PROCESS OF CONCEPT FORMATION

Problem

Conduct an experiment to demonstrate the process of concept formation or concept learning in

the subject.

Introduction

For an experiment on concept, various types of learning materials are used for their
identification by the subject. Some of the materials may be objects, which can be placed in
groups having common characteristic, while others can be structures of objects to be presented
before the subject one by one for identifying their class. Yet another type of material may be
drawings or pictures of objects for the identification of their sets. In the process of identification
the subject is supposed to classify the objects or structures or drawings of the objects ion separate
groups on the basis of some common characteristics, while ignoring other characteristics which
are not common. For example, on the basis of size all the tall or large structure can be classified
in one group despite the differences in one colour, brightness, shape etc., of the structures.

Similarly, potato, onion, brinjal, lady finger and cucumber constitute one class of
vegetables despite variations in color, shape, size, quality, etc., of the vegetables. The subject for
the convenience of learning ladles each group of objects or events as a class. Similarly, words are
also used for different class of objects or pictures. In the experiment on concept formation the
experimenter prepares a list of words and presents the words before the subject one by one. Each
words represents a particular object or events. The task before the subject is to identify those
words and classify them into different categories on the basis of some common characteristics. In
this experiment the experimenter prepares a list of 20 words of objects that can be classified into
four categories. The words are:

Mango, petrol, iron, guava, mustard, water, sugar, silver, banana, blood, stone,
ant, ,marble, pin, papaya, due, sand, gold, milk, orange.

The words can be classified into four categories on the basis of common adjectives; they
are as under:

 Fruit: Mango, guava, papaya, banana, orange.

 Small: Mustard, sugar, ant, pin, sand.
 Liquid: Petrol, water, blood, dew, milk.
 Hard: Iron, silver, gold, marble, stone.
Meaning and Nature of Thinking

Thinking is a pattern of behavior that aims at finding the solution to a problem. However,
all the problem solving behaviors do not essentially involve the process of thinking. Some
problems can be solved by simple overt activities which someone can observe. There are many
situations which pose problem for us, for example the process or learning a maze or puzzle box
where an animal or even a human being tries to find the outlet in the puzzle box. Such a situation
presents a problem before the learning organism, which can also be solved by overt activities.
These overt activities are not considered as thinking processes which involve covert or implicit
problem solving behavior. Thus thinking is an implicit activity that proceeds inside the person.
The implicit behavior consists of symbolic processes during which the overt activities are
suspended. Anderson (1980) argued that the activityof problem solving typically involves the
following three ingredients:

1. The individual’s behavior is goal directed, in the sense of attempting to reach a desired end
state.
2. Reaching the goal or solution requires a sequence of mental processes, for example, putting
your foot on the zebra crossing on seeing a red light is a goal directed behavior, but a single
process doesn’t usually involve thinking.
3. The mental processes involved in the task should be cognitive rather than automatic. The
ingredient needs to be included to eliminate the routine sequence of behaviors, such as
dealing a pack of playing cards. According to Morgan and King (2002). ‘thinking consists of
the cognitive rearrangement and manipulation of both information from the environment and
symbols stored in Long Term Memory (LTM)’. From the above definitions it become
obvious that thinking includes the organization of information, manipulations of symbols,
reasoning and decision making etc. Mishra (2008) also defines thinking as a higher order
mental process of cognition characterized by the use of symbols as representation of the
objects and events and which is directed towards the solution of the problem that initiates the
higher order process of cognition. In this way, thinking is a cognitive process in which
symbols, ideas, images etc., are implicitly manipulated for obtaining a solution to a problem.

Types of Thinking

Thought is basically autistic and realistic in nature. Autistic thinking is essentially

directed towards self-gratification without considering the reality, whereas realistic thinking is
generally aimed at finding the solution of a genuine problem. Autistic thinking can also be said
to be wishful thinking. In this type of thinking an individual detached from the reality and lives
in the imagination. Contrary to this, realistic thinking is based on reasoning. Realistic thinking
helps a person to adjust in real world. Besides these two types there are some other types of
thinking like, inductive and deductive thinking. Inductive thinking involves the process of
reasoning from parts to the whole. It helps the thinker to proceed from specific ideas to infer
general laws. Conversely, deductive thinking helps a thinker to move from whole to the parts. On
the basis of deductive thinking conclusions are deducted from the observed facts. The deduction
of conclusion involves certain assumptions based on previous experiences or knowledge
(Mishra, 2008). Yet other types of thinking are convergent and divergent thinking. Convergent
thinking generally means the ability to give the correct answer to standard questions. Convergent
thinking is task oriented, in which cognitive information are processed around a common point.
It is a reflection of concentration capacity to a particular problem. The divergent thinking is
opposite to the convergent thinking. This type of thinking usually involves the finding of
multiple solutions to a problem. It reflects the creative abilities of a thinker as he or she examines
a problem with diverse perspectives.

Meaning of Problem Solving

We have already described above that the process of thinking starts with the appearance
of a problem of which no readymade solution is available. The process of thinking is usually
directed towards the solution of the problem. Thus, problem solving is a thinking behavior where
our thought process is engaged in the attainment of goal by overcoming obstacles. According to
Solso (1998). ‘Problem Solving is a thinking that is directed towards the solving of a specific
problem that involves both the formation of response and the selection among possible
responses,. Problem solving behavior may be said to be a deliberate and purposeful act on the
part of an individual to realize the set goals or objectives by inventing some novel methods or
systematically following some planned step for removal of the interferences and obstacles in the
path of the realization of these goals when usual methods like trial and error, habit formation and
conditioning fail (Mangal, 2004).

Problem solving is a pattern of behavior in which creative thinking and reasoning are
evolves, thus problem solving is a goal directed mental process that starts with the appearance of
unsolved obstacle sand continues till the solution is obtained. It is a higher order cognitive
process that requires modulation and control of fundamental skills. When an individual faces a
problem he or she starts using his or her cognitive abilities to find the solution of the problem so
that the tension created due to the appearance of the problem can be reduced. Otherwise the
tension continues till the solution is obtained. Finding the solution of the problem depends on the
thinking and reasoning abilities of a person. Problem solving behavior occurs at various levels
depending on the difficulty level of the problem. Some problems are much difficult in nature and
need great effort in finding the solution and as a result their solution is delayed. On the other
hand, some problems are simple and solved with average cognitive abilities. Similarly the
solution of a problem also depends on the cognitive abilities of a n individual; people having
higher intelligence and reasoning abilities solve even the difficult problem quickly. Therefore,
the solution of a problem requires reasoning, intelligence and problem solving abilities. People
h=who have learned effective problem solving techniques are able to solve problems at higher
level of complaint than highly intelligent people over the years a number of information
processing models of problem solving, such as the classic General Problem Solver (Newell and
Simon, 1972), have been promulgated to explain problem solving. The general problem solver
specifies two sets of thinking processes associated worth the process of problem solving. They
are understanding processes and search processes. Another model is the IDEAL problem solver
given by Bransford Stein (1984). The model describes problem solving as a union process of
identifying potential problems, defining and representing the problem, exploring possible
strategies, acting on those strategies, and looking back and evaluating the effects of those
activities.

Techniques of Problem Solving

In thinking, problem solving behavior occurs through implicit trial and error but there are
some problems which are solved by apparent trial and error behavior. Such behaviors involve
mechanical manipulation of responses to the situation in either random or systematic manner.
Since the domain of human knowledge is ever expanding, the techniques of problem solving can
be as many depending on the number and nature of problems. Still there are some common
methods that could be applied for finding solution of problems. Although psychologists are not
in total agreement on the issue of steps involved in problem solving behavior, still they agree on
the subject of problem solving behavior in various stages. Baron (2005) suggested four major
steps involved in problem solving behaviors. The first step is the identification of the problem; in
the second stage a potential solution is generated. Solutions are examined and evaluated in the
third phase and finally results are tried and evaluated. Barron considers trial and error as the
simplest technique of problem solving that involves trying different responses until, perhaps, one
works. Besides trial and error, algorithm, heuristics and use of analogy are also considered as
important techniques of problem solving. In algorithm, set rules or procedures are employed for
the solution of a problem that yields the solution to the problem sooner as later. Heuristic is the
strategy known as rule of thumb. It is a salient strategy or trick generally applied to guide our
cognition. It can produce quick results, but a solution of the problem is not guaranteed. Some
time we attempt to solve a problem through these of analogy as well. Use of analogy is the
application of techniques that worked in similar situation in the past (Getner and Holyoak, 1997;
Holyoak and Thagard, 1997).

Concept formation

In the process of thinking, images and symbols are used and manipulated implicitly for
finding a solution to a problem. Generally images are used for specific things, objects, situations,
or being things or situation rather for a group of object things or situations having common
characteristics. Such symbols are called concepts. In other words, concepts are mental
classification of objects or events having common properties. Concepts are verbal responses to
the common properties of objects (Mohsin, 1988). According to Islam (2012), a concept may be
defined as an idea of understanding of what a thing is. It is an abstraction of certain features from
a stimulus situation. It is a collection of ideas that are grouped together based on some common
properties.
 Most important is that concept allows us to recognize novel objects or events as an
instance for a known category, which in turn allows us to respond appropriately to be novel
event (Hunt and Ellis, 2006). Examples of concepts or class or categories are dog, book, mango,
fan, house, etc. Shergill (2012) defines concept as a set of features or attributes, or characteristics
connected by some rule. Rules used for the connection of characteristics in order to form a
concept can be both, simple and complex. Such rules are nothing but instructions to do
something. The ability to classify different things as the same thing on the basis some common
characteristics helps in communication with others. When two persons share a common concept
they can converse more efficiently. Besides communication concepts also help in learning
because we use some known concepts as symbols for something we intend to learn. Concepts
have some common functions. Wisniewski (2002) provides description of four general functions
of knowledge that impact the important aspects of our behavior. The first and most widely
studied function of concepts is that a concept provides the ability to classify equivalent things as
a category. The ability to classify new objects as a concept guides behavior without the necessity
of leaning what to do in a new situation. The classification function of concepts provides stability
to the world, in that a number of unidentical things can be treated as identical.

A second important function of concept listed by Wisniewski involves communication

with other people. Concepts allow more efficient communication in that we assume other people
share concepts and can make the same interferes as we would. Another important
communication function of concepts is to allow for indirect learning.

A third important use of concepts is to learn other concepts. For example, we learn
something about the unfamiliar concept of electricity when we are told it is like the water flow.
This example illustrates how an existing concepts to create a new concepts. The existing concept
provides an analogy to the new concept. We can use what we know about the existing concept to
reason by analogy to the new concept.

A fourth function of concepts is to create new knowledge. We can combine concepts to

create a new concept. For example, we all know that a traffic light camera is a camera that
photographs cars that jump red lights. The concept was created from the existing concepts of the
traffic light and of a camera but the interesting property of the new concept is that the traffic light
camera conveys knowledge that is different from a traffic light and from a camera. It is in this
sense that existing concepts can be combined to create new knowledge. The way in which
concept can be combined appears unlimited.

Concept formation is process of isolating common characteristics of objects or events.

Common characteristics are those characteristics of the objects which are common in several,
otherwise similar objects. For example roundness, hardness, etc., maybe some of the common
feature of a number of objects of diverse nature.
Hypothesis

Concept for common words would be formed clearly and easily than uncommon words.

Variables:

Independent Variable: List of words

Dependent Variable: Category of response

Method

Name
Gender
Age
Qualification

Apparatus and materials required: list of words prepared by the experimenter, stop watch
paper pencil etc.

Instruction: The following instructions were given to the subject:’ I will read out a list of 20
words one by one. These words are names of 20 objects. After reading out each word you will be
given 5 seconds to tell me the word that describes it. For the correct answer I will say “yes”, and
“no” for the incorrect answer. Please keep in mind all the words to be read out can be described
by four words only. Thus all the 20 words can be placed in four categories. Try to discover the
correct description as fast as you can.

Procedure: After the necessary instructions each of the lists prepared by the experimenter was
read out one by one. The subject was given 5 seconds to describe a word as a substitute. After
reading out each word the subject response was collected. The word responded by the subject for
describing the class of particular word was noted in the response sheet only when the response
was found correct. The first word of the list was read out to the subject and his was recorded
immediately after reading out the word. Subject was also told that his answer was correct or not.
Similarly, the second word was read out and subject response was sought. In this way each word
of the list read out one by one and subjects response for each word was recorded. Each time the
subject was told whether his response was correct or incorrect. All the responses of subject were
noted in front of the word in the next column. In this way Trial No. 1 was completed. The trial
continued till the subject could attain the concept of each word. The subject’s introspective
report was also sought after the completion of the data collection work.

Subject report: The task was really difficult for me as I failed to understand the real purpose of
the exercise. Initially I was responding on the basis of guess, but most of the time my guess went
wrong. Then I started completing the requirement of the task. Even then I missed some of the
responses. Gradually I could understand that I had to classify those words into various categories
on the basis of some common characteristic and each category had to be given a common name.
Then the task become a little easier and I could manage to identify the class of each word after
several attempts.

Experimenter Report:

Data Table: The subject’s responses in the form of correct or incorrect responses are given in
the Table.

List of words 1 2 3 4 5
Mango Wrong Right Right Right Right
Petrol Wrong Wrong Right Right Right
Iron Wrong Wrong Right Right Right
Guava Wrong Wrong Right Right Right
Mustard Wrong Wrong Wrong Wrong Right
Water Wrong Right Right Right Right
Sugar Wrong Wrong Wrong Wrong Right
Silver Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Banana Wrong Right Right Right Right
Blood Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Stone Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Ant Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Marble Wrong Wrong Wrong Wrong Right
Pin Wrong Wrong Wrong Wrong Right
Papaya Wrong Right Right Right Right
Dew Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Sand Wrong Wrong Wrong Wrong Right
Gold Wrong Wrong Wrong Right Right
Milk Wrong Right Right Right Right
Orange Wrong Right Right Right Right

Results: The results of the experiment are given in a tabular form on Table.

No. of trials and frequency of correct responses

Concepts Frequency of correct response Mean of the correct response

Fruit 19 3.8
Small 06 1.2
Liquid 15 3.0
Hard 10 2.0
Discussion and Conclusion

The results showed that the concepts for the dominating or common objects were formed
earlier than uncommon objects. The mean for the concept of fruit was found to be the largest,
followed by the mean for the liquid. The subject could easily identify the names of the fruits and
formed the concepts in the initial trials. Similarly, the names of liquid substance were also
quickly identified as liquid. Whereas, the subject was facing difficulty in identifying the names
of small objects. Many times his responses were based on guess. On some of the occasions
functional fixedness was also noticed. Subject had to work hard in classifying small objects,
therefore, the mean for the concept of small was found to be 1.2 only. Similarly, the objects
under the category of hard concept were also difficult for the subject. The subject took many
trials in the identification of the concept of hard. The mean score for the concept of hard was also
smaller than then the concept of trait and liquid, as it was found to be 2.0 only. Thus it can be
concluded that the attainment or formation of concepts is not only a gradual process, but also
depends on the dominance of the objects. It is because of that the subject could easily categorize
objects in the categories of fruits and liquid as fruit and liquid are very common objects.

Reference:

Hussain, A.(2014). Experiments in Psychology. New Delhi: PHI Publishers. Pp. 235-239.