CIRCUIT

ANALYSIS
THEOREMS
Basic Electrical Engineering (BEE)
CIRCUIT ANALYSIS THEOREMS

01 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

02 NORTON’S THEOREM

03 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

THEVENIN’S
THEOREM
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
It states that any linear circuit, no matter
how complex, can be simplified to an
equivalent circuit consisting of a single
voltage source with a series resistance
connected to a load.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A
and B can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f.
VTh in series with a single resistance RTh.

(i) The e.m.f. VTh is the voltage obtained

across terminals A and B with load, if
any removed i.e. it is open-circuited
voltage between terminals A and B.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
Any linear, bilateral network having terminals A
and B can be replaced by a single source of e.m.f.
VTh in series with a single resistance RTh.

(ii) The resistance RTh is the resistance

of the network measured between
terminals A and B with load removed
and sources of e.m.f. replaced by their
internal resistances. Ideal voltage
sources are replaced with short circuits
and ideal current sources are replaced
with open circuits.
FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

1.Open the two terminals (i.e.,

remove any load) between which
you want to find Thevenin
equivalent circuit.
FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

2. Find the open-circuit voltage

between the two open terminals. It
is called Thevenin voltage VTh.
FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
3. Determine the resistance
between the two open terminals
with all ideal voltage sources
shorted and all ideal current
sources opened.
FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT

4. Connect VTh and RTh in series

to produce Thevenin equivalent
circuit between the two terminals
under consideration.
FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
5. Place the load resistor removed
across the terminals of the Thevenin
equivalent circuit. The load current
can now be calculated using only
Ohm’s law and it has the same value
as the load current in the original
circuit.
EXAMPLE:
Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current in 6 Ω resistor.
NORTON’S
THEOREM
NORTON’S THEOREM
Any linear, bilateral network having two terminals A and B can be replaced by
a current source of current output IN in parallel with a resistance RN.

(i) The output IN of the current source is equal to the current that would flow
through AB when A and B are short-circuited.
NORTON’S THEOREM
Any linear, bilateral network having two terminals A and B can be replaced by
a current source of current output IN in parallel with a resistance RN.

(ii) The resistance RN is the resistance of the network measured between A and
B with load removed and the sources of e.m.f. replaced by their internal
resistances. Ideal voltage sources are replaced with short circuits and ideal
current sources are replaced with open circuits.
NORTON’S THEOREM
Norton’s Theorem is converse of Thevenin’s theorem
in that Norton equivalent circuit uses a current generator
instead of voltage generator and the resistance RN
(which is the same as RTh) in parallel with the generator
instead of being in series with it. Thus, the use of either
of these theorems enables us to replace the entire circuit
seen at a pair of terminals by an equivalent circuit made
up of a single source and a single resistor.
Fig. 3.156 illustrates the application of Norton’s theorem. As far as the circuit behind terminals
AB is concerned [See Fig. 3.156 (i)], it can be replaced by a current source IN in parallel with a
resistance RN as shown in Fig. 3.156 (iv). The output IN of the current generator is equal to the
current that would flow through AB when terminals A and B are short-circuited as shown in Fig.
3.156 (ii). The load on the source when terminals AB are short-circuited is given by ;

To find RN, remove the load RL and replace battery by a short because its internal
resistance is assumed zero [See Fig. 3.156 (iii)]
 FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
(i) Open the two terminals (i.e. remove any
load) between which we want to find Norton
equivalent circuit.

(ii) Put a short-circuit across the terminals

under consideration. Find the short-circuit
current f lowing in the short circuit. It is called
Norton current IN
 FINDING THEVENIN’S
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
(iii) Determine the resistance between the two open
terminals with all ideal voltage sources shorted and all
ideal current sources opened (a non-ideal source is
replaced by its internal resistance). It is called Norton’s
resistance RN. It is easy to see that RN = RTh.

(iv) Connect IN and RN in parallel to produce Norton

equivalent circuit between the two terminals under
consideration.

(v) Place the load resistor removed in step (i) across the
terminals of the Norton equivalent circuit. The load current
can now be calculated by using current-divider rule. This
load current will be the same as the load current in the
original circuit.
EXAMPLE:
Show that when Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of a network is converted into Norton’s equivalent circuit, IN
= VTh/RTh and RN = RTh. Here VTh and RTh are Thevenin voltage and Thevenin resistance respectively.
Solution. Fig. 3.157 (i) shows a network enclosed in a box with two terminals A and B brought out.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of this network will be as shown in Fig. 3.157 (ii). To find Norton’s equivalent
circuit, we are to find IN and RN. Referring to Fig. 3.157 (ii),
IN = Current flowing through short-circuited AB in Fig. 3.157 (ii) = VTh/RTh
RN = Resistance at terminals AB in Fig. 3.157 (ii) = RTh
MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER

Maximum Power Transfer Theorem explains that to

generate maximum external power through a finite
internal resistance (DC network), the resistance of the
given load must be equal to the resistance of the
available source. In other words, the resistance of the
load must be the same as Thevenin's equivalent
resistance.
MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
This theorem deals with transfer of maximum power from a source to load and
may be stated as under: In d.c. circuits, maximum power is transferred from a
source to load when the load resistance is made equal to the internal resistance
of the source as viewed from the load terminals with load removed and all e.m.f.
sources replaced by their internal resistances.
 MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER
Fig. 3.200 (1) shows a circuit supplying power to a load R. The circuit enclosed in
the box can be replaced by Thevenin's equivalent circuit consisting of Thevenin
voltage F in series with Thevenin resistance RA-R) as shown in Fig. 3.200 (in).
Clearly, resistance R, is the resistance measured between terminals 48 with R,
removed and emf sources replaced by their internal resistances. According to
maximum power transfer theorem, maximum power will be transferred from the
circuit to the load when R, is made equal to R, the Thevenin resistance at
terminals AB.
 PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
Replace any two terminal linear network or circuit to the left side of variable load
resistor having resistance of RL ohms with a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit. We
know that Thevenin’s equivalent circuit resembles a practical voltage source.
 PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
For a given source, generated
voltage and internal
resistance R, are constant.
Therefore, power delivered to
the load depends upon R. In
order to find the value of R,
for which the value of Pis
maximum, differentiate eq (1)
w.r.t. R, and set the result
equal to zero
 PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
Thus, for maximum power transfer, load resistance R, must be equal to the internal
resistance R of the source. Fig. 3.201 (4) shows the graph between power delivered (P)
and R, We may extend the maximum power transfer theorem to a linear circuit rather than
a single source by means of Thevenin's theorem as under

The maximum power is obtained from a linear circuit at a given pair of terminals when ter-

minals are loaded by Thevenin's resistance (R) of the circuit.

The above statement is obviously true because by Thevenin's theorem, the circuit is
equivalent to a voltage source in series with internal resistance (R) of the circuit
PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
 PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
ii. Under the conditions of Maximum Power Transfer, the load voltage is one-half
of the open circuited voltage at load terminals.
PROOF OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER
 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
THE THEOREM OF MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER CAN BE APPLICABLE IN MANY WAYS TO DETERMINE
THE LOAD RESISTANCE’S VALUE THAT RECEIVES THE MAXIMUM POWER FROM THE SUPPLY AND
THE MAXIMUM POWER UNDER THE STATE OF THE HIGHEST POWER TRANSFER. BELOW ARE A FEW
APPLICATIONS OF THE MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM:
THIS THEOREM IS ALWAYS SOUGHT IN A COMMUNICATION SYSTEM. FOR INSTANCE, IN A
COMMUNITY ADDRESS SYSTEM, THE CIRCUIT IS ATTUNED FOR THE HIGHEST POWER TRANSFER
WITH MAKING THE SPEAKER (LOAD RESISTANCE) EQUIVALENT TO THE AMPLIFIER (SOURCE
RESISTANCE). WHEN THE LOAD AND SOURCE HAVE MATCHED THEN IT HAS EQUAL
RESISTANCE.
IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINES, THE POWER TRANSMITTED TO THE MOTOR STARTER OF THE
AUTOMOBILE WILL DEPEND ON THE EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE OF THE MOTOR & THE BATTERY’S
INNER RESISTANCE. WHEN THE TWO RESISTANCES ARE EQUIVALENT, THEN THE HIGHEST
POWER WILL BE TRANSMITTED TO THE MOTOR TO ACTIVATE THE ENGINE.
THE MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER THEOREM CAN BE APPLIED IN THE COMPLEX NETWORK AS
FOLLOWS
IT IS USED IN AC AND DC NETWORKS.
APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
FOR MAXIMUM POWER TRANSFER IN THE PUBLIC ADDRESS SYSTEM, THE CIRCUIT
CAN BE ALTERED BY MAKING RL (LOAD RESISTANCE) LIKE SPEAKER EQUIVALENT
TOWARD THE SOURCE RESISTANCE LIKE AN AMPLIFIER. ONCE BOTH THE SOURCE AS
WELL AS LOAD INCLUDES THE EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE, THEN THEY ARE MATCHED.
THIS THEOREM IS USED WHEREVER ALL THE AUTONOMOUS VOLTAGE SOURCES ARE
DEACTIVATED & THE SAME IMPEDANCE IS SIMPLY CONSIDERED, THEN A MAXIMUM
QUANTITY OF POWER CAN BE TRANSMITTED.
IN RADIO COMMUNICATIONS, IT IS USED WHERE THE POWER AMPLIFIER
BROADCASTS THE HIGHEST AMOUNT OF SIGNAL TOWARD THE ANTENNA IF LOAD
IMPEDANCE WITHIN THE CIRCUIT IS EQUIVALENT TO THE IMPEDANCE OF THE
SOURCE.
IN AUDIO SYSTEMS, IT IS USED WHERE THE NEED TO BE DELIVERED TOWARD THE
SPEAKER. THE AMPLIFIER CHANGES THE HIGHEST QUANTITY OF VOICE ONCE THE
LOAD IMPEDANCE IS EQUIVALENT TO THE SOURCE IMPEDANCE.
APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
IN A RESISTIVE NETWORK, A RESISTIVE LOAD WILL ABSTRACT MAXIMUM POWER ONCE
THE LOAD RESISTANCE IS EQUIVALENT TO THE RESISTANCE OBSERVED THROUGH
THE LOAD BECAUSE IT LOOKS BACK TOWARD THE NETWORK.
IN FACT, THE RESISTANCE CAN BE ACCESSED TOWARD THE NETWORK OUTPUT
TERMINALS. ACTUALLY, THIS RESISTANCE IS THEVENIN EQUIVALENT RESISTANCE
WHICH IS DESCRIBED IN THEVENIN’S THEOREM IF WE CONSIDER THE COMPLETE
NETWORK LIKE A VOLTAGE SOURCE. LIKEWISE, IF WE CONSIDER THE NETWORK LIKE A
CURRENT SOURCE, THEN THIS RESISTANCE WILL BE CALLED NORTON EQUIVALENT
RESISTANCE WHICH CAN BE DESCRIBED IN THE NORTON THEOREM.
IT IS USED IN ALL KINDS OF CIRCUITS WHERE THE CIRCUITS ARE DESIGNED BASED ON
THE EFFICIENCY PRINCIPLE WHICH WILL REDUCE BY 50%. HOWEVER, CONSUMERS
USE THIS MPTT IN AREAS WHEREVER POWER IS RESTRICTED SUCH AS MOBILE
RECEIVERS & AUDIO SPEAKERS.
 APPLICATIONS OF MAXIMUM POWER
TRANSFER THEOREM
THIS LESS EFFICIENCY CAN BE BEARABLE FOR THE SAKE OF THE HIGHEST POWER TO BE
DELIVERED TOWARD THE LOAD USED IN THE NETWORK. IN POWER SYSTEMS, THE VOLTAGE
DROPS & POWER LOSSES WITHIN THE GENERATORS, AS WELL AS THE TRANSMISSION
SYSTEMS, ARE SET ASIDE LIKE SMALL.
HERE, THE LOAD IMPEDANCE IS HIGHER SEVERAL TIMES AS COMPARED TO THE INTERNAL
IMPEDANCE OF THE SOURCE
THEREFORE, POWER CIRCUITS WORK BELOW THE CONDITIONS OF OPTIMAL MATCHING. FOR
INSTANCE, IN POWER TRANSMISSION WHEREVER THE HIGHEST EFFICIENCY MATTERS, SO WE
DESIGN SYSTEMS BASED ON THE HIGHEST VOLTAGE. BUT IT IS NOT POSSIBLE TO RESIST
HEAT DISSIPATION BECAUSE OF 50% LOSS, AS THE POWER DELIVERED IS A HUNDRED MW.

This is all about the maximum power theorem. From the above information, finally,
we can conclude that this theorem is used often to assure that the highest power can
be transmitted from a source of power to a load.