipole moment.
(c) If the material is linear, P = ( − 1)0 E. What is the electric field inside the
dielectric, and the capacitance?
84 Appendix A: Revision Problems

A.9 EM Waves in a Conductor: Skin Depth

In an ideal conductor at low frequencies we can assume that there are no free charges
(ρ f = 0) and that the free current density obeys a simple Ohm’s law Jf = σE.
Use Maxwell’s equations and the identity ∇∧(∇ ∧ A) = ∇(∇.A) − ∇ 2 A to show
that the “wave equation” in the conductor is

∂E 1 ∂2E
∇ 2 E = μμ0 σ + 2 2 (A.12)
∂t v ∂t
Derive the dispersion relation (that is, k as a function of ω) in the low frequency
limit (terms O(ω 2 )  terms O(ω)) by examining the properties of plane wave solu-
tions. Hence show that the skin depth (distance waves can penetrate into the conductor
before they are appreciably attenuated) is
  21
2
δ= (A.13)
μμ0 σω

What is the significance of this result for (i) radio propagation (ii) microwave
ovens (iii) power transmission?

A.10 Cavity Resonator

Find the Poynting flux and the radiation pressure for a standing plane electromag-
netic wave (that is, two travelling waves of equal amplitude propagating in opposite
directions. Use this to calculate the cycle average Poynting flux and radiation pres-
sure.
Appendix B
Solutions to Revision Problems

B.1 Static Magnetic Fields

(a) The current density

I
| J |= (B.1)
πa 2
is uniform within the wire. Current enclosed within circle, radius r :

I Ir2
Ir = J · dS = × πr 2
= (B.2)
πa 2 a2

Then since 
B · dS = 0 (B.3)

over a surface defined by a cylinder of radius r , B only has components parallel

to the surface i.e., perpendicular to r.
From Ampère 
B · dl = μ0 I (B.4)

and using cylindrical symmetry to infer that | B | is independent of r :


Ir2
B · dl = B × 2πr = μ0 (B.5)
a2

that is,
μ0 I r
B= (B.6)
2πa 2

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 85

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
86 Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems

The direction of B is obtained from the right hand rule, or ∇ ∧ B = μ0 J.

Using Stokes:  
B · dl = ∇ ∧ B · dS (B.7)

is
Ir2
μ0 =| ∇ ∧ B | πr 2 (B.8)
a2
giving
μ0 I
| ∇ ∧ B |= (B.9)
πa 2
directed in +J.
Directly:
1 ∂ μ0 I r μ0 I
∇ ∧ B = ẑ r = ẑ 2 (B.10)
r ∂r 2πa 2 πa

(b) Outside the total current enclosed by C1 is I then


B · dl = μ0 I (B.11)
C1

B2πr = μ0 I (B.12)

i.e., B = μ0 I /2πr . Around C2


B · dl = 0 (B.13)
C2

as no current is enclosed. Evaluating this integral the contributions from the

straight line segments of C2 along r̂ are zero and perpendicular to r̂ along the
curved segments (at constant r1 and r2 ) give
  
μ0 I μ0 I
B · dl = × r1 dθ − × r2 dθ = 0 (B.14)
C1 2πr1 1 2πr2 2

where the integral over θ just gives the angle subtended by curve C2 at r = 0.
Directly
1 ∂ r μ0 I
∇ ∧ B = ẑ =0 (B.15)
r ∂r 2πr
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems 87

B.2 Static Electric Fields

Static hence 
E · dl = 0 (B.16)

Choosing a circular path, circle centre at the centre of the bar, cylindrical coordinates
z, r, θ so that r · dl = 0 we have either (i) E asymmetric (i.e., with a θ dependence)
and E · dl at some θ1 cancels that at some θ2 , or (ii) E has cylindrical symmetry
and hence must be perpendicular to dl everywhere. Since E due to a point charge is
symmetric and the principle of superposition holds we have case (ii).
Thus this also admits a constant component along ẑ.
To use Gauss in integral form over a cylinder of radius r < a, length L we have
charge enclosed Q = ρV where

ρl L ρl
ρ= = (B.17)
πa L
2 πa 2
i.e.,
ρl
Q= × πr 2 L (B.18)
πa 2
The only contribution to E is on the curved surface of the cylinder on which E is
constant. 
1
E · dS = E2πr L = ρl r 2 La 2 (B.19)
0

hence ρl r
E= r̂ (B.20)
20 a 2 π

Then
1 ∂ ρl r 2 ρl
∇ ·E= = (B.21)
r ∂r 20 a 2 π 0 a 2 π

For cylinder radius r > a the enclosed Q = ρl L so that


ρl L
E · dS = E2πr L = (B.22)
0

then ρl
E= r̂ (B.23)
2πr 0

and
1 ∂ ρl r
∇ ·E= =0 (B.24)
r ∂r 2πr 0
88 Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems

B.3 Conservation and Poynting’s Theorem

(a) (i) Number through dS in time dt is nv · dSdt since volume containing particles
that cross surface in dt is v · dSdt. Then number crossing S in dt is

nv · dSdt (B.25)
S

1
Flux = No/sec/unit area = nv · dS (B.26)
S S

(ii) Number enclosed in S is 

N= nd V (B.27)
V

so number crossing S in unit time is

 
∂N ∂ ∂n
= nd V = dV (B.28)
∂t ∂t V V ∂t

Now using our expression for the flux across S, the number flowing out of
V in time dt is  
∂n
nv · dSdt = − d V dt (B.29)
S V ∂t

From Divergence theorem then

∂n
− = ∇ · (nv) (B.30)
∂t
For charges we have ρ = nq, J = nqv giving

∂ρ
− =∇ ·J (B.31)
∂t
(b) Given in the text.
(c) Poynting’s theorem in media: from the energy density

1
U= [E.D + B.H] (B.32)
2
we have
∂U 1 ∂D ∂E ∂H ∂B
= E· +D· +B· +H· (B.33)
∂t 2 ∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems 89

then since D = 0 E, B = μμ0 H we have

∂U ∂D ∂B
=E· +H· (B.34)
∂t ∂t ∂t
which is
∂U
= E · (∇ ∧ H − J f ) + H · (−∇ ∧ E) = −J f · E − H · ∇ ∧ E + E · ∇ ∧ H
∂t
(B.35)
Using the identity

∇.(E ∧ H) = H.(∇ ∧ E) − E.(∇ ∧ H) (B.36)

we obtain
∂U
= −J f · E − ∇.(E ∧ H) (B.37)
∂t

B.4 The Wave Equation: Linearity and Dispersion

Substitute ψ1 into the wave equation:

(iω1 )2 ψ1 = v 2 (−ik1 )2 ψ1 (B.38)

I.e., if ω1 = vk1 then ψ1 is a solution. v is the phase speed, that is, the speed of a
point of constant phase. Consider some point x at phase φ = ω1 t − k1 x at time t. At
time t + dt this point has moved to x + d x where d x = vdt. So

ω1 (t + dt) − k1 (x + d x) = φ (B.39)

Hence ωdt = kd x and the point of constant phase moves at

dx ω1
v= = =v (B.40)
dt k1

Now ψ2 is a solution. Substitute ψ3 = ψ1 + ψ2 into the wave equation:

∂2 ∂2 ∂2
ψ3 = 2 ψ1 + 2 ψ2 = v 2 ∇ 2 ψ3 = v 2 [∇ 2 ψ1 + ∇ 2 ψ2 ] (B.41)
∂t 2 ∂t ∂t
and since
∂2
ψ1,2 = v 2 ∇ 2 ψ1,2 (B.42)
∂t 2

ψ3 is also a solution. This will hold for any linear PDE, hence ψ3 can be shown to
be a solution of the dispersive wave equation by the same method.
90 Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems

Require nonlinear PDE (with terms in ψ n , (∇ψ)n etc.) to break the principle of
superposition.

B.5 Free Space EM Waves I

(a) For plane waves it can be shown by calculating the derivatives in any orthogonal
coordinate system (e.g., cartesian) that

∇· ≡ −ik ·
∇∧ ≡ −ik ∧
∂
≡ iω
∂t
Then substituting the wave solutions into the free space Maxwell equations:

∇ ·E ⇒ k · E0 = 0
∇ ·B ⇒ k · B0 = 0
∂
∇ ∧E=− B ⇒ k ∧ E0 = ωB0
∂t
∂
∇ ∧ B = μ0 0 E ⇒ k ∧ B0 = −ωμ0 0 B0
∂t
(b) Use result (a):

k · E0 = 0 k · B0 = 0 ⇒ E, B ⊥ k
1
B = k̂ ∧ E then ⇒ handedness
c

(c) k · E0 = 0 so k = x̂k x + ẑk z , then since B = 1c k̂ ∧ E, B = x̂Bx + ẑBz .

(d) Linearly polarized.
(i) Linear polarization:

E = E0 ei(ωt−k.r)
B = B0 ei(ωt−k.r)

plane of polarization is E, k
(ii) Circular polarization:
π
E = E 0 x̂ei(ωt−kz) + E 0 ŷei(ωt−kz± 2 ) (B.43)

with B = 1c k̂ ∧ E.
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems 91

B.6 Free Space EM Waves II

√
(a) k = −3x̂ + ŷ + ẑ, | k |= 11 m −1 so λ = 2π/k = 1.89m. ω = ck = 9.93 ×
108 s −1 .
(b) Use k · B = 0, k from (a) giving Bz = 10−6 T .
(c) Use k ∧ B0 = −ωμ0 0 E0 with above k, B to give

300
E0 = √ (x̂ − 4ŷ + 7ẑ)V m −1
11
E = E0 ei(ωt+3x−y−z)

(d)
1
S= E ∧ B = 432 cos2 (ωt − k · r)k̂W m −2 (B.44)
μ0

B.7 EM Waves in a Dielectric

Using
∂D
∇ ∧H= (B.45)
∂t
we have using ∇ · H = 0:

∂D
∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ H) = −∇ 2 H = ∇ ∧ (B.46)
∂t
Then since Maxwell III
∂B
∇ ∧E=− (B.47)
∂t
can be written as  
∂H
∇ ∧ D = 0 μμ0 − (B.48)
∂t

we have
∂2H
∇ 2 H = 0 μμ0 (B.49)
∂t 2

similarly taking ∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ D) yields

∂2D
∇ 2 D = 0 μμ0 (B.50)
∂t 2
92 Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems

Using B = μμ0 H and D = 0 E gives wave equations in terms of E and B:

∂2E
∇ 2 E = 0 μμ0 (B.51)
∂t 2

∂2B
∇ 2 B = 0 μμ0 (B.52)
∂t 2
which by inspection have wave solutions with phase speed

1 ω
v=√ = (B.53)
(0 μμ0 ) k

As in free space plane waves, Maxwell III yields:

k 1
B= k̂ ∧ E = k̂ ∧ E (B.54)
ω v

B.8 Dielectrics and Polarization

Far from the edges of the plates, assume that they are approximately infinite in extent.
Then E is directed normal to the plates.

(a) Gauss in integral form for the surface becomes:

 
1
E · dS = σf dS (B.55)
0

Then
σf Q
E= = (B.56)
0 0 A

Since Q = C V and V = Ed (from ∇ ∧ E = 0 and E directed normal to the

plates) we have
Q Q 0 A
C= = = (B.57)
V Ed d
(b) From slab geometry E is uniform in the capacitor, hence no polarization charge
is induced within the volume of dielectric. From the definition of polarization:
  
P · dS = − σpd S = Pd S (B.58)

as P is then also normal to the (approximately infinite) plates. This gives P =

−σ p in units of Coulomb m −2 .
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems 93

(c) In the presence of the dielectric

 
1
E · dS = (σ f + σ p )d S (B.59)
0

which in this slab geometry is

σ f + σp σf P
E= = − (B.60)
0 0 0

then since for linear media P = ( − 1)0 E we have

σf
E= (B.61)
0

This again yields the capacitance from Q = C V and V = Ed:

Q Q 0 A
C= = = (B.62)
V Ed d

B.9 EM Waves in a Conductor: Skin Depth

In media Maxwell IV is
∂D
∇ ∧ H = Jf + (B.63)
∂t
which can be written as
1 ∂E
∇ ∧ B = Jf + 0 (B.64)
μμ0 ∂t

using Jf = σE this becomes:

1 ∂E
∇ ∧ B = μμ0 σE + (B.65)
v 2 ∂t

We take ∂/∂t of this equation, and use

∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ E) = ∇(∇ · E) − ∇ 2 E (B.66)

with ∇ · E = 0 since ∇ · D = ρ f = 0 to obtain a modified wave equation:

∂E 1 ∂2E
∇ 2 E = μμ0 σ + 2 2 (B.67)
∂t v ∂t
94 Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems

Assume plane wave solutions of the form

E = E0 ei(ωt−k·r) (B.68)

then substitute in to (B.67) to obtain the dispersion relation:

w2
k2 = − μμ0 σiω (B.69)
v2
The two terms on the r.h.s. are due to the displacement and conduction currents
respectively. Taking the low frequency limit of this expression is equivalent to
neglecting the displacement currents in comparison to the conduction currents in
the conductor and yields:
k 2 = −μμ0 σiω (B.70)

Clearly k has real and imaginary parts. Writing k = β ± iα gives plane wave solu-
tions of the form:
E = E0 ei(ωt−β k̂·r) e±αk̂·r (B.71)

which corresponds to waves that grow (+α) or decay (−α) as they propagate in
+r. For a semi- infinite slab of conductor, the waves must have finite amplitude as
r → ∞ which excludes growing solutions. The waves then decay and a measure of
the distance that they can penetrate into the conductor before they are appreciably
attenuated (the skin depth δ) is that required for the amplitude to fall by a factor 1/e:

1
δ= (B.72)
α
α is then obtained by equating coefficients, with

k 2 = β 2 − α2 − 2iαβ (B.73)

giving α = β, 2αβ = μμ0 σω and

2
δ= (B.74)
μμ0 σω

Implication: lower frequency waves propagate further into conductors. Some exam-
ples are:
• The earth’s ionosphere (a conductor) will not propagate radio waves at all frequen-
cies, hence longwave can be bounced off the ionosphere to be received at points
on the earth’s surface below the horizon.
• Re-entering astronauts lose radio contact with the ground as their spacecraft is
engulfed in plasma.
Appendix B: Solutions to Revision Problems 95

• A few mm of conductor are sufficient to attenuate microwaves so that it is safe to

use microwave ovens.
• household power (50 Hz) can be carried over short distances by copper with limited
power loss, whereas computer network signals require co axial cable or twisted
pair ethernet (computer clock speeds are GHz).
• your TV uses copper wire to carry the power, and coaxial cable to carry the TV
signal.
• over long distances copper wire would dissipate too much power to be efficient.
Instead, high voltage, low current transmission lines are used.

B.10 Cavity Resonator

The Poynting flux and radiation pressure for a single wave are given in (2.3). The
standing wave is just obtained by summing for the two waves of equal amplitude
propagating in opposite directions. For this standing wave the cycle average is then
zero.
Appendix C
Some Advanced Problems

C.1 Maxwell Stress Tensor

Momentum flux conservation in an ideal Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) plasma

gives the following:
Du
= −∇ · P + J ∧ B (C.1)
Dt
For equilibrium the l.h.s. of this equation must be zero.
1. Show that at low frequencies J ∧ B can be written as the divergence of a stress
tensor TM .
2. For a gyrotropic plasma, the pressure tensor P can be written as:

Bi B j
Pi j = P⊥ δi j + (P − P⊥ ) (C.2)
B2

where the local magnetic field direction is ẑ.

Use the equilibrium condition ∇ · (TM − P) = 0 to obtain the following stability
criteria:

B2
P⊥ + =K (C.3)
2μ0
B2
P − P⊥ = + K (C.4)
μ0

where K , K  are constants.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 97

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
98 Appendix C: Some Advanced Problems

C.2 Liouville and Vlasov Theorems: A Conservation

Equation for Phase Space

The Vlasov equation describes the time evolution of the phase space probability
density f (x, v, t) in 6 dimensional phase space x, v, and is:

Df ∂f
= + v · ∇ f + a · ∇v f = 0 (C.5)
Dt ∂t
(a) Show (by using Taylor expansion) that this corresponds to the change in f along
a particle orbit (Liouville’s theorem).
(b) Show that for a charged particle moving under Lorentz force law that the Liou-
ville Theorem is equivalent to a conservation equation in 6 dimensional phase
space (hint, treat x and v as independent phase space coordinates).

C.3 Newton’s Laws and the Wave Equation Under Galilean

Transformation

Determine whether or not the form of the following equations is invariant under the
Galilean transformation x = x − vt, t  = t:
(a) Newton’s equations of motion for the ith particle in an ensemble where the force
between the ith and jth particle is F(xi − x j ).

dvi
mi = F(xi − x j ) (C.6)
dt j

(b) The wave equation for some field Ψ (x, t)

 
1 ∂
∇ − 2 2
2
Ψ =0 (C.7)
c ∂t

For (b) write down a solution for Ψ (x, t) and Ψ (x , t  ) and show that it is consistent
with Doppler shift.

C.4 Transformation of the Fields

Two charged straight wires carrying a charge density ρ per unit volume are a distance
l apart and are at rest. The charges are not free to move within the wires. Calculate
the electric field at each wire due to the other from Gauss’ law and the force acting
Appendix C: Some Advanced Problems 99

Fig. C.1 A pair of wires

+ + + + +
+
+ +
+ + +
+

+ + + + + u
+
+ +
+ + +
+

on each charge from the Lorentz force law. Give an expression for the total electric
field.
You now move past the wires at a constant velocity v as shown in Fig. C.1.
In this moving frame the wires carry a current. Calculate this current and the
magnetic field due to each wire from Ampere’s law. Calculate the force on each wire
due to this magnetic field from the Lorentz force law. The total Lorentz force must
be the same in both frames of reference. What has happened to the electric field?

C.5 Metric for Flat Spacetime 1

(a) If gαβ is the metric for flat spacetime show that gαγ g γβ = δαβ where δαβ is a 4 × 4
rank 2 tensor with zero off axis terms and trace 1.
(b) The Lorentz transformation of covariant four vector xα and contravariant four
vector x α can be written as
xα = Λαβ x β
x α = Λαβ xβ
show that the metric for flat spacetime gαβ transforms a contravariant vector into
a covariant vector in all frames under Lorentz transformation, i.e., show

gαβ x β = xα (C.8)

(c) Show that Fαβ = gαγ F γδ gδβ .

100 Appendix C: Some Advanced Problems

C.6 Length of the EM Field Tensor in Spacetime

The tensor scalar product is

T : T = Tαβ T βα (C.9)

where we sum over both β and α.

Show that the tensor scalar product of the electromagnetic field tensor is
 
βα E2
Fαβ F =2 − B2 (C.10)
c2

And that this is zero for free space electromagnetic waves (no charges present).
Hence show that
F̃αβ F̃ βα = −c2 Fαβ F βα (C.11)

where F̃αβ is the dual of Fαβ

C.7 Alternative Form for the Maxwell Homogenous

Equations

Show that Maxwell’s homogenous equations can be written as

∂ α F βγ + ∂ β F γα + ∂ γ F αβ = 0 (C.12)

C.8 Lorentz Transformation of the EM Field Tensor

(a) Show that the Lorentz transformation of the field tensor is

F αβ = ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα (C.13)

(b) The transpose rule is:

a αβ.. x γδ.. = x ...δγ a ..βα (C.14)

for both contravariant and covariant tensors.

Use the transpose rule and the Lorentz transformation of four vectors to show
that the Lorentz transformation of the electromagnetic field tensor is:

Fαβ = Λαδ Fδγ Λγβ (C.15)
Appendix D
Solution to Advanced Problems

D.1 Maxwell Stress Tensor

1. The magnetic part of the Maxwell stress tensor is:

1 1 2
Ti j = Bi B j − δi j B (D.1)
μ0 2μ0

as shown in (2.2).
2. We can combine this with the pressure tensor as given:

Bi B j
Pi j = P⊥ δi j + (P − P⊥ ) (D.2)
B2
to obtain
   
1 (P − P⊥ ) 1 2
(TM − P)i j = − Bi B j + − B − P⊥ δi j (D.3)
μ0 B2 2μ0

This is divergence free if

B2
− (P − P⊥ ) = K  (D.4)
μ0

and
1 2
B + P⊥ = K (D.5)
2μ0

where K , K  are both constants.

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 101

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
102 Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems

D.2 Liouville and Vlasov Theorems: A Conservation

Equation in Phase Space

(a) Expanding f in 6 dimensional phase space and time gives

∂f
f (x + δx, v + δv, t + δt) = f (x, v, t) + δt + δx · ∇ f + δv · ∇v f + · · ·
∂t
(D.6)
so that the total change in f as we move from x → x + δx, v → v + δv, and
t → t + δt is

f (x + δx, v + δv, t + δt) − f (x, v, t) Df

= (D.7)
δt Dt
and along a particle orbit such that:

δr
v= (D.8)
δt
δv
a= (D.9)
δt
this becomes:
Df ∂f
= + v · ∇ f + a · ∇v f (D.10)
Dt ∂t
(b) If x and v are independent then

∂f ∂v j f
(v · ∇ f ) j = v j = (D.11)
∂x j ∂x j

that is,
v · ∇ f = ∇ · (v f ) (D.12)

Also, from the Lorentz force law

q
a= [E(x, t) + v ∧ B(x, t)] (D.13)
m
then again as x and v are independent

∂f ∂
E· = · (E f ) (D.14)
∂v ∂v
and using an identity we can write

∂ ∂f ∂
· (v ∧ B f ) = (v ∧ B) · + f · (v ∧ B) (D.15)
∂v ∂v ∂v
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems 103

by expanding into components the second term on the r.h.s. can be shown to be
zero. Then
∂f ∂
(v ∧ B) · = (v ∧ B f ) (D.16)
∂v ∂v
so that we can finally rewrite the Vlasov equation as

∂f
+ ∇ · (v f ) + ∇v · (a f ) = 0 (D.17)
∂t
i.e., in the form of a conservation equation for f in 6 dimensional phase space.

D.3 Newton’s Laws and the Wave Equation Under Galilean

Transformation

Consider Galilean frame transformation x = x − vt, t  = t, with v constant.

(a) For the ith particle the velocity in the transformed frame is vi = vi − v so that
the acceleration is
dvi dvi dv
= = i (D.18)
dt dt dt
then the force between the ith and jth particle

dvi
mi = F(xi − x j ) (D.19)
dt j

transforms as

dvi
mi = F(xi + vt − xj − vt) = F(xi − xj ) (D.20)
dt  j j

Hence Newton’s equations are Galilean invariant in form.

(b) To transform the wave equation
 
1 ∂
∇ − 2 2
2
Ψ =0 (D.21)
c ∂t

∂
we need to transform ∇ and ∂t
. These are defined via the chain rule so that in
the unprimed frame

∂
dΨ (x, t) = dx · ∇ + dt Ψ (x, t) (D.22)
∂t
104 Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems

so that
dΨ (x, t)
∇Ψ (x, t) = |t const (D.23)
dx
and
∂Ψ (x, t) dΨ (x, t)
= |x const (D.24)
∂t dt
we can compare this with the chain rule applied in the primed frame

∂
dΨ (x , t  ) = dx · ∇  + dt  Ψ (x , t  ) (D.25)
∂t 

then
dΨ (x , t  )
∇  Ψ (x , t  ) = |t  const (D.26)
dx
and
∂Ψ (x , t  ) dΨ (x , t  )
= |x const (D.27)
∂t  dt 

Now t = t  so that t  constant is equivalent to t constant which implies that

∇  ≡ ∇. However, x = x, instead we have x constant equivalent to x − vt
constant when obtaining the partial derivatives from chain rule.
We can write dΨ (x , t  ) in terms of elements in the unprimed frame using dx =
dx − vdt, dt  = dt

∂ ∂
dΨ (x , t  ) = dx · ∇  + dt  
Ψ = (dx − vdt) · ∇  + dt  Ψ (D.28)
∂t ∂t

Then, given that we can write Ψ as a function of variables in either frame

Ψ (x, t) ≡ Ψ (x , t  ) (D.29)

this yields

dΨ (x , t  ) ∂Ψ (x , t  ) ∂
|x const = = −v · ∇  +  Ψ (x , t  ) (D.30)
dt ∂t ∂t

Then the wave equation in the unprimed frame is also

 
1 ∂
∇2 − Ψ (x , t  ) = 0 (D.31)
c2 ∂t 2

which transforms to
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems 105

2
1 ∂
∇ − 2 −v · ∇  + 
2
Ψ (x , t  ) = 0 (D.32)
c ∂t

which expands to

1 ∂ 1 2 ∂
∇ 2 − − 2 (v · ∇  )2 + 2 (v · ∇  )  Ψ = 0 (D.33)
c2 ∂t 2 c c ∂t

Hence the wave equation is not invariant in form.

Solutions to the wave equation in the unprimed frame will be of the form

Ψ (x, t) ∼ ei(ωt−k·x) (D.34)

which transformed to the primed frame becomes:

 
Ψ (x , t  ) ∼ ei([ω−k·v]t −k·x ) (D.35)

which is consistent with the doppler shift of frequency:

ω = ω − k · v (D.36)

We can verify that this is a solution of (D.33) by direct substitution.

D.4 Transformation of the Fields

This question is an extension of the moving charge and wire experiment discussed
in (3.2).
To in the rest frame calculate the electric field from one of the wires we enclose
an elemental length dl of wire in surface S as shown in Fig. D.1. S is a cylinder of
radius l. Gauss’ law in integral form then gives
  
ρ ρ
E · dS = E · dS = E2πldl = d V = Adl (D.37)
S Sc V 0 0

where A is the c.s.a. of the wire. Then

ρA
E= (D.38)
2πl
from each wire and is directed perpendicular to the wire from geometry. The total
electric field is just the sum of the contribution from each wire and the force in this
frame in which the charges are at rest is just d F = ρAE(l)dl per length element dl
of wire.
106 Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems

Fig. D.1 Surface S A

enclosing element of a wire
of length dl
+

+ l
S dl

+
+
+

Fig. D.2 Curve C enclosing

the wire with element along A
the curve dl

+
+

l
+
C dl
+

In the moving frame we can calculate the magnetic field by enclosing the wire
with a curve as shown in Fig. D.2 and by using Ampere:
  
∇ ∧ B · dS = μ0 J · dS = μ0 ρ v · dS (D.39)
S S S
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems 107

but taking into account the Lorentz contraction along the direction of the wire in
order to calculate ρ in the moving frame as in (3.2). The electric field can also be
calculated in the moving frame using charge density ρ .
Alternatively, the transformation of the fields can be used directly given the electric
field in the unprimed (rest) frame where the magnetic field is zero:

v∧E
B = −γ (D.40)
c2
and
E = γE (D.41)

where we have exploited the geometry, that is, in the unprimed frame the electric
field is perpendicular to the wires.
In each frame the Lorentz force is then just given directly from the Lorentz force
law.

D.5 Metric for Flat Spacetime

(a) To show
gαγ g γβ = Dαβ = δαβ (D.42)

where we will use the notation Dαβ for the l.h.s. and
⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 −1 0 0 ⎥
gαβ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦ = g
αβ
(D.43)
0 0 0 −1

Now all off axis α = β terms of gαβ and g αβ are zero, hence all of the off axis
terms of the inner product Dαβ will be zero. For example

D12 = g1γ g γ2 = 0 (D.44)

for any γ.
The remaining terms are: α = β = 0 giving

D00 = g0γ g γ0 = g00 g 00 + g01 g 10 + g02 g 20 + g03 g 30 = 1 + 0 + 0 + 0 (D.45)

α = β = 1:

D11 = g1γ g γ1 = g10 g 01 + g11 g 11 + g12 g 21 + g13 g 31 = 0 + 1 + 0 + 0 (D.46)

108 Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems

similarly, D22 = 1 and D33 = 1

Then ⎡ ⎤
1 000
⎢0 1 0 0⎥
β ⎢
Dα = ⎣ ⎥ = δβ (D.47)
0 0 1 0⎦ α

0 001

as required.
(b) To show
gαβ x β = xα (D.48)

we write the l.h.s. of this as

gαγ Λγβ xβ (D.49)

this is covariant by inspection (the only remaining index after contraction will
be “down”).
Explicitly this can be calculated as follows: First we can calculate

gαγ Λγβ = Λβα (D.50)

by exploiting the fact that α = β terms will be zero (from the definition of gαβ ).
The remaining nonzero terms are

β
Λ0 = g00 Λ0β = Λ0β
β
Λ1 = g11 Λ1β = −Λ1β
β (D.51)
Λ2 = g22 Λ2β = −Λ2β
β
Λ3 = g33 Λ3β = −Λ3β

then
gαγ Λγβ xβ = Λβα xβ = xα (D.52)

is a four vector with components α = 0, 3:

β
Λ0 xβ = Λ0β xβ = x0
β
Λ1 xβ = −Λ1β xβ = x1
β (D.53)
Λ2 xβ = −Λ2β xβ = x2
β
Λ3 xβ = −Λ3β xβ = x3

so that if covariant four vector

⎤ ⎡
ct
⎢ −x ⎥
xβ = (ct, −x) = ⎢
⎣ −y ⎦
⎥ (D.54)
−z
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems 109

and ⎡ ⎤
ct 
⎢ x ⎥
Λαβ xβ = ⎢
⎣ y ⎦
⎥ (D.55)
z

then we have ⎡ ⎤
ct 
⎢ −x  ⎥
Λβα xβ = ⎢ ⎥ 
⎣ −y  ⎦ = xα (D.56)
−z 

which is covariant in the primed frame.

(c) To show
Fαβ = gαγ F γδ gδβ (D.57)
γ
perform the contraction in two steps. First, the nonzero terms of F γδ gδβ = Fβ
are γ
δ = 0, β = 0 F0 = +F γ0
γ
δ = 1, β = 1 F1 = −F γ1
γ (D.58)
δ = 2, β = 2 F2 = −F γ2
γ
δ = 3, β = 3 F3 = −F γ3
γ
for γ = 0, 3. Then the nonzero terms of gαγ Fβ are

α=γ =0 F0β = +Fβ0

α=γ =1 F1β = −Fβ1
(D.59)
α=γ =2 F2β = −Fβ2
α=γ =3 F3β = −Fβ3

for β = 0, 3. Here we have exploited the fact that all β = γ terms of gβγ are
zero.
We now just consider the signs of the terms of Fαβ for all α, β.

row 0: α = 0 all change sign except F00 = 0

row 1: α = 1 F10 changes sign only
row 2: α = 2 F20 changes sign only
row 3: α = 3 F30 changes sign only
110 Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems

D.6 Length of the EM Field Tensor in Spacetime

We have the electromagnetic field tensor

⎡ E ⎤
0 − Ecx − cy − Ecz
⎢ 0 −Bz B y ⎥
Ex
F αβ =⎢
⎣
c ⎥ (D.60)
Bz 0 −Bx ⎦
Ey
c
Ez
−B y Bx 0
c

from Chap. 4, and also Fαβ is obtained via the transformation E i → −E i and Bi →
Bi in F αβ .
The symmetries of this tensor are then by inspection

F βα = −F αβ
(D.61)
Fβα = −Fαβ

and the trace is zero

F αα = Fαα = 0 (D.62)

Fαβ F βα then has the following properties for γ = 0, 3:

(i) The on axis terms are zero
F γγ Fγγ = 0 (D.63)

(ii) The timelike terms, that is, those involving E are

F0γ F γ0 = −F0γ Fγ0 = −(−F0γ F0γ )

(D.64)
Fγ0 F 0γ = −Fγ0 F0γ = −(−Fγ0 Fγ0 )

contracting these terms over γ gives

E2
[Fγ0 ]2 = = [F0γ ]2 (D.65)
γ
c2 γ

so that the total contribution of the timelike terms is 2E 2 /c2 .

(iii) The spacelike terms, that is, terms involving B then have the following proper-
ties
Fαγ F γα = −Fαγ F αγ = −Fαγ Fαγ (D.66)

for α = 0, γ = 0. Contracting these terms gives

−(Fαγ )2 = −2B 2 (D.67)

α=1,3 γ=1,3
Appendix D: Solution to Advanced Problems 111

The result of the contraction is then

 
E2
Fαβ F βα = 2 − B2 (D.68)
c2

In free space (photons only) we have E = Bc so that Fαβ F βα vanishes.

For the dual tensor F̃αβ we use the fact that it is obtained from Fαβ via the duality
transformation E i → Bi c2 , Bi → −E i (see 4.2). Transforming the result gives
   
βα B 2 c4 2 E2
F̃αβ F̃ =2 − E2 =− 2 − B2 = −c2 Fαβ F βα (D.69)
c2 c c2

as required.

D.7 Alternative Form for the Maxwell Homogenous

Equations

This left as an exercise for the student.

D.8 Lorentz Transformation of the EM Field Tensor

(a) In (4.1) we obtain

F αβ = ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα (D.70)

then the Lorentz transformation of this is just the transformation of each of the
component four vectors.
(b) To evaluate this i.e.,
F αβ = ∂ α Aβ − ∂ β Aα (D.71)

we apply the Lorentz transformation and the transpose rule:

F αβ = (Λαδ ∂δ )(Λβγ Aγ ) − (Λβγ ∂γ )(Λαδ Aδ )

= Λαδ ∂δ Aγ Λγβ − Λβγ ∂γ Aδ Λδα
= Λαδ ∂δ Aγ Λγβ − Λαδ ∂γ Aδ Λγβ (D.72)
= Λαδ (∂δ Aγ − ∂γ Aδ )Λγβ
= Λαδ Fδγ Λγβ

as required.
Appendix E
Vector Identities

Assuming the right hand rule relates the orthogonal unit vectors î, ĵ, and k̂:

î ∧ ĵ = k̂

E.1 Differential Relations

a · b = b · a = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 (E.1)

î ĵ k̂
a ∧ b = −b ∧ a = a1 a2 a3 (E.2)
b1 b2 b3

a · (b ∧ c) = (a ∧ b) · c = (c ∧ a) · b (E.3)

a ∧ (b ∧ c) = (a · c)b − (a · b)c (E.4)

(a ∧ b) · (c ∧ d) = (a · c)(b · d) − (a · d)(b · c) (E.5)

(a ∧ b) ∧ (c ∧ d) = [a · (b ∧ d)] c − [a · (b ∧ c)] d (E.6)

∇(ψφ) = φ∇ψ + ψ∇φ (E.7)

∇ · (φa) = φ∇ · a + a · ∇φ (E.8)

∇ ∧ (φa) = φ∇ ∧ a + (∇φ) ∧ a (E.9)

∇ · (a ∧ b) = b · (∇ ∧ a) − a · (∇ ∧ b) (E.10)

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114 Appendix E: Vector Identities

∇(a · b) = (a · ∇)b + (b · ∇)a + a ∧ (∇ ∧ b) + b ∧ (∇ ∧ a) (E.11)

∇ ∧ (a ∧ b) = a(∇ · b) + (b · ∇)a − b(∇ · a) − (a · ∇)b (E.12)

a ∧ (∇ ∧ b) = (∇B) · a − (a · ∇)b (E.13)

∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ a) = ∇(∇ · a) − ∇ 2 a (E.14)

∇ · (∇ ∧ a) = 0 (E.15)

∇ ∧ (∇φ) = 0 (E.16)

E.2 Integral Relations

For the following integral relations vector surface element d S is directed along the
normal n̂ to the surface S, line element dl is directed along curve C.
Flux of a vector field a: 
Flux = a · dS (E.17)
S

If surface S spans curve C:

•  
φdl = dS ∧ (∇φ) (E.18)
C S

• Stokes Theorem:  
a · dl = ∇ ∧ a · dS (E.19)
C S

•  
dl ∧ a = (dS ∧ ∇) ∧ a (E.20)
C s

•   
dS · (∇φ ∧ ∇ψ) = φdψ = − ψdφ (E.21)
S C C

If surface S encloses volume V , dS points outwards:

•  
φdS = (∇φ)d V (E.22)
S v
Appendix E: Vector Identities 115

• Gauss or Divergence Theorem:

 
a · dS = ∇ · ad V (E.23)
S V

•  
(dS ∧ a) = (∇ ∧ a)d V (E.24)
S V

• Green I:  
 2 
φ(∇ψ) · dS = φ∇ ψ + (∇φ) · (∇ψ) d V (E.25)
S V

• Green II or Green’s Theorem in a plane:

 
(φ∇ψ − ψ∇φ) · dS = (φ∇ 2 ψ − ψ∇ 2 φ)d V (E.26)
S V

• Green II in vector form:


[b ∧ (∇ ∧ a) − a ∧ (∇ ∧ b)] · dS = (E.27)
 S

(a · [∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ b)] − b · [∇ ∧ (∇ ∧ a)]) d V
V
Appendix F
Tensors

F.1 Cartesian Tensors

A tensor of the first rank (vector) would be written a or ai where i = 1, 3. A scalar

is thus a tensor of rank zero (one number). We can generalize to as many indices as
we wish, for example Pi jkl is a tensor of rank four.

• A Dyadic is formed of two vectors a, b for any orthogonal coordinate system:

⎡ ⎤
a x b x a x b y a x bz
ab = ⎣ a y bx a y b y a y bz ⎦ (F.1)
az b x az b y az bz

which can, where i = 1, 3 and j = 1, 3 be written as

Ai j = ai b j (F.2)

• Coordinate rotation
A vector in the unprimed frame:
⎡ ⎤
x
r = ⎣y⎦
z

will have coordinates in the primed frame:


x = a11 x +a12 y +a13 z

y = a21 x +a22 y +a23 z

z = a31 x +a32 y +a33 z

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118 Appendix F: Tensors

The tensor ai j contains the direction cosines of the rotation x, y, z → x  , y  , z  .

This can be written as
r = A · r (F.3)

where ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
x a11 a12 a13
r = ⎣ y ⎦ and A = ⎣ a21 a22 a23 ⎦
 


z a31 a32 a33

• Einstein convention
Since x = r1 , y = r2 and z = r3 , Eq. (2.22) is

r j = a ji ri (F.4)

which is shorthand (the Einstein summation convention) for


rj = a ji ri (F.5)
i=1,3

The sum over index i on the r.h.s. of (2.24) contracts the number of indices by one
(the l.h.s. has single index j).
• Inner product.
Equations (2.23) and (2.24) are an example of a tensor dot (or inner) product. The
switch to index notation drops all reference to the basis vectors (or axes) x, y, z.
Hence Eq. (2.25) is tensor dot product:

a · T = a1 T11 + a2 T21 + a3 T31 + a1 T12 + a2 T22 + · · ·

≡ ai Ti j (F.6)
= x̂ j ai Ti j

dropping all reference to the basis vectors x̂ j .

• Then ∇ · T in Cartesian coordinates is
∂ ∂
x̂ j Ti j = ∇ · T ≡ Ti j (F.7)
∂xi ∂xi

It follows that
∇ · (φT ) = φ(∇ · T ) + (∇φ) · T (F.8)

∇ · (ab) = (∇ · a)b + (a · ∇)b (F.9)

• Divergence theorem for tensors of arbitrary rank:

 
T · dS = (∇ · T ) d V (F.10)
S V
Appendix F: Tensors 119

F.2 Special Tensors

• The trace is δi j = 1 when i = j and 0 when i = j

⎡ ⎤
100
δi j = ⎣ 0 1 0 ⎦
001

Contracting δi j over i and j with two vectors extracts the dot product

δi j ai b j = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 = a · b = ai bi

This generalizes to tensors of arbitrary rank

δi j ai Ti jkl.. = a · T (F.11)

• The alternating tensor:

1 if i jk = 123, 231, 312

i jk = −1 if i jk = 321, 132, 213 (F.12)
0 any two indices alike

Contracting i jk over j and k extracts the following vector from a dyadic

i jk a j bk = i11 a1 b1 +i12 b1 a2 a1 b2 +i13 a1 b3

+i21 a2 b1 +i22 a2 b2 +i23 a2 b3
+i31 a3 b1 +i32 a3 b2 +i33 b3 a3

If we consider the i = 1 terms, all except 123 a2 b3 and 132 a3 b2 are zero. These
last two give a2 b3 − a3 b2 which are the x component of the vector cross product.
Similarly, i = 2, 3 gives the y, z components respectively, so that contracting with
i jk extracts the cross product. This again holds for tensors of arbitrary rank.

F.3 Generalized Tensors

The generalized coordinate system is defined in terms of the space-time interval

s 2 = c2 t 2 − x 2 − y 2 − z 2 (F.13)

The space-time interval is the length of the four vector:

s 2 = s · s = xα x α (F.14)
120 Appendix F: Tensors

F.3F.1 General Properties of Spacetime

• s has 2 forms:
Covariant: ⎡
⎤
ct
⎢ −x ⎥
xα = (ct, −x) = ⎢ ⎥
⎣ −y ⎦ (F.15)
−z

and Contravariant: ⎡ ⎤
ct
⎢x ⎥
x α = (ct, +x) = ⎢
⎣y ⎦
⎥ (F.16)
z

• In general (for any spacetime geometry) if we have a well defined transformation

x α = x α (x 0 , x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) a covariant vector transforms as:

∂x 0 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂x β
aα = a 0 + a 1 + a 2 + a 3 = aβ (F.17)
∂x α ∂x α ∂x α ∂x α ∂x α
and a contravariant vector transforms as

∂x α 0 ∂x α 1 ∂x α 2 ∂x α 3 ∂x α β
a α = a + a + a + a = a (F.18)
∂x 0 ∂x 1 ∂x 2 ∂x 3 ∂x β
• For tensors of rank 2, a covariant tensor G αβ transforms as

∂x γ ∂x δ
G αβ = G γδ (F.19)
∂x α ∂x β

a contravariant rank 2 tensor G αβ as:

∂x α ∂x β γδ
G αβ = G (F.20)
∂x γ ∂x δ
and a mixed tensor of rank 2 G αβ transforms as:

∂x α ∂x δ γ
G α
β = G (F.21)
∂x γ ∂x β δ
• The dot or inner product is:
... ...α
a · b = a...α b... (F.22)

that is, a contraction over the index α.

Appendix F: Tensors 121

For general spacetime geometry the inner product is invariant under transformation
since:

∂x β ∂x α ... ...γ ∂x β ... ...γ

a · b = a...β b... = a b = δγβ a...β
... ...γ
b... = a · b (F.23)
α
∂x ∂x γ ∂x γ ...β ...

F.3F.2 Flat Spacetime

The Lorentz transformation corresponds to a rotation of the four vector s in flat

space-time, under which s 2 is constant.
• The norm or metric for flat spacetime is then the invariant differential length
element:
(ds)2 = (d x 0 )2 − (d x 1 )2 − (d x 2 )2 − (d x 3 )2 (F.24)

which is a special case of the general differential length element

(ds)2 = gαβ d x α d x β (F.25)

• The spacetime metric for flat space is given by:

⎡ ⎤
1 0 0 0
⎢ 0 −1 0 0 ⎥
gαβ =⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦ = g
αβ
(F.26)
0 0 0 −1

• Covariant and contravariant vectors are related by

xα = gαβ x β (F.27)

and

x α = g αβ xβ (F.28)

• Lorentz transformation -rotation matrix

A rotation of four vector s will be a operation of the form

xα = Λαβ x β (F.29)

on the contravariant form and


x α = Λαβ xβ (F.30)

on the covariant form where the Lorentz transformation is:

122 Appendix F: Tensors
⎡ ⎤
γ − vc γ 0 0
⎢ + v γ −γ 0 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
Λαβ = ⎢ c ⎥ (F.31)
⎣ 0 0 −1 0 ⎦
0 0 0 −1

the inverse transformation matrix is then just obtained by v → −v in (3.60).

• The covariant four gradient is
⎡1 ∂
⎤
c ∂t
⎢ ∂ ⎥  
⎢ ⎥
∂α = ⎢ ∂x ⎥ = 1 ∂ ,∇ (F.32)
⎢ ∂ ⎥ c ∂t
⎣ ∂y ⎦
∂
∂z

• The contravariant four gradient is

⎡1 ∂
⎤
c ∂t
⎢ ∂ ⎥  
⎢ − ∂x ⎥
α
∂ = ⎢ ⎥ = 1 ∂ , −∇ = g αβ ∂β (F.33)
⎢− ∂ ⎥ c ∂t
⎣ ∂y ⎦
∂
− ∂z

• Hence the “four-divergence” of a four vector

1 ∂ 0
∂α a α = ∂ α a α = a +∇ ·a (F.34)
c ∂t
(where a is the spacelike part of four vector field a α ).
• The “4 curl” of four vector a is a rank 2 four tensor

F αβ = ∂ α a β − ∂ β a α (F.35)

• The D’Alembertian invariant operator is then

1 ∂2
∂α ∂ α = − ∇2 =  (F.36)
c2 ∂t 2
which is just the wave equation operator in vacuum.
Appendix G
Units and Dimensions

G.1 SI Nomenclature

Physical Quantity Name Symbol

length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
current Ampere A
temperature Kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
frequency Hertz Hz
energy Joule J
force Newton N
pressure Pascal Pa
power Watt W
electric charge Coulomb C
electric potential Volt V
electric resistance Ohm Ω
electric conductance Siemens S
electric capacitance Farad F
magnetic flux Weber Wb
magnetic inductance Henry H
magnetic intensity Tesla T
luminous flux lumen lm
illuminance lux lx
activity (of radioactive source) Becquerel Bq
absorbed dose (of ionising radiation) Gray Gy

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 123

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124 Appendix G: Units and Dimensions

G.2 Metric Prefixes

Multiple Prefix Symbol Multiple Prefix Symbol

10−1 deci d 10 deca da
10−2 centi c 102 hecto h
10−3 milli m 103 kilo k
10−6 micro μ 106 mega M
10−9 nano n 109 giga G
10−12 pico p 1012 tera T
10−15 femto f 1015 peta P
10−18 atto a 1018 exa E
Appendix H
Dimensions and Units

H.1 Physical Quantities

SI has been used throughout this book. Gaussian units are still often used however
and conversion factors between SI and Gaussian units are given here.
To obtain the value of a quantity in Gaussian Units, multiply the value expressed
in SI units by the conversion factor. Multiples of 3 in the conversion factor result
from approximating the speed of light c = 2.99979 × 108 ms−1  3 × 108 ms−1 .

Dimensions
Physical Symbol SI Gaussian SI Unit Conversion Unit
Quantity Factor
mass m m m kg 103 gram (g)
length l l l m 102 centimetre (cm)
time t t t s 1 second (s)

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 125

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126 Appendix H: Dimensions and Units

Dimensions
Physical Symbol SI Gaussian SI Unit Conversion Unit
Quantity Factor
t2q2
Capacitance C ml 2
l F 9 × 1011 cm
1 3
Charge q q m 2l2
t C 3 × 109 stat- coulomb
1
Charge Density ρ q
l3
m
3
2
Cm −3 3 × 103 stat- coulomb cm −3
l2t
tq 2
Conductance ml 2
1
t S 9 × 1011 cms −1
tq 2
Conductivity σ ml 3
1
t S/m 9 × 109 s −1
1 3
q
Current I, i t
m2l2
t2
A 3 × 109 statampere
1
Current density J q
l2t
m
1
2
Am −2 3 × 105 statampere cm −2
l 2 t2
Density ρ m
l3
m
l3
kgm −3 10−3 gcm −3
1
Displacement D q
l2
m
1
2
Cm −2 12π × 105 stat- coulomb cm −2
l2t
1
Electric field E ml
t2q
m2
1 V /m 1
3 × 10−4 statvoltcm −1
l t 2
1 1
ml 2
Electromotance , emf t2q
m2l2
t V 1
3 × 10−2 statvolt
ml 2 ml 2
Energy W t2 t2
J 107 erg
Energy density U m
lt 2
m
lt 2
J/m 3 10 ergcm −3
ml ml
Force F t2 t2
N 105 dyne
Frequency f, ν 1
t
1
t Hz 1 Hz
Appendix H: Dimensions and Units 127

Dimensions
Physical Symbol SI Gaussian SI Unit Conversion Unit
Quantity Factor
ml 2
Impedance Z tq 2
t
l Ω 1
9 × 10−11 scm −1
ml 2 t2
Inductance L q2 l H 1
9 × 10−11 s 2 cm −1
1
Magnetic intensity H q
lt
m
1
2
A/m 4π × 10−3 Oersted
l2t
1 3
ml 2
Magnetic flux Φ tq
m l
2
t
2
Wb 108 Maxwell
1
m m 2
Magnetic induction B tq 1 T 104 Gauss
l2t
1 5
l2q
Magnetic moment m, μ t
m l
2
t
2
Am 2 103 Oersted cm 3
1
Magnetisation M q
lt
m
1
2
Am −1 10−3 Oersted
l2t
1 1
q
Magneto- motance M t
m l
2
t2
2
A 4π
10 Gilbert
Momentum p ml
t
ml
t kgms −1 105 gcms −1
Momentum density m
2
l t
m
2
l t
kgm −2 10−1 gcm −2 s −1
Permeability μ ml
q2
1 H m −1 1
4π × 107 -
t2q2
Permittivity  ml 3
1 Fm −1 36π × 109 -
1
Polarization P q
l2
m
1
2
Cm −2 3 × 105 stat- coulomb cm −2
l2t
1 1
ml 2
Potential V, φ t2q
m2l2
t V 1
3 × 10−2 statvolt
ml 2 ml 2
Power P t3 t3
W 107 erg s −1
Power density m
lt 3
m
lt 3
W m −3 10 erg cm −3 s −1
Pressure P m
lt 2
m
lt 2
Pa 10 dyne cm −2
q2
Reluctance R ml 2
1
l AW b−1 4π × 10−9 cm −1
ml 2
Resistance R tq 2
t
l Ω 1
9 × 10−11 scm −1
ml 3
Resistivity η, ρ tq 2
t Ωm 1
9 × 10−9 s
Thermal conductivity κ ml
t3
ml
t3
W m −1 K −1 105 erg cm −1 s −1 K −1
1 1
Vector potential A ml
tq
m l
2
t
2
W bm −1 106 Gauss cm
Velocity v l
t
l
t ms −1 102 cms −1
Viscosity η, μ m
lt
m
lt kgm −1 s −1 10 Poise
Vorticity ζ 1
t
1
t s −1 1 s −1
ml 2 ml 2
Work W t2 t2
J 107 erg
128 Appendix H: Dimensions and Units

H.2 Equations

In SI, in media the permittivity  = 0 r and the permeability μ = μ0 μr where 0 and

μ0 are the permittivity and permeability in free space, and the relative permittivity
and permeability, r and μr are dimensionless.

SI Gaussian
μ0 4π × 10−7 H m −2 1
0 1
c2 μ0
1
D= 0 E + P E + 4πP
H= B
μ0 −M B − 4πM
ρ
Maxwell I ∇ ·E= 0
∇ ·D=ρ ∇ · D = 4πρ
Maxwell II ∇ ·B=0 ∇ ·B=0
Maxwell III ∇ ∧E= − ∂B
∂t ∇ ∧ E = − 1c ∂B
∂t
Maxwell IV ∇ ∧ B = μ0 J + μ0 0 ∂E
∂t
∂D 1 ∂D
∇ ∧H =J+ ∂t ∇ ∧H= c J + c ∂t
4π

Lorentz force per unit charge E+v∧B E+ c ∧B

v
Appendix I
Physical Constants (SI)

Physical Quantity Symbol Value Units

Free space permittivity 0 8.854 × 10−12 Fm −1
Free space permeability μ0 4π × 10−7 H m −1
Free space speed of light c = √μ10 0 2.998 × 108 ms −1
Elementary charge e 1.602 × 10−19 C
Bohr magneton μB 9.274 × 10−24 Am −2
Electron mass me 9.109 × 10−31 kg
Proton mass mp 1.673 × 10−27 kg
Atomic mass unit mu 1.661 × 10−27 –
Planck constant h 6.626 × 10−34 Js
Boltzmann constant k 1.381 × 10−23 J K −1
Avogadro number N0 6.022 × 1023 mol −1

© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 129

S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
Index

A in spacetime, 41
Alternating tensor, 28, 64 Coordinate transformation
Ampère’s law, 12, 16 Cartesian, 27
differential form, 12 Lorentz, 40, 50
Coulomb
unit, 4
B Coulomb gauge, 47
Basis vectors, 27 Coulomb’s law
Biot Savart law, 72 experiment, 3
Covariant, 48
Cross product, 28
C Current density, 12
Cartesian
inconsistency with spacetime, 42
Charge conservation, 16, 68 D
equation of, 17 D’Alembertian, 55
Charge density, 4 Direction cosines, 27
Charge invariance, 42 Displacement current, 17
Classical limit in capacitors, 17
fields, 4, 9 Divergence theorem
fluids, 28 definition of, 2
particles, 19 Duality transformation, 63, 64, 69
Cold gas, 5 Dual tensor, 63
conservation equation, 19 Dyadic, 23, 26
definition, 5
energy flux, 31
momentum flux density, 24 E
Conservation Einstein summation convention, 27
energy-momentum, 66, 68 Electric field, 3
of current, 68 definition, 11
of energy density, 30 definition of, 4
of field-particle momentum, 31 flux, 6
of four-current, 56 in terms of charge density, 5
Contraction in terms of potentials, 16, 46
in Cartesian tensors, 27 lines, continuous, 10
Contravariant, 48 units, 4
Coordinate rotation work done by, 11
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2021 131
S. Chapman, Core Electrodynamics, Undergraduate Lecture Notes in Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66818-1
132 Index

Electric potential Frame transformation

definition, 11 Galilean, 15
Electromagnetic field tensor, 61, 62 nonrelativistic, 16
length, 62
Electromagnetic waves, 33
free space, 18 G
from Maxwell equations, 18 Galilean frame transformation, 15
general solution, 18 Galilean transformation, 52
group velocity, 18 Gas
phase speed in vacuum, 18 finite temperature, 19
relativistic charge, 72 warm, 25
Electrostatic field Gauge transformation, 46
conservative, 11 Gauss’ law, 9
Electrostatic potential, 12 integral form, 9
Energy-momentum, 68 Generalized coordinates, 47
Energy-momentum field tensor, 66 inner product, 50
Equivalence of electric and magnetic fields, General relativity, 49
14, 15, 42

I
Inner product, 27, 50
F
Faraday’s law, 13, 15
from Lorentz force, 14
K
Field
Kinetic energy, 29
classical limit, 9
energy density, 29, 30
from moving point charge, 71 L
momentum density, 31 Light clock, 38
momentum flux density, 31 Linear media, 30
transformation of, 15 Liouville’s theorem, 25
Flat spacetime, 49 Lorentz contraction, 40
Fluid bulk variables, 29 Lorentz force, 31
Fluid equation, 26 Lorentz force law
Flux, 6 invariant form, 67
definition, 5 Lorentz gauge, 47, 56, 68
of electric field, 6 in four-vector form, 56, 68
of energy, 31 Lorentz transformation, 40, 50
Force inverse, 50
from momentum flux tensor, 24 of charge density, 43
Four-curl, 60 retarded potential, 73
Four-vector, 46 Lorentz transformation of fields, 69
contravariant, 48
covariant, 48
energy-momentum, 51 M
force, 53, 67, 68 Magnetic field
four-current, 56, 68, 74 lines, continuous, 10
four-divergence, 55 units, 12
four-gradient, 54 Magnetic flux, 10
four vector potential, 56 Magnetostatic scalar potential, 12
four-velocity, 52, 68 Maxwell equations
inner product, 49 dual, 64
length-time, 51 homogenous, 46, 63, 68
potential, 59 inhomogenous, 47, 56, 63, 67
Index 133

manifestly covariant, 57, 68 S

Maxwell homogenous equations Spacelike interval, 41
invariant form, 63 Spacetime
Maxwell inhomogenous equations deridative, 53
invariant form, 63 interval, 41, 47, 53
Maxwell stress metric, 49
for free space EM waves, 33 rotation in, 50
tensor, 32 Special relativity, 37
Maxwell I, 9 Speed of light, 57, 64
integral form, 9 from Maxwell’s equations, 18
Maxwell II, 10 from potentials, 47
integral form, 10 Speed of light in vacuum, 18
Maxwell III, 15 Stokes theorem
integral form, 15 definition of, 2
Maxwell IV, 17 Superposition
Mechanics, invariant form, 66 in Galilean frame transformation, 15
Momentum flux density, 24 of electromagnetic waves, 18
Momentum flux tensor, 23 of electrostatic fields, 11
Monopoles, 65
Moving charge and wire, 42, 69, 74
T
Tensor
alternating, 28, 64
N Cartesian, 24, 26
Newton’s laws, 52 coordinate transformation, 27
and special relativity, 53 divergence of, 28
dot product, 27
dual, 63
P electromagnetic field, 61, 62
Phase space, 25 energy- momentum field, 66
Photons, 18, 19 field momentum flux density, 31
and relativistic charge, 72 force from, 24
Poynting flux, 30, 31 inner product, 28
units, 30 Lorentz transformation, 50
Poynting’s theorem, 30 Maxwell stress, 32, 66
Pressure tensor, 22, 25 momentum flux density, 23
isotropic, 22 pressure, 22, 25
shear free, 22 rank, 26
Principle of superposition, 3 trace, 28
Proper time, 53 warm gas pressure, 25
Tesla, 12
Time dilation, 39
Timelike interval, 41
R Trace, 28
Radiation pressure, 34 Transformation
Rest energy, 51 as rotation, 27, 41, 48
Retarded potential, 75 Cartesian, 27
Right hand rule charge invariance, 42
in cross product, 2 duality, 63, 64, 69
in Lorentz force law, 2 Galilean, 52
Rocket effect, 24 gauge, 46
Rotation matrix, 27 Lorentz, 40, 50
Rotation of four vector, 48 of charge density, 43
134 Index

of EM field tensor, 69 W
retarded potential, 73 Warm gas pressure tensor, 25
rotation in spacetime, 50 Wave equation
for electromagnetic fields, 18
in terms of potentials, 47
V manifestly covariant, 57
Vector potential, 46 Work
from magnetostatics, 12 done by Lorentz force, 29