PN Junction Diode and Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

PN junction diode is one of the fundamental elements in electronics. In this type of diode, we
dope one side of a semiconductor piece with an acceptor impurity and another side with a donor
impurity. A PN junction diode is a two-terminal electronics element, which can be classified as
either ‘step graded’ or ‘linear graded’.

If, we apply forward bias voltage to the p-n junction diode. That means if the positive side of
the battery is connected to the p-side, then the depletion regions width decreases and carriers
(holes and free electrons) flow across the junction. If we apply a reverse bias voltage to the
diode, the depletion width increases and no charge can flow across the junction.

P-N Junction Diode Characteristics

Let us consider a pn junction with a donor concentration ND and acceptor concentration NA. Let
us also assume that all the donor atoms have donated free electrons and become positive donor
ions and all the acceptor atoms have accepted electrons and created corresponding holes and
become negative acceptor ions. So we can say the concentration of free electrons (n) and donor
ions ND are the same and similarly, the concentration of holes (p) and acceptor ions (NA) are the
same. Here, we have ignored the holes and free electrons created in the semiconductors due to
unintentional impurities and defects.

Across the pn junction, the free electrons donated by donor atoms in n-type side diffuse to the p-
typer side and recombine with holes. Similarly, the holes created by acceptor atoms in p-type
side diffuse to the n-type side and recombine with free electrons. After this recombination
process, there is a lack of or depletion of charge carriers (free electrons and holes) across the
junction. The region across the junction where the free charge carriers get depleted is called
depletion region. Due to the absence of free charge carriers (free electrons and holes), the donor
ions of n-type side and acceptor ions of p-type side across the junction become uncovered. These
positive uncovered donor ions towards n-type side adjacent to the junction and negative
uncovered acceptors ions towards p-type side adjacent to the junction cause a space charge
across the pn junction. The potential developed across the junction due to this space charge is
called the diffusion voltage. The diffusion voltage across a pn junction diode can be expressed
As

The diffusion potential creates a potential barrier for further migration of free electrons from n-
type side to p-type side and holes from p-type side to n-type side. That means diffusion potential
prevents charge carriers to cross the junction. This region is highly resistive because of depletion
of free charge carriers in this region. The width of the depletion region depends on the applied
bias voltage. The relation between the width of the depletion region and bias voltage can be
represented by an equation called Poisson Equation.

Here, ε is the permittivity of the semiconductor and V is the biasing voltage. So, on an
application of a forward bias voltage the width of the depletion region i.e. pn junction barrier
decreases and ultimately disappears. Hence, in absence of potential barrier across the junction in
the forward bias condition free electrons enter into the p-type region and holes enter into the n-
type region, where they recombine and release a photon at each recombination. As a result, there
will be a forward current flowing through the diode. The current through the PN junction is

expressed as

Here, voltage V is applied across the pn junction and total current I, flows through the pn
junction. Is is reverse saturation current, e = charge of electron, k is Boltzmann constant and T is
temperature in Kelvin scale.

The graph below shows the current-voltage characteristic of a PN junction diode.

When, V is positive the junction is forward biased, and when V is negative, the junction is
reverse biased. When V is negative and less than VTH, the current is minimal. But when V
exceeds VTH, the current suddenly becomes very high. The voltage VTH is known as the
threshold or cut in voltage. For Silicon diode VTH = 0.6 V. At a reverse voltage corresponding to
the point P, there is abrupt increment in reverse current. This portion of the characteristics is
known as breakdown region.

What is Zener Diode? Working Principle of Zener Diode

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse
biased condition. But ordinary PN junction diode connected in reverse biased condition is not
used as Zener diode practically. A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN junction
diode.

Working Principle of Zener Diode

When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this reverse
biased voltage across the diode is increased continually, the depletion layer becomes more and
more wider. At the same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to minority
carriers.
After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get sufficient kinetic
energy due to the strong electric field. Free electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with
stationary ions of the depletion layer and knock out more free electrons. These newly created
free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the same electric field, and they create
more free electrons by collision cumulatively. Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon,
huge free electrons get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode will become
conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown, but
this breakdown is not quite sharp. There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is
sharper compared to avalanche breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown. When a PN
junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms will be high in the crystal.
This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher concentration of ions in the
depletion layer hence for same applied reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion layer
becomes thinner than that in a normally doped diode.

Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength across the depletion
layer is quite high. If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage,
the electrons from the covalent bonds within the depletion region come out and make the
depletion region conductive. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The voltage at which
this breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage. If the applied reverse voltage across the diode is
more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive path to the current through it hence,
there is no chance of further avalanche breakdown in it. Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs
at a lower voltage level then avalanche breakdown in a diode, especially doped for Zener
breakdown. The Zener breakdown is much sharper than avalanche breakdown. The Zener
voltage of the diode gets adjusted during manufacturing with the help of required and proper
doping. When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is more
than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain fixed irrespective of the source
voltage. Although at that condition current through the diode can be of any value depending on
the load connected with the diode. That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling
voltage in different circuits.

Zener Diode Circuit

Zener Diode is nothing but a single diode connected in a reverse bias, we have already stated
that. A diode connected in reverse bias position in a circuit is shown below,

Zener Diode is simply an individual diode attached in a reverse bias, we have previously
explained that. A diode attached in reverse bias situation in a circuit is displayed above.
The circuit symbol of a Zener diode is additionally displayed below.

Characteristics of a Zener Diode

The earlier mentioned diagram exhibits the V-I attributes of a zener diode. When the diode is
hooked up in forward bias, this diode functions like a regular diode however as soon as the
reverse bias voltage becomes higher than zener voltage, a well-defined breakdown develops.
Within the V-I characteristics above Vz is the zener voltage. Also, it is the knee voltage since at
this moment the current boosts extremely quickly.
Zener Breakdown
A p-n junction is created by delivering p-type semiconductor content in contact with the n-type
semiconductor content and they are recognized with regards to its depletion region. This is due to
the width of the depletion area may differ according to the bias implemented across the
terminals, determining the V-I characteristics of the p-n junction (Figure 1). The duration of the
depletion region can be a function of either the employed bias along with the amount of doping.

It is observed that in the forward bias situation, the width of the depletion area minimizes with
the escalation in the applied voltage that ultimately results in a rise in the quantity of current
circulation. Alternatively, when the p-n junction is reverse biased, a rise in the applied voltage
enhances the width of the depletion area.

Nonetheless, possibly you will see a small quantity of current move through the semiconductor
because of the minority charge carriers. Additionally the width of the depletion area is witnessed
to become narrow for intensely doped semiconductors and broad for softly doped
semiconductors.

At this point, think about a heavily doped semiconductor afflicted by the reverse bias situation.
Here the width of the narrow depletion area (because of high doping) is observed to extend with
increased in the voltage employed across its terminals. This results in a rise in the electric field
produced along the p-n junction since the electric field is simply the negative potential slope. For
instance, a reverse voltage of 3V over a 100 Ao thick (incredibly narrow) depletion area
produces the output of V/m electric field.

Because of this extremely heightened electric field, some of the covalent bonds in the p-n
junction break-off liberating their valence electrons. This kind of free electrons could possibly
get excited and proceed inside the conduction band resulting in an sudden upsurge in the current
flow in the component. This occurrence is known as Zener Breakdown and the affiliated voltage
is known as Zener Breakdown Voltage (VZ),
demonstrated in red color in Figure 1. The occurrence was initially detected and revealed by Dr.
Clarence Zener in 1934 and is therefore named after him.

Further more it is to be taken into consideration that the Zener effect is really a adjustable trend
since the amount of charge carriers created could be successfully manipulated by governing the
electric field employed. Generally Zener breakdown brings about the diode junctions to
breakdown under 5V and may not deteriorate the unit except if there is absolutely no provision
made to discharge the heat produced.

Additionally, the Zener breakdown voltage offers negative temperature coefficient which means
the Zener breakdown voltage minimizes with the increase in the junction temperature. On the
other hand, it is to be taken into consideration that the voltage where the Zener breakdown takes
place is variable throughout the device production. Last but not least it must be taken into
account that the functioning of popular Zener diode is centered upon the Zener effect.